Chapter-12-Work-Motivation .............

Work Motivation

1. Chapter 12 Work Motivation

2. Learning Objective Explain five critical concepts central to work motivation. Understand the conceptual basis and degree of empirical support for these work motivation theories: need hierarchy, equity, expectancy, reinforcement, goal setting, self-regulation, and work design. Provide an overview and synthesis of the work motivation theories. Give practical examples of applying motivational strategies. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 2

3. Self-esteem is the extent to which a person views himself as valuable and worthy. In the 1970 - Korman (1970, 1976) theorized that employees high in self-esteem are more motivated and will perform better than employees low in self-esteem. According to Korman’s consistency theory, there is a positive correlation between self-esteem and performance. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 3 Three types of self-esteem: 1. Chronic self-esteem is a person’s overall feeling about himself. 2. Situational self-esteem (also called self-efficacy) is a person’s feeling about himself in a particular situation such as operating a machine or talking to other people. 3. Socially influenced self-esteem is how a person feels about himself on the basis of the expectations of other

4. To increase self-esteem, employees can attend workshops in which they are given insights into their strengths. Self-fulfilling prophecy, which states that an individual will perform as well or as poorly as he expects to perform. Galatea effect. - The relationship between self-expectations and performance 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 4

5. Supervisor Behavior - The idea here is that if an employee feels that a manager has confidence in him, his self-esteem will increase, as will his performance. Such process is known as Pygmalion effect. In contrast, the Golem effect occurs when negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease in that individual’s actual performance. Intrinsic Motivation When people are intrinsically motivated, they will seek to perform well because they either enjoy performing the actual tasks or enjoy the challenge of successfully completing the task. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 5

6. Needs for Achievement and Power Employees who have a strong need for achievement are motivated by jobs that are challenging and over which they have some control. Employees who have a strong need for affiliation are motivated by jobs in which they can work with and help other people. Employees who have a strong need for power are motivated by a desire to influence others rather than simply to be successful. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 6

7. Work motivation as the internal force that drives a worker to action as well as the external factors that encourage that action (Locke & Latham). Work motivation is a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity, and duration. (p. 11) Pinder (1998). 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 7 Three dimensions: 1. Directions - pertains to those activities in life to which you direct your energy. That is, we might choose to work diligently at some tasks and not at others. 2. Intensity - pertains to the amount of motivation that is expended in pursuit of an activity. Such people are often referred to as “self-starters” or “self-motivated” individuals. 3. persistence - pertains to sustained energy over time. It is concerned with how long the energy will be expended.

8. Five Critical Concepts in Motivation 1. Behavior -Is the action from which we infer motivation. The behavior in question may be typing speed, firing a rifle at a target, or performing any of a broad constellation of human activities. 2. Performance - entails some evaluation of behavior. - assessment of the behavior as judged against some standard. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 8 3. Ability - It is generally regarded as fairly stable within individuals and may be represented by a broad construct like intelligence or a more specific construct like physical coordination. 4. Situational constraints - They are environmental factors and opportunities that facilitate or retard behavior (and ultimately performance). If no situational constraints are present, it is possible to maximize behavior. 5. Motivation - You can think of ability as reflecting what you can do, motivation as what you will do (given your ability), and the situational constraints as what you are allowed to do.

9. The judgment of “poor performance” could be attributed to four factors. First, the organization in which the behavior occurs may have high standards; the same behavior in another organization may receive a more positive evaluation. Second, the individual may lack the needed ability to exhibit the desired behavior. (I was never very good at catching fly balls in baseball.) 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 9 Third, the individual may lack the motivation to exhibit the desired behavior. (Countless hours of practice didn’t seem to enhance my ball-catching behavior.) Fourth, the individual may lack the needed equipment or opportunity to exhibit the behavior. (An expensive new baseball glove didn’t help either.)

10. Work Motivation Theories 1.Need Hierarchy Theory - A theory of motivation based on a sequential ordering of human needs that individuals seek to fulfill in serial progression, starting with physiological needs and culminating in the need for self-actualization. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 10 realization of one’s full potential

11. Maslow made these propositions about the need hierarchy: 1.Behavior is dominated and determined by the needs that are unfulfilled. 2. An individual will systematically satisfy his or her needs by starting with the most basic and working up the hierarchy. 3. Basic needs take precedence over all those higher in the hierarchy. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 11

12. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 12 EMPIRICAL TESTS OF THE THEORY Wahba and Bridwell (1976) reviewed all earlier research on Maslow’s theory and concluded that it has received little clear or consistent support. EVALUATION OF THE THEORY As Wahba and Bridwell (1976) said, “Maslow’s need hierarchy theory is almost a nontestable theory”

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14. Equity theory has four major parts: Person. the individual perceives himself or herself in comparison with others. Other. It is postulated that Person compares himself or herself with another individual. Inputs. All of the assets Person brings to the job are the third component; collectively these assets. Outcomes. All of the benefits Person derives from the job are the fourth component . 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 14 Equity Theory - A theory of motivation based on the social comparison process of examining the ratio of inputs and outcomes between oneself and a comparison other.

15. Two types of inequity 1. Underpayment inequity - is when Person perceives herself as deriving fewer outcomes from a job than Other, when both are contributing comparable inputs 2 . Overpayment inequity is when Person perceives herself as deriving more outcomes from a job than Other, when both are contributing comparable inputs. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 15 What happens if Person’s ratio is different from Others? - According to Adams, this situation represents inequity, or “unfairness,” in the sense that Person perceives Other to be getting more out of the job even though both are contributing the same inputs. - The greater the inequity between Person and Other, the greater the tension and the greater the motivation to reduce it.

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17. 3. Underpayment—hourly . Subjects would decrease their effort to accommodate the decrease in outcome. Decrements in product quantity and quality would result. 4. Underpayment—piece rate. To compensate for the loss in pay, subjects would produce more but appreciably lower-quality objects. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 17 1. Overpayment—hourly working harder or expending more effort. By increasing their inputs (effort level), they would reduce feelings of inequity. 2. Overpayment—piece rate. work harder as a means of increasing their inputs. However, if their increased effort resulted in greater output, the feelings of inequity would be magnified. Four sets of hypotheses were proposed for how Person would reduce feelings of inequity:

18. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 18 Empirical Tests of the Theory . Research has shown, however, that there are also cognitive ways to reduce in equity. By cognitive, we mean that a person does not have to “do” anything; rather, he or she reduces inequity through mental processes.

19. - In theory, feelings of overpayment will cause a person to work harder to produce more or higher-quality products. However, research has shown that such feelings do not last very long. - Huseman , Hatfield, and Miles (1987) suggested that individuals differ in their sensitivity to feeling over- or underrewarded . They believe that “ benevolents ” are employees who more likely feel a sense of being overrewarded than do “ entitleds .” - The whole issue of organizations deliberately manipulating their employees to induce feelings of inequity raises serious moral and ethical questions. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 19 Evaluation of the Theory - We know very little about the effects on motivation of manipulating other outcomes. - Most studies have found fairly strong support for the underpayment predictions but less sup- port for the overpayment ones. - One consequence of inequity caused by underpayment is an increase in job dissatisfaction.

20. 3. Expectancy Theory A theory of motivation based on the perceived degree of relationship between how much effort a person expend and the performance that results from that. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 20 - Greenberg (1988) examined employees who were randomly reassigned on a temporary basis to the offices of either higher-, lower-, or equal-status coworkers while their own offices were being remodeled. Relative to those workers reassigned to equal-status offices, those reassigned to higher-status offices raised their performance (a response to overpayment inequity) and those reassigned to lower-status offices lowered their performance (a response to underpayment inequity).   Five major parts 1. Job outcomes - things an organization can provide for its employees, such as pay, promotions, and vacation time. 2. Valences - the employee’s feelings about the outcomes and are usually defined in terms of attractiveness or anticipated satisfaction. 3. Instrumentality - the perceived degree of relationship between performance and outcome Attainment. 4. Expectancy- is the perceived relationship between effort and performance. 5. Force, - is the amount of effort or pressure within the person to be motivated. The larger the force, the greater the hypothesized motivation. force is the product of valence, instrumentality, and expectancy.

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22. - Empirical Tests of the Theory across-subjects design - With one force score derived for each person, the person with the highest score should be the most motivated and the person with the lowest score the least motivated. - Within-subjects design - For each person, a correlation is computed between predictions of effort made by the theory and actual amounts of effort expended on the tasks. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 22 - According to expectancy theory, therefore, the first ingredient for motivation is desired Second, the person must believe that there is some relationship between job performance and attainment of outcomes. - Expectancy theory predicts that motivation is highest in jobs that have high expectancies.

23. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 23 Conditions recommended 1. Incentives (outcomes) must be carefully sought out and identified as highly attractive. 2. The rules (behaviors) for attaining the incentives must be clear to both those administering the system and those actually in it. 3. People in the system must perceive that variations in controllable aspects of their behavior will result in variations in their level of performance and ultimately their rewards. Evaluation of the Theory - Expectancy theory is a highly rational and conscious explanation of human motivation. - To the extent that behavior is not directed toward maximizing gains in a rational, systematic way, the theory will not be upheld. - Research suggests that people differ in the extent to which their behavior is motivated by rational processes.

24. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 24 4. Reinforcement Theory - A theory of motivation based on the schedule of rewards received for behavior that is exhibited. Also referred to as operant conditioning and behaviorism, reinforcement theory originated in B. F. Skinner’s work on the conditioning of animals. 3 key variables: 1. Stimulus - any variable or condition that elicits a behavioral response. 2. Response - some measure of job behavior, like productivity, absenteeism, or accidents. 3. reward - something of value given to the employee on the basis of the elicited behavioral response; it is meant to reinforce the occurrence of the desired response. 4 types of response–reward connections 1. Fixed interval - the subject is rewarded at a fixed time interval, such as every hour. 2. Fixed ratio- the subject is rewarded for a fixed number of responses. 3. Variable interval- the subject is rewarded at some time interval that varies. 4. Variable ratio- Reward is based on behavior, but the ratio of reward to response is variable.

25. Though the research is clear that rewarding employees will often lead to increased motivation and performance, six factors must be considered in determining the effectiveness of incentive programs ( Aamodt ) : 1. Timing of the incentive. 2. Contingency of the consequences 3. Type of incentive used 4. Use of individual-based versus group-based incentives 5. Use of positive incentives (rewards) versus negative incentives (punishment) 6. Fairness of the reward system (equity). 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 25 - The theory entails placing the control of employee motivation in the organization’s hands because organizations can “regulate” the energy output of employees by manipulating reinforcement schedules. - Premack Principle (Premack, 1963), which states that reinforcement is relative and that a supervisor can reinforce an employee with something that on the surface does not appear to be a reinforce.

26. Evaluation of the Theory - Current applications of reinforcement theory tend to ignore individual differences in what people value as rewards. - In addition, reinforcement has been limited primarily to studies of the quantity of production. - Its uses include reducing absence and turnover, enhancing productivity, and improving supervisory training. - Detractors of the theory cite possible ethical matters associated with the reinforcement of behavior. - Unlike other Motivational theories, its focus is not on the individual but on environmental factors that shape or modify behavior. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 26 Empirical Tests of the Theory. - Empirical tests of reinforcement theory have involved determining which schedule of reinforcement has the greatest effect on increasing the occurrence of the desired behavioral response. - Research on reinforcement theory is not limited to measures of productivity. Pedalino and Gamboa (1974) described how the theory could be used to decrease absenteeism.  

27. Goal setting - With goal setting, each employee is given a goal such as increasing attendance, selling more products, or reducing the number of grammar errors in reports. - For goal setting to be most successful, the goals themselves should possess certain qualities represented by the acronym SMART: 1. Specific - The more specific the goal, the greater the productivity. 2. Measurable - Properly set goals are measurable 3. Attainable - Though setting higher goals generally leads to better performance than does setting lower goals, the level of goal difficulty will most affect performance when employees are committed to reaching the goal. 4. Relevant - Setting a goal about increasing public speaking skills will not be as motivating to a person working in a landfill as it would be to a police officer who often testifies in court. 5. Time-bound - Goals work best when there is a time frame for their completion. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 27 5. Goal-setting theory - A theory of motivation based on directing one's effort toward the attainment of specific goals that have been set or established. - According to Locke and Latham (1990), goals have two major functions: They area basis for motivation and they direct behavior. 2 conditions before goals can positively influence performance: The individual must be aware of the goal and know what must be accomplished The individual must accept the goal as something he or she is willing to work for. - Locke and Latham’s theory of goal setting states that more difficult goals lead to higher levels of job performance. - The more specific the goal, the more concentrated the individual’s effort in its pursuit and the more directed the behavior.

28.   Empirical Tests of the Theory - Wright (1990), however, concluded that assigned goals produce greater increases in performance than self-set goals. - Also, Hollenbeck, Williams, and Klein (1989) reported that commitment to difficult goals is greater when goals are stated publicly rather than privately.   3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 28 Evaluation of the Theory. - As Latham and Locke (1991) observed, goal-setting theory lies within the domain of purposefully directed action. The theory focuses on why some people perform better on work tasks than others. - The difficulty and specificity of the goal influence performance, as do the amount and nature of feedback - Rousseau (1997) posited that goal setting is a form of self-management, where people can set their own goals and translate them into action. - Donovan and Williams (2003) reported that when people’s behavior falls short of their stated goals, under certain conditions they may revise their goals. - There is also evidence that goal setting is effective for groups. Thus a work group can set a goal to decrease the scrap rate, for example, or to increase productive output.

29. 6. Self-Regulation Theory - A theory of motivation based on the setting of goals and the receipt of accurate feedback that is monitored to enhance the likelihood of goal attainment. - Individuals engage in a process of self-monitoring or self-evaluation; that is, they are aware of their progress in pursuit of the goals they have set. - Their awareness of their progress is facilitated by receiving feedback. The feedback can and often does produce a discrepancy between the individual’s current status in pursuing a goal and the desired or needed status to attain the goal. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 29 - Alternatively, the feedback received by the individual can show little or no discrepancy between the actual and desired status in the path toward goal attainment. - When the discrepancies are large, the individual may engage in goal revision, a process of readjusting or modifying the initial goal to a less difficult or ambitious level. - Self-regulation theory, implies that individuals play an active role in monitoring their own behavior, seeking feedback, responding to the feedback, and forming opinions regarding their likelihood of success in future endeavors.

30. Empirical Tests of the Theory. - Self-regulation theory has been tested in a wide variety of contexts as diversified as the various conceptualizations of the theory. Examples include how children learn in school (Zimmerman, 1995), career choice and development (Hackett, 1995), and treatment of addictive behaviors (Marlatt, Baer, & Quigley,1995) - Self-regulation theory clearly positions the individual as the agent responsible for striving to attain the goal. - A learning goal orientation is one in which the individual is committed to acquiring new skills and mastering new situations. - A performance goal orientation is one in which the individual is committed to demonstrating his or her competence by seeking favorable judgments from others. - Bell and Kozlowski (2002) reported that the goal orientation of employees to learning was influenced by their cognitive ability. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 30   Evaluation of the Theory. - The research on self-regulation theory reveals that we are more likely to be committed to goals that we regard as particularly significant and important to us than to trivial goals. - Furthermore, it emphasizes how cognitive processes become translated or activated in behavior. conclusions about people: 1. They form intentions that include plans and strategies for attaining them. 2. They set goals for themselves and anticipate the likely outcomes of possible actions to guide and motivate their efforts. 3. They adapt personal standards and monitor and regulate their actions by self-reactive influences. 4. They reflect on their efficiency, the soundness of their thoughts and actions, and the meaning of their pursuits and make corrective adjustments if necessary.

31. 7. Work Design Theory the locus of control for motivation is not individuals but the environment where work is performed. the proper design of jobs, work can facilitate motivation in individuals. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 31 Hackman and Oldham (1975) Model 1. S pecification of the particular job characteristics (also called core job dimensions S kill variety Task identity Task significance Autonomy Task feedback 2 . Deal the effect of the core job dimensions on the individual experienced meaningfulness of work experienced responsibility for work outcomes Knowledge of results of work activities 3. I ndividual difference variable called growth need strength (GNS ) 4. An equation

32. In Aamodt , Job Characteristics Theory employees desire jobs that are meaningful , provide them with the opportunity to be personally responsible for the outcome of their work ( autonomy ) & provide them with feedback of the results. 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 32 Motivation potential Skill variety Task identification task significance.

33. Overview and Synthesis of Work Motivation Theories 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 33

34. A framework of motivation constructs and theories 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 34

35. Motivation flowchart ( Aamodt ) 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 35

36. Thank you Reporters : Pido , Vivian Pollicar , Edel Joy Quinsat , Hillary Vivien Santianes , Jolena 3/1/20XX SAMPLE FOOTER TEXT 36