Chapter 1_ADVANCED BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.pdf
FelekeYM
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Dec 01, 2022
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About This Presentation
Lecture Note ppt
Slide Content
1
1
Feleke Y.(Ph.D),
Email: [email protected]
ADVANCED BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Set by Feleke Y (Ph.D)
1
Feleke Y.(Ph.D),
Email: [email protected]
ADVANCED BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Set by Feleke Y (Ph.D)
Persuade!
What may possible
motives for doing research ?
2
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
What may possible
motives for doing research ?
2
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Chapter 1: Introduction to Business Research
.Motivation In Research
•The possible motives for doing research may be either
one or more of the following:
curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
Desire to be of service to society;
Desire to get respectability.
And etc
3 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
.Motivation In Research
•The possible motives for doing research may be either
one or more of the following:
curiosity about new things,
desire to understand causal relationships
Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential
benefits;
Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved
problems, i.e., concern over practical problems initiates
research;
Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
Desire to be of service to society;
Desire to get respectability.
And etc
3 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Objectives of research
•The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific procedures.
•The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered yet.
• Research plays a major role in applying a truly analytical
approach to decision making.
•Besides, it also assists in the evaluation of effect of
decisions which have been taken.
•In general, social scientists believe that the ultimate aim of
research must be social benefit.
It must solve society’s problem!
4 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions
through the application of scientific procedures.
•The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is
hidden and which has not been discovered yet.
• Research plays a major role in applying a truly analytical
approach to decision making.
•Besides, it also assists in the evaluation of effect of
decisions which have been taken.
•In general, social scientists believe that the ultimate aim of
research must be social benefit.
It must solve society’s problem!
4 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Thought each research study has its own specific purpose,
the following are the five principal objectives of all Social
Science Research:
I. Research is conducted to help scientists understand the
properties of a phenomenon.
This process enables the scientists to establish categories,
classes, or types of phenomenon.
In social Research, for example, the following are set
of categories: poor -Non-poor Category, level of adoption
Category, etc.
ii. Research is conducted to enable Scientists to understand
relationships between variables.
This is a quest to present conclusive evidence (casual
links) that a relationship exists between two or more phenomena.
5 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
the following are the five principal objectives of all Social
Science Research:
I. Research is conducted to help scientists understand the
properties of a phenomenon.
This process enables the scientists to establish categories,
classes, or types of phenomenon.
In social Research, for example, the following are set
of categories: poor -Non-poor Category, level of adoption
Category, etc.
ii. Research is conducted to enable Scientists to understand
relationships between variables.
This is a quest to present conclusive evidence (casual
links) that a relationship exists between two or more phenomena.
5 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
iii. The production of a theory is the third objective, and it is
considered to be the ultimate goal of all Scientific
researches.
iv. The fourth principal objective of research is the prediction of
outcomes.
Prediction is based upon a thorough understanding of prior
theory generation.
For example, the determination of the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated withsomething else.
v. The final objective of scientific research is the confirmation of
the findings in one study by other researchers-replication.
That means it is conducted to confirm or refute study or a
body of knowledge by a community of other researchers.
6 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
considered to be the ultimate goal of all Scientific
researches.
iv. The fourth principal objective of research is the prediction of
outcomes.
Prediction is based upon a thorough understanding of prior
theory generation.
For example, the determination of the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated withsomething else.
v. The final objective of scientific research is the confirmation of
the findings in one study by other researchers-replication.
That means it is conducted to confirm or refute study or a
body of knowledge by a community of other researchers.
6 Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Definition and concept of research
Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man
towards progress.
The word research is composed of two syllables, re &
search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix
meaning again, anew, or over again and the latter as a verb
meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or
to prob.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic,
patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell, 1993:)
It refers to a search for knowledge.
It can also be defined as a scientific and systematic search
for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation
7
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Research is an essential and powerful tool in leading man
towards progress.
The word research is composed of two syllables, re &
search. The dictionary defines the former as a prefix
meaning again, anew, or over again and the latter as a verb
meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or
to prob.
Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic,
patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell, 1993:)
It refers to a search for knowledge.
It can also be defined as a scientific and systematic search
for pertinent information on a specific topic.
In fact, research is an art of scientific investigation
7
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Some people consider research as a movement, a
movement from the known to the unknown.
It is actually a voyage of discovery.
It is an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement.
Research as a movement, a movement from the
known to the unknown.
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.
As to the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English, “research is a careful investigation or
inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.”
8
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
movement from the known to the unknown.
It is actually a voyage of discovery.
It is an original contribution to the existing stock of
knowledge making for its advancement.
Research as a movement, a movement from the
known to the unknown.
It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study,
observation, comparison and experiment.
As to the Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English, “research is a careful investigation or
inquiry specially through search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge.”
8
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
The following are the important definitions of research:
J. Francis
•“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an
intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose
and form and always researching to truth.”
P.M.Cook
•Rummel “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a
given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in
the field studied.”
W.S.Monroes
•“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be
derived partly or wholly from facts.”
John W. Best
• “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying
on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of
investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report
of results or conclusion.”
9
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
J. Francis
•“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop and verify knowledge. It is an
intellectual process that has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in purpose
and form and always researching to truth.”
P.M.Cook
•Rummel “Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications with reference to a given problem. The product or findings of a
given piece of research should be an authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in
the field studied.”
W.S.Monroes
•“Research may be defined as a method of studying problems whose solutions are to be
derived partly or wholly from facts.”
John W. Best
• “Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic intensive process of carrying
on the scientific method of analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of
investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record of procedures and a report
of results or conclusion.”
9
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Clifford Woody
•“Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating
data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last careful
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.”
Redman & Mori
•“Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
P.V. Young
• “Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by
means of logical and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts
or verify and test old facts , analyze their sequences , interrelationships and
casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical
frame of reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and theories
which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.”
10
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•“Research comprises defining and redefining problems ,formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting ,organizing and evaluating
data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last careful
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulated
hypothesis.”
Redman & Mori
•“Research is a systematic effort to gain new knowledge.”
P.V. Young
• “Social research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by
means of logical and systematized techniques aims to discover new facts
or verify and test old facts , analyze their sequences , interrelationships and
casual explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical
frame of reference , develop new scientific tools , concepts and theories
which would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.”
10
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
The term ‘research’ refers to “the systematic method consisting of explain the
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s)
towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.”
In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
of finding solution to a problem is research.
Without systematic research there would have been very little
progress.
So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new
knowledge of the already existing facts.
Research is an intellectual activity.
It is responsible for bringing to light new knowledge.
11
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s)
towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.”
In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method
of finding solution to a problem is research.
Without systematic research there would have been very little
progress.
So research means a systematic investigation or activity to gain new
knowledge of the already existing facts.
Research is an intellectual activity.
It is responsible for bringing to light new knowledge.
11
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•It is also responsible for correcting the present mistakes,
removing existing misconceptions and adding new learning to
the existing fund of knowledge.
• Researches are considered as a combination of those activities
which are removed from day to day life and are pursued by those
persons who are gifted in intellect and sincere in pursuit of
knowledge.
•But it is not correct to say that the research is restricted to such
type of persons, however, it is correct to say that major
contribution of research comes from highly gifted and committed
workers.
•Thus the research is not at all mysterious and is carried on by
hundreds of thousands of average individuals
12
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
removing existing misconceptions and adding new learning to
the existing fund of knowledge.
• Researches are considered as a combination of those activities
which are removed from day to day life and are pursued by those
persons who are gifted in intellect and sincere in pursuit of
knowledge.
•But it is not correct to say that the research is restricted to such
type of persons, however, it is correct to say that major
contribution of research comes from highly gifted and committed
workers.
•Thus the research is not at all mysterious and is carried on by
hundreds of thousands of average individuals
12
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•Research is also considered as the application of scientific
method in solving the problems.
•It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on
the scientific method of analysis
• There are many ways of obtaining knowledge.
• They are
–intuition,
–revelation, and authority,
–logical manipulation of basic assumptions,
–informed guesses,
– observation, and reasoning by analogy.
•One of the branches of research known as empirical research
is highly goal-oriented technique.
13
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
method in solving the problems.
•It is a systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on
the scientific method of analysis
• There are many ways of obtaining knowledge.
• They are
–intuition,
–revelation, and authority,
–logical manipulation of basic assumptions,
–informed guesses,
– observation, and reasoning by analogy.
•One of the branches of research known as empirical research
is highly goal-oriented technique.
13
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
What is not a research then?
Research isn’t merely information gathering:
Gathering information from resources such as books or
magazines isn’t considered as a research as it doesn’t
contribute to new knowledge.
The transportation of facts cannot be considered as a research:
Merely transporting facts from one resource to another
doesn’t constitute research.
No contribution to new knowledge although this
might make existing knowledge more accessible .
.
“If we knew what we were doing, it wouldn't be research,”
Albert Einstein
If the research is not directed towards the problem and objectives
then that is not a research
14
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Research isn’t merely information gathering:
Gathering information from resources such as books or
magazines isn’t considered as a research as it doesn’t
contribute to new knowledge.
The transportation of facts cannot be considered as a research:
Merely transporting facts from one resource to another
doesn’t constitute research.
No contribution to new knowledge although this
might make existing knowledge more accessible .
.
“If we knew what we were doing, it wouldn't be research,”
Albert Einstein
If the research is not directed towards the problem and objectives
then that is not a research
14
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
.Business research nature and scope
•Business market research is a dynamic concept.
• One of the key components of market research studies is the
strategic inquiry into a business situation or environment to
establish the actuality or evidence that may have led to the
development of certain trends.
•Today, business research is the pillar that supports decision-
making in various areas of an organization.
•Prior to conducting proactive business research, it is crucial to
determine the underlying objectives of the research program to
come up with an accurately targeted approach.
• The significance of business research is that it is a fact-finding
mission that fuels successful decision-making in a corporate
environment.
• Let us take a look at the nature, scope, and significance of
business research
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
15
•Business market research is a dynamic concept.
• One of the key components of market research studies is the
strategic inquiry into a business situation or environment to
establish the actuality or evidence that may have led to the
development of certain trends.
•Today, business research is the pillar that supports decision-
making in various areas of an organization.
•Prior to conducting proactive business research, it is crucial to
determine the underlying objectives of the research program to
come up with an accurately targeted approach.
• The significance of business research is that it is a fact-finding
mission that fuels successful decision-making in a corporate
environment.
• Let us take a look at the nature, scope, and significance of
business research
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
15
1. What is Involved in Business
Research?
•Business research is the process of gathering thorough
information on all aspects of a company's operations
and applying that information to improve operational
excellence, which can lead to an increase in sales and
profits.
•A study like this can assist businesses in figuring the
product or service that is most profitable.
•It entails determining where money should be spent to
boost sales, profitability, or/and market share.
•Given the increasing competition in all industries,
market research has become extremely necessary to
make intelligent and informed decisions that fuel
business growth
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
16
Research?
•Business research is the process of gathering thorough
information on all aspects of a company's operations
and applying that information to improve operational
excellence, which can lead to an increase in sales and
profits.
•A study like this can assist businesses in figuring the
product or service that is most profitable.
•It entails determining where money should be spent to
boost sales, profitability, or/and market share.
•Given the increasing competition in all industries,
market research has become extremely necessary to
make intelligent and informed decisions that fuel
business growth
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
16
2. Importance of Business Research
•Business research is one of the most effective ways to
understand your customers and the overall market, as
well as analyze competitors.
•This type of research aids businesses in determining
market demand and supply.
• It can help business organizations to cut unnecessary
expenses and develop tailor-made solutions or
products that appeal to the demand in the market.
• Research for startups aids in gathering information for
professional or commercial purposes to assess business
prospects and goals.
•Business research can also help startups find the right
audience profile for their offerings.
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
17
•Business research is one of the most effective ways to
understand your customers and the overall market, as
well as analyze competitors.
•This type of research aids businesses in determining
market demand and supply.
• It can help business organizations to cut unnecessary
expenses and develop tailor-made solutions or
products that appeal to the demand in the market.
• Research for startups aids in gathering information for
professional or commercial purposes to assess business
prospects and goals.
•Business research can also help startups find the right
audience profile for their offerings.
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
17
3. Key Advantages of Business Research
•Here are some of the key advantages of business research:
•Market research can help organizations gain a better perspective and
understanding of their market or target audience. This ensures that the
company stays ahead of its competitors.
•Primary and secondary research can act as an insurance policy against
obvious but silent dangers on your business path.
•Market research findings help organizations learn from their
weaknesses and adapt to new business environments.
•By using certain research methodologies for competitor analysis, you
can capitalize on your new-found knowledge to steer ahead of the
competition.
•Regular market research initiatives help take the ‘pulse’ of hot market
trends, allowing you to come up with “superhit” products and services.
•It helps with market forecasting, which allows you to project future
numbers, characteristics, and trends within your target market.
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
18
•Here are some of the key advantages of business research:
•Market research can help organizations gain a better perspective and
understanding of their market or target audience. This ensures that the
company stays ahead of its competitors.
•Primary and secondary research can act as an insurance policy against
obvious but silent dangers on your business path.
•Market research findings help organizations learn from their
weaknesses and adapt to new business environments.
•By using certain research methodologies for competitor analysis, you
can capitalize on your new-found knowledge to steer ahead of the
competition.
•Regular market research initiatives help take the ‘pulse’ of hot market
trends, allowing you to come up with “superhit” products and services.
•It helps with market forecasting, which allows you to project future
numbers, characteristics, and trends within your target market.
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
18
WHAT YOU CAN DO WITH RESEARCH ?
So what can we use research to do in order to gain this new knowledge?
Some of the ways it can be used one to:
• Categorize. This involves forming a typology of objects, events
or concepts, i.e. a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can
be sorted. This can be useful in explaining which ‘things’ belong
together and how.
• Describe. Descriptive research relies on observation as a means
of collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order to
establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to happen
again under the same circumstances.
• Explain. This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed
to deal with complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting
the facts’ in order to make sense of the myriad other elements
involved, such as human, political, social, cultural and contextual.
22
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
So what can we use research to do in order to gain this new knowledge?
Some of the ways it can be used one to:
• Categorize. This involves forming a typology of objects, events
or concepts, i.e. a set of names or ‘boxes’ into which these can
be sorted. This can be useful in explaining which ‘things’ belong
together and how.
• Describe. Descriptive research relies on observation as a means
of collecting data. It attempts to examine situations in order to
establish what is the norm, i.e. what can be predicted to happen
again under the same circumstances.
• Explain. This is a descriptive type of research specifically designed
to deal with complex issues. It aims to move beyond ‘just getting
the facts’ in order to make sense of the myriad other elements
involved, such as human, political, social, cultural and contextual.
22
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•Evaluate. This involves making judgements about the quality
of objects or events. Quality can be measured either in an absolute sense or
on a comparative basis. To be useful, the methods of
evaluation must be relevant to the context and intentions of the
research.
• Compare. Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to
highlight differences and similarities between them, leading to a
better understanding of phenomena.
• Correlate. The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to
see whether and how they influence each other. The relationship might be
just a loose link at one extreme or a direct link when one phenomenon
causes another. These are measured as levels of association.
23
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
of objects or events. Quality can be measured either in an absolute sense or
on a comparative basis. To be useful, the methods of
evaluation must be relevant to the context and intentions of the
research.
• Compare. Two or more contrasting cases can be examined to
highlight differences and similarities between them, leading to a
better understanding of phenomena.
• Correlate. The relationships between two phenomena are investigated to
see whether and how they influence each other. The relationship might be
just a loose link at one extreme or a direct link when one phenomenon
causes another. These are measured as levels of association.
23
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
• Predict. This can sometimes be done in research areas where
correlations are already known. Predictions of possible future
behavior or events are made on the basis that if there has been a
strong relationship between two or more characteristics or events
in the past, then these should exist in similar circumstances in the
future, leading to predictable outcomes.
• Control. Once you understand an event or situation, you may be
able to find ways to control it. For this you need to know what
the cause and effect relationships are and that you are capable
of exerting control over the vital ingredients. All of technology
relies on this ability to control.
•You can combine two or more of these objectives in a research project,
with sometimes one objective needing to be successfully achieved
before starting the next, for example you usually need to be able to
explain how something happens before you can work out how to
control it.
24
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
correlations are already known. Predictions of possible future
behavior or events are made on the basis that if there has been a
strong relationship between two or more characteristics or events
in the past, then these should exist in similar circumstances in the
future, leading to predictable outcomes.
• Control. Once you understand an event or situation, you may be
able to find ways to control it. For this you need to know what
the cause and effect relationships are and that you are capable
of exerting control over the vital ingredients. All of technology
relies on this ability to control.
•You can combine two or more of these objectives in a research project,
with sometimes one objective needing to be successfully achieved
before starting the next, for example you usually need to be able to
explain how something happens before you can work out how to
control it.
24
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
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Types of research and the research process
.Type of Research
•Types of research can be looked at from three different
perspectives
1.applications of the findings of the research study;
i).Applied research, ii) Pure research
2. objectives of the study;
i) Descriptive, ii) Correlational, iii) Explanatory, vi) Exploratory
3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.
i)Quantitative, ii) Qualitative Research method
The classification of the types of a study on the basis of these
perspectives is not mutually exclusive: that is, a research study
classified from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be
classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’ and ‘enquiry
mode’ employed. For example, refer below diagram.
27
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
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.Type of Research
•Types of research can be looked at from three different
perspectives
1.applications of the findings of the research study;
i).Applied research, ii) Pure research
2. objectives of the study;
i) Descriptive, ii) Correlational, iii) Explanatory, vi) Exploratory
3. mode of enquiry used in conducting the study.
i)Quantitative, ii) Qualitative Research method
The classification of the types of a study on the basis of these
perspectives is not mutually exclusive: that is, a research study
classified from the viewpoint of ‘application’ can also be
classified from the perspectives of ‘objectives’ and ‘enquiry
mode’ employed. For example, refer below diagram.
27
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Types of research: application perspective
Pure (Basic, Theoretical or Fundamental) Research:
•If you examine a research endeavor from the perspective of
its application, there are two broad categories:
•Pure research and Applied research. In the social sciences,
according to Bailey (1978: 17):
•Pure research involves developing and testing theories and
hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher but may or may not have practical application at
the present time or in the future.
•Thus such work often involves the testing of hypotheses
containing very abstract and specialized concepts
29
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Pure (Basic, Theoretical or Fundamental) Research:
•If you examine a research endeavor from the perspective of
its application, there are two broad categories:
•Pure research and Applied research. In the social sciences,
according to Bailey (1978: 17):
•Pure research involves developing and testing theories and
hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the
researcher but may or may not have practical application at
the present time or in the future.
•Thus such work often involves the testing of hypotheses
containing very abstract and specialized concepts
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•Pure research is also concerned with the development,
examination, verification and refinement of
research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that
form the body of research methodology.
•Examples of pure research include developing a sampling
technique that can be applied to a particular situation;
developing a methodology to assess the validity of a
procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the
stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring
people’s attitudes.
•The knowledge produced through pure research is
sought in order to add to the existing body of
knowledge of research methods.
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examination, verification and refinement of
research methods, procedures, techniques and tools that
form the body of research methodology.
•Examples of pure research include developing a sampling
technique that can be applied to a particular situation;
developing a methodology to assess the validity of a
procedure; developing an instrument, say, to measure the
stress level in people; and finding the best way of measuring
people’s attitudes.
•The knowledge produced through pure research is
sought in order to add to the existing body of
knowledge of research methods.
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•“Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake” is termed
‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research
•Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior
carried on with a view to make generalizations about
human behavior, are also examples of fundamental
research.
• In general, fundamental research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge
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‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or
relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research
•Similarly, research studies, concerning human behavior
carried on with a view to make generalizations about
human behavior, are also examples of fundamental
research.
• In general, fundamental research is directed towards
finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing
organized body of scientific knowledge
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Applied (Action) research:
Most of the research in the social sciences is
applied.
This is a type of research which is aimed at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or
an industrial/business organization.
The research worker must solve a short term problems
faced by the society.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends
that may affect a particular institution or the marketing
research or evaluation research are examples of applied
research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem.
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Most of the research in the social sciences is
applied.
This is a type of research which is aimed at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or
an industrial/business organization.
The research worker must solve a short term problems
faced by the society.
Research to identify social, economic or political trends
that may affect a particular institution or the marketing
research or evaluation research are examples of applied
research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to
discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem.
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And also applied research can be the research
techniques, procedures and methods that form the
body of research methodology are applied to the
collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue, problem or phenomenon
so that the information gathered can be used for
policy formulation, administration and the
enhancement of understanding of a
phenomenon
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techniques, procedures and methods that form the
body of research methodology are applied to the
collection of information about various aspects of a
situation, issue, problem or phenomenon
so that the information gathered can be used for
policy formulation, administration and the
enhancement of understanding of a
phenomenon
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For more information Read! Read! Read! The reference
material provided to you
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material provided to you
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Characteristics of research
•A good research must qualify (meet) the following
characteristics:
It must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous,
systematic, valid and verifiable, reliable, empirical,
and critical.
Controlled:
•In real life, there are many factors that affect an
outcome.
•A particular event is seldom the result of a one – to –one
relationship.
–Some relationships are more complex than others.
–Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a
multiplicity of relationships and interacting factors
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•A good research must qualify (meet) the following
characteristics:
It must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous,
systematic, valid and verifiable, reliable, empirical,
and critical.
Controlled:
•In real life, there are many factors that affect an
outcome.
•A particular event is seldom the result of a one – to –one
relationship.
–Some relationships are more complex than others.
–Most outcomes are a sequel to the interplay of a
multiplicity of relationships and interacting factors
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In a study of cause – and – effect relationships, it is important
to be able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.
In the study of causation, the establishment of this linkage is
essential.
However, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is
extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in
relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
Rigorous:
You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures
followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate,
and justified.
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to be able to link the effect(s) with the cause(s) and vice versa.
In the study of causation, the establishment of this linkage is
essential.
However, in practice, particularly in the social sciences, it is
extremely difficult – and often impossible – to make the link.
The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in
relation to two variables, you set up your study in a way that
minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship.
Rigorous:
You must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures
followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate,
and justified.
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Systematic:
•This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical sequence.
The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way.
Some procedures must follow others.
And the steps or procedures in general are:
–Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and
identifying the related area of knowledge.
–Reviewing literature to understand how others have
approached or dealt with the problem.
–Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as
to arrive at valid decisions.
–Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
–Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
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•This implies that the procedures adopted to undertake an
investigation follow a certain logical sequence.
The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way.
Some procedures must follow others.
And the steps or procedures in general are:
–Understanding the nature of problem to be studied and
identifying the related area of knowledge.
–Reviewing literature to understand how others have
approached or dealt with the problem.
–Collecting data in an organized and controlled manner so as
to arrive at valid decisions.
–Analyzing data appropriate to the problem.
–Drawing conclusions and making generalizations.
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Valid and verifiable:
•This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the
basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by
you and others.
•By validity, we mean that the researcher must obtain the
reality of responses of those people who are under the test
through comparing their responses with such truth that in
deed is truth.
•Validity refers to the accuracy of an assessment --
whether or not it measures what it is supposed to
measure
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•This concept implies that whatever you conclude on the
basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by
you and others.
•By validity, we mean that the researcher must obtain the
reality of responses of those people who are under the test
through comparing their responses with such truth that in
deed is truth.
•Validity refers to the accuracy of an assessment --
whether or not it measures what it is supposed to
measure
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•Validity is defined as the degree to which the
instrument measures what it's supposed to measure.
–If an instrument is not reliable over time, it cannot be
valid, as results can vary depending upon when it is
administered.
•Validity refers to the credibility or believability of the
research. Are the findings genuine?
–Is hand strength a valid measure of intelligence?
Almost certainly the answer is “No, it is not.”
•Generally, we have two types of validity:
i)Internal validity
ii)ii) External validity
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instrument measures what it's supposed to measure.
–If an instrument is not reliable over time, it cannot be
valid, as results can vary depending upon when it is
administered.
•Validity refers to the credibility or believability of the
research. Are the findings genuine?
–Is hand strength a valid measure of intelligence?
Almost certainly the answer is “No, it is not.”
•Generally, we have two types of validity:
i)Internal validity
ii)ii) External validity
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•Internal validity - the instruments or procedures used in
the research measured what they were supposed to
measure.
•In research, internal validity is the extent to which you
are able to say that no other variables except the one
you're studying caused the result.
–For example, if we are studying the variable of pay and
the result of hard work, we want to be able to say that
no other reason (not personality, not motivation, not
competition) causes the hard work.
•We want to say that pay and pay alone makes people
work harder.
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the research measured what they were supposed to
measure.
•In research, internal validity is the extent to which you
are able to say that no other variables except the one
you're studying caused the result.
–For example, if we are studying the variable of pay and
the result of hard work, we want to be able to say that
no other reason (not personality, not motivation, not
competition) causes the hard work.
•We want to say that pay and pay alone makes people
work harder.
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•Internal validity refers to whether the effects observed in
a study are due to the manipulation of the independent
variable and not some other factor.
In-other-words, there is a causal relationship between
the independent and dependent variable.
Internal validity can be improved for instance by
controlling extraneous variables,..
• External validity - the results can be generalized beyond
the immediate study.
It should also apply to people beyond the sample in the
study.
External validity is the extent to which results of a study
can be generalized to the world at large .
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a study are due to the manipulation of the independent
variable and not some other factor.
In-other-words, there is a causal relationship between
the independent and dependent variable.
Internal validity can be improved for instance by
controlling extraneous variables,..
• External validity - the results can be generalized beyond
the immediate study.
It should also apply to people beyond the sample in the
study.
External validity is the extent to which results of a study
can be generalized to the world at large .
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•When we conduct experiments, our goal is to
demonstrate cause and effect relationships between
the independent and dependent variables.
We often try to do it in a way that enables us to
make statements about people at large.
–A study that readily allows its findings to
generalize to the population at large has high
external validity
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demonstrate cause and effect relationships between
the independent and dependent variables.
We often try to do it in a way that enables us to
make statements about people at large.
–A study that readily allows its findings to
generalize to the population at large has high
external validity
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Reliability:
•Supposes that if other person were to repeat a specific
research study, he should be able to capture the same
results.
Reliability demonstrates that the operation of a study,
such as the data collection procedures, can be repeated
with the same outcome.
The objective is to ensure that if a later researcher
followed exactly the same procedures as described by
an earlier research and conducted the same case study
all over again; the later researcher should arrive at the
same conclusion
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•Supposes that if other person were to repeat a specific
research study, he should be able to capture the same
results.
Reliability demonstrates that the operation of a study,
such as the data collection procedures, can be repeated
with the same outcome.
The objective is to ensure that if a later researcher
followed exactly the same procedures as described by
an earlier research and conducted the same case study
all over again; the later researcher should arrive at the
same conclusion
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Research and scientific method
•What is common sense inquiry ?
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•What is common sense inquiry ?
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•Science: “Systematized knowledge covering
general truths or the operation of general laws,
esp. as obtained and tested through scientific
method.”
•Philosophy: “The study of the most general
and abstract features of the world and the
categories with which we think. In philosophy
the concepts with which we approach the
world themselves become the topic of
enquiry.”
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general truths or the operation of general laws,
esp. as obtained and tested through scientific
method.”
•Philosophy: “The study of the most general
and abstract features of the world and the
categories with which we think. In philosophy
the concepts with which we approach the
world themselves become the topic of
enquiry.”
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•Dewey(1910 and 1938) distinguishes between scientific and common
sense inquiry.
•Common sense inquiry is oriented directly at practical problems and
behavior adjustments; its goal is the settlement of the problems of
action and use.
• common sense knowledge is formulated so that it could provide
content for concrete thinking leading to immediate practical conduct.
•Dewey (1938, p. 60) defines the “world” or “common sense
environment” as an environment in which people are directly involved
and engaged.
•Common sense inquiry is from now on understood as an inquiry which
aims at “making the required adjustments in behavior.”
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sense inquiry.
•Common sense inquiry is oriented directly at practical problems and
behavior adjustments; its goal is the settlement of the problems of
action and use.
• common sense knowledge is formulated so that it could provide
content for concrete thinking leading to immediate practical conduct.
•Dewey (1938, p. 60) defines the “world” or “common sense
environment” as an environment in which people are directly involved
and engaged.
•Common sense inquiry is from now on understood as an inquiry which
aims at “making the required adjustments in behavior.”
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•Scientific inquiry, on the other hand, does not produce direct
practical instructions and focuses on establishing connections
between phenomena, regardless of their instant impact on actual
practical issues.
•Dewey detail his understanding of scientific inquiry in which
“there is no direct involvement of human beings in the immediate
environment” (1938, p. 61).
•He states that a scientific procedure is not supposed to “accept
what was given and established in common sense” (1938, p. 96).
•Science is capable of recognizing relations between phenomena
which common sense knowledge is not able to grasp; it is “no
longer an organization of meanings and modes of action that have
their presence in the meanings and syntactical structures of
ordinary language” (Dewey 1938, p. 97).
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practical instructions and focuses on establishing connections
between phenomena, regardless of their instant impact on actual
practical issues.
•Dewey detail his understanding of scientific inquiry in which
“there is no direct involvement of human beings in the immediate
environment” (1938, p. 61).
•He states that a scientific procedure is not supposed to “accept
what was given and established in common sense” (1938, p. 96).
•Science is capable of recognizing relations between phenomena
which common sense knowledge is not able to grasp; it is “no
longer an organization of meanings and modes of action that have
their presence in the meanings and syntactical structures of
ordinary language” (Dewey 1938, p. 97).
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•Inquiries conducted within common sense and within scientific
inquiry differ with respect to their levels of theoreticity.
•The range of problems to be resolved, put, or transformed on the
basis of common sense knowledge and its conceptual framework is
limited.
• It can be extended by the conceptual framework of scientific
inquiry and the knowledge formulated on its basis.
• According to Johnston, “scientific inquiry operates largely at the
level of abstract reasoning and ideas: common sense operates at the
level of the concrete” (2009, p. 22).
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inquiry differ with respect to their levels of theoreticity.
•The range of problems to be resolved, put, or transformed on the
basis of common sense knowledge and its conceptual framework is
limited.
• It can be extended by the conceptual framework of scientific
inquiry and the knowledge formulated on its basis.
• According to Johnston, “scientific inquiry operates largely at the
level of abstract reasoning and ideas: common sense operates at the
level of the concrete” (2009, p. 22).
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•The extension of the scope of scientific inquiry – as Dewey
(1938, p. 97) argues – is possible because of what he calls a
“reflective organization” of common sense which means
–(i) articulation of hidden implications of common sense
beliefs;
– (ii) an extension of the conceptual framework due to an
investigation of issues reaching beyond the area of
common sense interest; and
– (iii) production of an arrangement and order of phenomena
with which common sense is unfamiliar.
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(1938, p. 97) argues – is possible because of what he calls a
“reflective organization” of common sense which means
–(i) articulation of hidden implications of common sense
beliefs;
– (ii) an extension of the conceptual framework due to an
investigation of issues reaching beyond the area of
common sense interest; and
– (iii) production of an arrangement and order of phenomena
with which common sense is unfamiliar.
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•In the scientific approach the practical world (experienced and
organized through a conceptual framework characteristic for
ordinary language) turns out to be only a part of a larger and more
complex scientific image in the sense of a complex relational
structure.
•That structure remains unknown for the practical perspective based
on common-sense.
• Hence, theories constructed in the scientific approach allow for
questions, problems, and solutions unattainable for common sense
inquiry.
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organized through a conceptual framework characteristic for
ordinary language) turns out to be only a part of a larger and more
complex scientific image in the sense of a complex relational
structure.
•That structure remains unknown for the practical perspective based
on common-sense.
• Hence, theories constructed in the scientific approach allow for
questions, problems, and solutions unattainable for common sense
inquiry.
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•The scientific image of the world entails regularities and
relations impenetrable from the perspective of the common
sense body of knowledge KC; regularities and laws
discoverable within common sense knowledge make but a sub-
range of the complex relational structure accessible from
within the scientific image.
•It means that both systems differ with regard to their so-called
predictive and explanatory power.
•This difference could be interpreted as follows:
–the predictive and explanatory power of system of
knowledge KS exceeds the predictive and explanatory
power of cultural system KC.
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relations impenetrable from the perspective of the common
sense body of knowledge KC; regularities and laws
discoverable within common sense knowledge make but a sub-
range of the complex relational structure accessible from
within the scientific image.
•It means that both systems differ with regard to their so-called
predictive and explanatory power.
•This difference could be interpreted as follows:
–the predictive and explanatory power of system of
knowledge KS exceeds the predictive and explanatory
power of cultural system KC.
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•In other words, KS provides a more comprehensive
understanding of the environing world than KC.
–When common sense fails to answer certain questions, like
–Why did this incident happen?
– or What will happen if such and such circumstances occur?
• it is more probable that scientific knowledge will settle such
questions and indirectly improve human practice by providing
it with an innovative theory of reality.
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understanding of the environing world than KC.
–When common sense fails to answer certain questions, like
–Why did this incident happen?
– or What will happen if such and such circumstances occur?
• it is more probable that scientific knowledge will settle such
questions and indirectly improve human practice by providing
it with an innovative theory of reality.
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•However, the theoretical or reflective organization
characteristic of scientific inquiry does not only take place in
natural sciences.
•For instance, Dewey claims that in the field of social sciences
and normative disciplines scholars should reconstruct
historically given systems of valuations; conclusions drawn
from such cultural-anthropological knowledge of past
valuations would enable a more extensive prediction of
“probable consequences” (1939, p. 58) of human conduct.
•As it has been discussed elsewhere (Malitowska 2012), in
contemporary philosophy of education the pragmatic
conception of scientific inquiry has undergone a
“philosophical transposition” and, as such, it plays an
important role as a pedagogical method facilitating the
development of critical thinking.
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characteristic of scientific inquiry does not only take place in
natural sciences.
•For instance, Dewey claims that in the field of social sciences
and normative disciplines scholars should reconstruct
historically given systems of valuations; conclusions drawn
from such cultural-anthropological knowledge of past
valuations would enable a more extensive prediction of
“probable consequences” (1939, p. 58) of human conduct.
•As it has been discussed elsewhere (Malitowska 2012), in
contemporary philosophy of education the pragmatic
conception of scientific inquiry has undergone a
“philosophical transposition” and, as such, it plays an
important role as a pedagogical method facilitating the
development of critical thinking.
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Conceptual foundation in Research
Conceptual research is defined as a methodology
wherein research is conducted by observing and
analyzing already present information on a given
topic.
It is related to abstract concepts or ideas.
Philosophers have long used conceptual research to
develop new theories or interpret existing theories in
a different light
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Conceptual research is defined as a methodology
wherein research is conducted by observing and
analyzing already present information on a given
topic.
It is related to abstract concepts or ideas.
Philosophers have long used conceptual research to
develop new theories or interpret existing theories in
a different light
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Paradigm
• ORIGIN late 15th cent.: via late Latin from
Greek paradeigma, from paradeiknunai ‘show
side by side,’ from para- ‘beside’ + deiknunai ‘to
show.’
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• ORIGIN late 15th cent.: via late Latin from
Greek paradeigma, from paradeiknunai ‘show
side by side,’ from para- ‘beside’ + deiknunai ‘to
show.’
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What is a paradigm?
"universally recognised scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model
problems and solutions for a community of researchers", i.e.,
•what is to be observed and scrutinised
•the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in
relation to this subject
•how these questions are to be structured
•how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted
•how is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to
conduct the experiment.
Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (2nd Edition) University of Chicago Press. Section V, pages
43-51
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"universally recognised scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model
problems and solutions for a community of researchers", i.e.,
•what is to be observed and scrutinised
•the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers in
relation to this subject
•how these questions are to be structured
•how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted
•how is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to
conduct the experiment.
Kuhn, T S (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (2nd Edition) University of Chicago Press. Section V, pages
43-51
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Main components of a Research Paradigm
Source: Guba and Lincoln (1994)
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Source: Guba and Lincoln (1994)
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ORIGIN early 18th cent.: from modern Latin
ontologia, from Greek ōn, ont- ‘being’ + -logy.
Ontology is the study of beings or their being –– what is;
Ontology is the starting point of all research, after
which one’s epistemological and methodological
positions logically follow.
A dictionary definition of the term may describe it as
the image of social reality upon which a theory is
based.
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ontologia, from Greek ōn, ont- ‘being’ + -logy.
Ontology is the study of beings or their being –– what is;
Ontology is the starting point of all research, after
which one’s epistemological and methodological
positions logically follow.
A dictionary definition of the term may describe it as
the image of social reality upon which a theory is
based.
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Ontological assumption:
There is a reality that can be apprehended.
We can determine “the way things are” and,
often, discover the cause effect relations
behind social reality.
At the least, we can find meaningful
indicators of what is “really” happening.
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There is a reality that can be apprehended.
We can determine “the way things are” and,
often, discover the cause effect relations
behind social reality.
At the least, we can find meaningful
indicators of what is “really” happening.
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•ORIGIN mid 19th cent.: from Greek epistēmē
‘knowledge,’ from epistasthai ‘know, know how to
do.’
•Epistemology is the branch of Philosophy that
studies knowledge, by attempting to distinguish
between ‘True’ (and adequate) knowledge and
‘False’ (inadequate) knowledge. (Erikson and
Kovalainen, (2008:14).
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‘knowledge,’ from epistasthai ‘know, know how to
do.’
•Epistemology is the branch of Philosophy that
studies knowledge, by attempting to distinguish
between ‘True’ (and adequate) knowledge and
‘False’ (inadequate) knowledge. (Erikson and
Kovalainen, (2008:14).
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•Epistemological assumption:
• The investigator and the object of investigation
are independent from each other and the object
can be researched without being influenced by
the researcher.
• Any possible researcher influence can be
anticipated, detected, and accounted for
(controlled).
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• The investigator and the object of investigation
are independent from each other and the object
can be researched without being influenced by
the researcher.
• Any possible researcher influence can be
anticipated, detected, and accounted for
(controlled).
119
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•Methodological assumption:
•The most prevalent methods used include
experiments, quasi-experiments, and other
hypothesis-testing techniques.
•Meaningful phenomena are operationalized by
determining variables that can be accurately
measured.
121
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
•The most prevalent methods used include
experiments, quasi-experiments, and other
hypothesis-testing techniques.
•Meaningful phenomena are operationalized by
determining variables that can be accurately
measured.
121
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Assumptions of
Approach
Mixed Methods
Researchers Worldview about nature
of knowledge - epistemology
Approaches and techniques
And way in which questions are
formulated, data is collected and analyzed
Ontological
Perceptions of reality
Positivism
Post
Positivism
Critical
Theory
Constructivism Participatory
Worldviews influence basic beliefs of
who informs,
who forms
and who benefit from the inquiry
Also influences mode or strategy or research tradition
Quantitative
Arising mainly
from
positivism &
post
positivism
Qualitative
Mainly coming
from critical
theory,
constructivism
&
participatory
paradigms
Mixed
Methods
From the
pragmatic
paradigm
Research Methods
Qualitative
Research Paradigm
Quantitative
Research Paradigm
Multiple subjectively
derived realities co-
exist
Single objective
world
Epistemological
Theory of knowledge
Researchers interact
with phenomenon
(personal investment)
Researchers are
independent from the
variables under study
(detached)
Axiological
Study of underlying
values
Researchers act in a
value-laden and biased
fashion
Researchers act in a
value-free and
unbiased manner
Rhetorical
Use of language
Use personalized,
informal and context-
based language
Use impersonal, formal
and rule-based text
Methodological
Researchers use
induction, multi-
process interventions,
context-specific
methods
Researchers use
deduction, cause-and-
effect relationship and
context-free methods
MIXED METHODS
Pragmatism
Booyse, 2012
Approach
Mixed Methods
Researchers Worldview about nature
of knowledge - epistemology
Approaches and techniques
And way in which questions are
formulated, data is collected and analyzed
Ontological
Perceptions of reality
Positivism
Post
Positivism
Critical
Theory
Constructivism Participatory
Worldviews influence basic beliefs of
who informs,
who forms
and who benefit from the inquiry
Also influences mode or strategy or research tradition
Quantitative
Arising mainly
from
positivism &
post
positivism
Qualitative
Mainly coming
from critical
theory,
constructivism
&
participatory
paradigms
Mixed
Methods
From the
pragmatic
paradigm
Research Methods
Qualitative
Research Paradigm
Quantitative
Research Paradigm
Multiple subjectively
derived realities co-
exist
Single objective
world
Epistemological
Theory of knowledge
Researchers interact
with phenomenon
(personal investment)
Researchers are
independent from the
variables under study
(detached)
Axiological
Study of underlying
values
Researchers act in a
value-laden and biased
fashion
Researchers act in a
value-free and
unbiased manner
Rhetorical
Use of language
Use personalized,
informal and context-
based language
Use impersonal, formal
and rule-based text
Methodological
Researchers use
induction, multi-
process interventions,
context-specific
methods
Researchers use
deduction, cause-and-
effect relationship and
context-free methods
MIXED METHODS
Pragmatism
Booyse, 2012
Creditability, trustworthiness
Transferability
Confirmability, dependability,
Engagement, reflectivity
128
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Transferability
Confirmability, dependability,
Engagement, reflectivity
128
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Standard for evaluation
Quantitative Qualitative
Internal validity Creditability, trustworthiness
External validity Transferability
Reliability Confirmability, dependability,
Objectivity Engagement, reflectivity,
129
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
Quantitative Qualitative
Internal validity Creditability, trustworthiness
External validity Transferability
Reliability Confirmability, dependability,
Objectivity Engagement, reflectivity,
129
Feleke Y.(Ph.D), Email:
[email protected]
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