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1. CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY Top Jinka, E thiopia 1

2. The Meaning of Personality Psychology Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies about personality and individual differences. One emphasis in this field is to construct a coherent picture of a person and his or her major psychological processes Another emphasis views personality as the study of individual differences, in other words, how people differ from each other. A third area of emphasis examines human nature and how all people are similar to one other. These three viewpoints merge together in the study of personality. 2

3. Personality psychology looks for answers to numerous questions like; In what ways do human beings differ? In what situations and along what dimensions do they differ? Why do they differ? How much do they differ? How consistent are human differences? Can they be measured? 3

4. Personality psychology is also known as personology , the study of the person, that is, the whole human individual. Most people, when they think of personality, are actually thinking of personality differences - types and traits and the like. This is certainly an important part of personality psychology, since one of the characteristics of persons is that they can differ from each other quite a bit. But the main part of personality psychology addresses the broader issue of "what is it to be a person." 4

5. 1.1. Concept of Personality Personality is the total quality of an individual. The word personality comes from the Latin word persona which means the mask worn by players in the theater. Personality consists of observable behaviour. It is defined as an individual , typical or consistent adjustment to his environment. The elements of personality are called the traits of personality ; it is the traits that make one person different from another person in his behaviour. Shyness and sociability are different traits and characteristic of an individual. 5

6. All characteristics which an individual possesses are his powers, needs, abilities, wants, habits, his goal and aspirations. His patterns of behaviour to objects and persons continue his personality. Since an individual is a bundle of characteristics as traits we can define personality as an integrated pattern of traits. According to worth, one's personality is made up of high physique, instincts, and intelligence. 1. Material self (his body, clothes, family property etc.) 2. Social self (his home, club, office, church etc.) 3. Spiritual self (his ability to argue and discriminate consciousness, moral sensitivities). According to Medougali personality consists of his (a) disposition, (b) temper, (c) temperament and (d) character. 6

7. 1.2. The Meaning of Personality The word "personality" originates from the Greek word ‘persona’ , which means mask . The masks worn by theatrical players in ancient Greek dramas term came to encompass the actor’s roles as well. Thus, personality is the public personality that people display to those around them. The term personality has many meanings, even within psychology there is disagreement about the meaning of the term. 7

8. In fact, there may be as many different meanings of the term “personality” as there are psychologists who have tried to define it; Gordon Allport defined it as “a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings.” Therefore, personality refers to the overall impression that an individual makes on others, that is, a sum total or constellation of characteristics that are typical of the individual and thus observable in various social settings. 8

9. Personality can also be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations ( Ryckman , 2004). It is the set of psychological traits and mechanisms within the individual that is organized and relatively enduring and that influences his or her interactions with, and adaptations to the environment (i.e. intra-psychic, physical, and social environment). 9

10. 1.3. Features of Personality The following are elements of personality pattern: a) Personality is a set of traits or characteristics that describe the ways in which people are different from each other. b) Psychological Mechanisms refers to the processes of personality. Most Psychological Mechanisms involve information processing activity. They are not activated all the time rather they are activated under particular conditions or situations. 10

11. c) Within the individual means that personality is something that a person carries with him over time and from one situation to next. So we are stable and consistent across time and situation. Example we feel as the same person we were yesterday, last week or month. d) Personality is organized because traits and mechanisms are organized or linked to one another in a coherent fashion. Suppose that you have two desires or needs you are hungry and you have to appear for a job interview. Our personality is organized in the sense that it contains decision rules which govern and control which needs are to be activated and which needs are to be inactive. So in the example the hunger need is to be inactive or passive and the need for the preparation for the interview is to be activated. 11

12. e) Influential forces in personality means that traits and mechanisms can act as influence how we act, how we view our selves, how we feel, how we interact with the world, how we select our environments, how we react to our circumstances so personality plays a key role in how people shape their lives. f) Person- environment interaction is perhaps a difficult and complex feature of personality. Perception refers to how we see and interpret environment. Example smile of a clown and of a stranger are seen and interpreted differently one as friendly and other with suspicion. g) Adaptation conveys the notion that central feature of personality concerns adaptive functioning such as accomplishing goals, coping, adjusting and dealing with challenges and problems we face as we go through life. Example : People who worry a lot receive a lot of social support and encouragement as a reward therefore they adapt to the concept of worrying. 12

13. 1- Different Environments : There are three types of environments. a. The physical environment often poses challenges for people some of these are direct threats to the survival, such as extreme temperatures, snakes, spiders, heights etc. b. Social environment also poses challenges such as we desire friends, mates, love, belongingness and unconditional positive regard. c. Intra-psychic environment : We have memories, dreams, desires, fantasies, and a collection of private experiences we live every day. The three physical, social and Intra- psychic are the ones which are equally important for the survival of individual. 13

14. 1.4. Patterns of Personality, their differences and elements Every individual is : 1- Like all others (the human nature level) This means, some traits or mechanisms are possessed by all of us. For example nearly every human being has language skills which allow him (her) to learn and use language, so spoken language is a universal human nature. At the psychological level all humans possess fundamental psychological mechanism for example to live in harmony and to belong to social groups so there are many ways in which each person is like every other person. 14

15. 2- Like some others (the level of individual and group differences) This second level pertains to individual and group differences. In individual differences there are people who love to go out, have parties and socialize, while we have people who want to be alone, read a book or listen to music, so there are ways or dimensions in which each person is like some others (introverts, extroverts). When we say there is group difference, people in one group may have certain personality features in common and these common features make them different from other groups. Example s: Different cultures, different age groups, different genders, different political parties. 15

16. 3- Like no others (the individual uniqueness level) There are no two similar individuals, even identical twins raised by the same parents in the same home, country and culture are different. This indicates that no two individuals have exactly the same personalities. Personality psychology focuses on the uniqueness of individual differences. The important point is that personality psychology is concerned with all the three levels of personality analysis: Every individual is 1-Like all others (universal level) 2-Like some others (individual and group level) 3-Like no others (the individual uniqueness level) 16

17. 1.6. Temperament and Personality Definitions, Origins and Characteristics of Temperament Temperament is a consistent style of behavior and emotional reactions that are present from infancy onward, presumably due to biological influences ( Clonigner , 2004). Temperament implies a genetic foundation for individual differences in personality. Temperaments are general patterns of behavior and mood that can be expressed in many different ways and that, depending on one’s experiences, develop into different personality traits. 17

18. Temperament is defined as constitutionally based individual differences in emotional , motor and attentional reactivity and self-regulation , showing consistency across situations and relative stability over time ( Rothbart and Derryberry 1981 ). The term ‘ constitutional ’ refers to links between temperament and biology. The term ‘ reactivity ’ refers to the latency, rise time, intensity and duration of the person’s responsiveness to stimulation. The term ‘self-regulation ’ refers to processes that serve to modulate reactivity; these include behavioral approach, withdrawal, inhibition and executive or effortful attention. 18

19. three temperament dimensions (1) Emotionality refers to the intensity of emotional reactions. Children, who cry frequently, easily frightened, and often express anger are high in this temperament. As adults, these individuals are easily upset and may have a “quick temper.” (2) Activity refers to a person’s general level of energy. Children high in this temperament move around a lot, prefer games that require running and jumping, and tend to fidget and squirm when forced to sit still for an extended period of time. Adults high on this dimension are always on the go and prefer high-energy activities like playing sports and dancing in their free time. (3) Sociability relates to a general tendency to affiliate and interact with others. Sociable children seek out other children to play with. Adults high in this temperament have a lot of friends and enjoy social gatherings. Adult personalities are determined by both inherited temperament and the environment. 19

20. Moreover, temperament influences the environment, and the environment then influences the way temperament develops into stable personality traits. Two children born with identical temperaments can grow up to be two very different people. A child with a high activity level may become an aggressive, achieving, or athletic adult. But that child will probably not become lazy and indifferent. A child does not represent a blank slate on which parents may draw whatever personality they desire. But neither is a child’s personality set at birth, leaving the parents and society to settle for whatever they get. Temperament and personality represent two distinct but interrelated approaches to studying individuality. 20

21. In the newborn, individual differences in irritability and orienting can be observed along with variations in alertness, and by two to three months, infants demonstrate clear positive responses to stimulation. Early forms of what will later be called Extraversio n or Surgency are present in the smiling, laughter and rapid approach of infants to a novel object by six months, and measures of approach tendencies and smiling and laughter at this early age predict children’s extraverted tendencies at seven years. Throughout early development, children who are more extraverted also appear to express greater anger and frustration, and are more prone to externalizing disorders. 21

22. More extrovert temperament may also be a protective factor in a highly stressful environment. For instance, children who are more sociable may attract warmth and responsiveness from adults, thereby protecting them from the effects of poor parenting. Better social skills have also been shown for children whose temperament matched parental expectations and desires, who were more persistent, and whose parents were higher on warmth. When infants are four months of age, their distress and body movement to laboratory-presented stimulation predict later fear and behavioral inhibition. Positive affect and body movement, on the other hand, predict later surgency . 22

23. Chapter Two: Determinants of Personality Physical Psychological Cultural Social Family Sexual Intellectual Environmental 23

24. I. Biological / Physical Determinants of Personality Physical Determinants of Personality The primary criterion that represents numerous aspects of a person's personality is their biological composition. Being the primary factor in determining character, it also includes many additional elements that bring out numerous insights about an individual. Under the heading of "physical factors of personality," some significant components include: Hereditary: Hereditary characteristics can be predicted from the moment of conception. Typically inherited from parents include sex, physical stature, temperament, muscular composition, facial features, height, and others. As a result, it is clear from the hereditary perspective that the genes found in chromosomes are the best explanation for personality . 24

25. Physical characteristics : One of the critical factors influencing personality is one's looks. One's physical appearance has a significant impact on how others see them. Whether short, tall, thin, overweight, black, or white, it is evident that this will impact how others perceive them, affecting how they perceive themselves. Height, weight, skin tone, hair color, and beauty are just a few physical characteristics. 25

26. 2.2 . Psychological Determinants of Personality The psychological approach views personality as a distinctive style unique to each individual, one of the critical factors influencing personality. The accumulative traits of mental trends, emotions, sentiments, thought patterns, and complexes determine this particular style, which varies for each individual. Additionally, it investigates a person's mental conflicts, desires, aspirations, repressed feelings, sublimation, and emotional health. 26

27. 2.3. Cultural Determinants of Personality We are raised with cultural determinants of personality, just as we are born with biological ones. Family rituals and traditions, early conditioning, how we are nurtured, and the social groups we associate with are the elements that impact the development of our personalities. Every culture teaches and demands that its members act and breathe in a manner acceptable to the broader community.  As a result, critical cultural influences on personality determination include traits like hostility, independence, cooperation, and competition. Since the cultures in which we were raised are so opposed, it is obvious to separate those raised in the west from the residents of our nation. 27

28. 2.4. Social Determinants of Personality The social determinants examine an individual's personality in light of their position within their social group or community and consider how they see their place. The primary consideration in this method is that how others perceive us affects how we develop as people. Communication tools have been more widely available in this period, mainly through social media. Social media influencers can have a global impact on the masses.  28

29. Consequently, the social lives that people lead and are a part of greatly influence each person's personality. Through interacting, whether online or in person, we contact a wide variety of people who, in some way or another, leave an impression on our personalities.  As soon as we leave playschool and enter the real world, the process begins when we interact with peers and friends, among other people. We are constantly urged to choose our social circle carefully because it is one of the critical factors in personality that our social life influences. 29

30. 2.5. Family Determinants The primary factors contributing to our personalities are the family environment and parents' direct impact. The impact of familial factors on nature is the greatest. Families influence, especially when children are young. A child raised in a warm, tolerant, and healthy environment will be different emotionally, socially cautious, and frigid. Let's examine the idea put forth by American-Australian psychologist Walter Mischel to comprehend the significance of parents and family as significant factors of personality: 30

31. Identificatio n can be accomplished by comparing the child's behavior, emotions, and attitude to their parents. The desire and aspiration of a child to be like their parents can be seen as identification. It can be viewed as the process through which a child truly inherits traits from their parents that make up their personality. 31

32. 2.6. Sex Determinants Sex differences : Boys are generally more assertive, tough minded and vigorous. They have better need to succeed with regard to interest and aptitudes. Boys show interest in machinery and outdoor activities. They prefer adventures. But girls are less vigorous games. They are quieter, and interested in personal appearance. They have better sense of fine art. They are more injured by personal, emotional and social problems. Thus sex differences play a vital role in the development of personality of individual 32

33. IV. Intellectual Determinants of Personality Intelligence is another essential factor that can play an important role in the development of our personality. Our intellect can influence various aspects and areas of our behaviour which in turn, can determine our personality. Here are the intellectual determinants of Personality: 33

34. Humour is one of the integral intellectual determinants of personality as it helps us get a realistic view of things, facilitates social acceptance and further also ironically brings forward a lighter perspective of life. Morality : Our intellect and worldview plays a crucial role in the development of our morality and how we see certain things as moral or immoral. Thus, morality is another factor that determines our intellect and thus overall personality as well. Values : An individual learns about values from his/her upbringing as well as from the society they are brought up in. These values and beliefs also form our intellectual behaviour and thus are an important determinant of our personality. 34

35. 2.8. Environmental Determinants : Geographical environment and personality: Early childhood experiences and personality: Neighborhood Friends and Companions School Radio, clubs, cinemas Names and personality Clothes and personality 35

36. Geographical environment and personality : Physical or geographical conditions or areas that we dwell influence the personality of the individual. People of cold countries are industrious and hard working. Early childhood experiences and personality : Childhood experiences play a very important role in the development of the individual. Tensions and emotional upsetting of early life influence personality development. Methods of breast feeding and toilet training do play a significant role in the personality development as of the Freud’s theory. 36

37. iii. Neighborhood : If the people in the neighborhood are cultured and educated then the child may also grow into a good person through imitation and modeling. iv. Friends and Companions : Psychologists like Burt and Kretschmer view that friends and companions greatly affect the personality of the child. Children of laborers go to third rate school and play with half naked children in dirty streets or slums. They live amidst hunger and poverty. This may lead to delinquency . 37

38. v. School : School plays a vital role in the development of personality: Teacher’s personality , i.e. his attitudes, beliefs, ideas, habits, ambitions, aspirations, sentiments and emotional maturity affect the personality development of the child. Curriculum of schoo l i.e. richness or drabness of curriculum also affects the personality of an individual. Methods of teaching and co-curricular activities also influence personality development. General atmosphere in school: congenial or uncongenial atmosphere influence personality development . 38

39. vi. Radio , clubs, cinemas have a significant role to play in the personality development. Children can learn a lot from these agencies of education. vii. Names and personality : impressive names may give us an air of superiority and poor or undesirable names are source of resentment. These names shape our ideas of ourselves and hence influence personality development. viii. Clothes and personality: if we wear funny clothes people will laugh at us and as a result we may develop inferiority complex. Our clothes should resemble with great persons whom we admire. The type of clothes we prefer also indicates our personality. 39

40. CHAPTER FIVE 5. FACTORS AFFECTING PERSONALITY The major factors affecting personality are Biological Factors (ii ) Environmental Factors Cultural facotrs Situational factors Education factors 40

41. Biological Factors Heredity: refers to physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent. It plays an important part in determining an individual's personality . Heredity is indeed, an important factor in personality development. Almost every form of personality has been attributed to heredity. Today it is believed that hereditary traits are transmitted through the genes. This can be clearly understood according to Mendel’s theory of dominant and recessive genes. 41

42. According to Mendel, genes are the carriers of hereditary traits in the sense that they maintain integrity, particular constitution and properties in unaltered form from one generation to the next . The traits and skills acquired by the parent may not modify the genes but just pass on to the children just as they are whichever genes carrying hereditary trait is dominant, the trait will pass on to the children from their parents just as it is. For instance, the child inherits complexion, physique, intelligence, etc. from his parents 42

43. 2 . Physical Features . It is vital ingredient of the personality, it focus an individual person's external appearance which also determined the personality. Physical features like tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white. These physical features will be influenced the personal effect on others and also affect self concept of individual. 43

44. 3. Endocrine Glands: The endocrine glands are characterized for interaction and interdependence. These glands secrete hormones. Any over-activity or under-activity of these glands can cause increase or decrease in harmones resulting in personality disorder as given below : ( i) Thyroid: ( ii) Parathyroid: ( iv) Adrenal: ( v) Gonads: 44

45. (i) Thyroid: Thyroid gland secretes thyroxin. Any excess of the hormone leads to tension and unstableness, whereas its deficiency takes one to imbecile level. ( ii) Parathyroid: This gland is responsible for calcium equilibrium in the body. Over-activity of this gland causes irritation, emotional instability, etc. (iii) Pituitary. This gland secretes sarnatotropin . It controls the other glands of the body. The excess of this hormone causes aeromegaly whereas its deficiency causes midget. 45

46. (iv) Adrenal: This gland secretes cortin and adrenin . Cortin deficiency results in increased fatigability, anaemia , loss of appetite, etc. While adrenin is discharged in times of great emotional stress. ( v) Gonads: This gland secretes testosterone and andresterone that are responsible for growth of male sex organs and estrogens and progestins in females promote sexual maturity. 46

47. 4 . Nervous System Nervous system too influences personality development. Mental abilities, sensory-motor skill are also determined by the nervous system. The autonomic nervous system and the central nervous system are responsible for personality development . 47

48. 5. Environment The environmental factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are culture in which we raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends, social groups, social interaction, etc that we experience. 48

49. 5. Environment Factors The environment is everything that affects the individual except his genes. The environment of an individual consists of the sum total of the stimulation which he receives from his conception to birth. As a matter of fact the following environmental factors have to be taken into consideration. 49

50. (a) Home The effect of home in personality has been accepted by everyone. Home has much bearing on the personality development of an individual. Parents behaviour and attitude, their expectations from the child, their education and attention to the child, influences the child’s personality . 50

51. Mischel found from his study that absence of father effects the socialization of the child. Hurlock pointed out from the basis of his study that “even though children from small and medium sized homes are often played with sibling rivalry and jealously, parental overprotection and suspicion of parental favouritism , they generally make better adjustments to life and are happier than children from large families.’ In the same way economic status of the family also influences child’s personality. 51

52. (b) School After home, school is the next socializing agent, by the fact that the child spends most of his time with his peers. Hellersberg found from his study that after parents the most influencing factor on a person’s personality is the school. In school he comes in contact with his teachers whose personality influences and he adopts his teachers style of life, etc. He sees the teacher as his ideal. His personality is also to a great extent, influenced by peer interaction. His peers whom he like influence him and he tries to adopt whatever he likes in them. The school atmosphere, discipline of the school, etc. also influence the student’s personality. 52

53. (c) Maturation and Personality Personality is also influenced by maturation. Maturation improves the coordination of numerous relationships. Maturation provides raw material for learning and determines to a large extent the more general patterns and sequences of child’s behaviour. (d) Early Experience: Personality is also influenced by one’s early experiences. If a person suffers bitter experiences, he is often is subjected to undue thwartings at the early stage of life, regress to interests from outer to inner spheres and become self- centred . 53

54. ( e) Success and Failures Success and failure also play a key role in the determination of personality. This influences one’s adjustment and self-concept Success motivates the individual for more attempts and success in future. It heightens one’s level of aspiration and makes the individual about his abilities whereas failure leads to the development of negative traits, i.e., inferiority feeling, low aspiration, escape and blame, etc. 54

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56. 5.2. Socio-Cultural and Economic Factors Cultural factors are also major factors which influence to determine individual personality. It refers to traditional practice, customs, procedure, norms and rules and regulation followed by the society. It significantly influence to individual behavior compared to biological factors. Cultural factors determine attitudes towards independence, aggression, competition, cooperation, positive thinking, team spirit, and a host of the human being and discharge his/her duties towards valuable responsibilities to society. 56

57. For instance, Western culture influenced Indian society. It is best example of the cultural factors also determine the personality. To a large extent, one’s culture determines what are considered proper practices in courtship, marriage, childrearing, politics, religion, education, and justice. These , and other cultural variables, explain many important individual differences among humans, that is, differences among people of different cultures. 57

58. More specifically, some theorists say that one’s personality can be viewed as a combination of the many roles one plays. If you were asked to start a blank sheet of paper with the words “I am” and then to list all of your qualities, you would have a rather extensive list. For example, you may be female, 19 years old, a college student, a Lutheran, 5 feet 8 inches tall, attractive, a Cancer, a psychology major, and so on. Each entry on your list has a prescribed role associated with it, and for each role, society has defined what is called an acceptable range of behavior ( norms ). 58

59. If you deviate from that range, you will confront social pressure of some type. Indeed, what is considered normal behavior and what is considered abnormal is, to a large extent, determined by how you behave relative to societal expectations. Other socio-cultural determinants of personality include the socioeconomic level of one’s family, one’s family size, birth order, ethnic identification, religion, the region of the country in which one was raised, the educational level attained by one’s parents, and the like. One simply does not have the same experiences in a financially secure home as one would have in an impoverished home. These fortuitous circumstances into which a person is born (e.g., culture, society, and family) certainly have a major impact on personality. 59

60. Again, this point is one that all personality theorists accept; it is just a matter of how much each one emphasizes it. The theories of Adler, Horney, and Erikson stress the importance of socio-cultural determinants of personality. Personality is said to be the image or mirror of culture. Both material and non- material culture play important role in shaping the personality of the individual. Material culture brings about the development of various material needs and goods. Non- material culture brings about the development of various social traditions and culture. 60

61. Studies have been conducted by Mead, Ruth Benedict, Malinowski, Baldwin, Cooley and many others. Mead found that in the “Samoa ” culture, girls are free from the stress and strain of modern society because early sexual relations are allowed Malinowski has reported that adolescent period among Trobrianders also does not involve stress and strain because of the absence of sex taboos . In ‘ Mundudumor ’ culture persons are violent and aggressive, while in ‘ Arapesh ’ , they are responsive and mild. In ‘ Tchambuli ’ women are aggressive and sexually dominant, while men are submissive. 61

62. In other words Ogburn and Nimkoof concluded that “Biological heredity ushers infant actors on the stage of which the physical environment, the group and culture have set. The dramatic actor now begins and new born baby transforms into social person.” They further said, “Birth is the signal of experience to begin its work of converting the biological individual into social person.” 62

63. Education and Learning –Formal education and learning experiences contribute to personality development. School environments, teachers, and peer interactions influence cognitive and social development. Educational psychology examines how schools and teachers influence cognitive and social development Media and Technology – Exposure to media, including television, social media, and the internet, can influence personality by shaping values, beliefs, and attitudes . 63

64. 7. Situation An individual’s personality, although generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. Situations seem to differ substantially in the constraints they impose on behaviour. Some situations (e.g., employment interview) constraints many behaviour; other situations (e.g., a picnic in a public park) constrain relatively few. 64

65. Situational factors of personality also have a complete share in the formation of personality of an individual. Situational factors of personality are charging according to the social situations. Every person may face different situations in life, which demands change in his/her behavior. For example, a teacher may be rigid and strict with students but may not with his/her family. 65

66. An officer may behave with the subordinates differently as compared to his/her friends. Personality is not the result of only one factor but every factor is responsible to give complete share in its formation. A person behave and his/her personality exists when interacts with the environment, culture, society, friends, and to those who come in contact by chance. 66

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68. CHAPTER SIX THEORIES OF PERSONALITY What is theory? Theory refers to set of unconfirmed hypothesis or speculation concerning reality that is not definitely known but when a theory has confirmatory data or evidence it is a fact. Different systems of consistent constellations of concepts about personality make theories of personality . Each theory of personality is concerned about human nature and the goal of each theory is the understanding of the diversity and complexity of the whole person functioning in the real world. A theory is useful when it can efficiently generate predictions and propositions. A theory should contain two parts a cluster of relevant assumptions systematically related to each other and a set of empirical definitions . 68

69. What purpose do theories of personality serve? A personality theory is descriptive . In other words, a theory provides a meaningful framework (i.e. a kind of map) for simplifying and integrating all that is known about a related set of events. For example, without the benefit of theory, it would be very difficult to explain why 5-year-old boy has a romantic attraction to his mother along with undue resentment toward his father. A good personality theory, then, provides a meaningful context within which human behavior can be consistently described and interpreted. 69

70. 2. to provide a basis for the prediction of events and outcomes that have not yet occurred. 3. Personality theories provide a means in which concepts must be testable and capable of being confirmed or disconfirmed. For example, what does it means to be a human being? Ideally, the concepts of a theory should be formulated to permit rigorous and precise empirical testing. A good personality theory directly stimulates psychological research. Conversely, the scientific value of theories that are untestable is still unknown 70

71. 4. Personality theorists are people, and, like the rest of us, they hold divergent views about human nature. Some theorists, for example, believe that human actions have their roots in unconscious motives whose true nature is outside the individual’s awareness and whose sources lie deeply buried in the distant past. Others believe that people are reasonably aware of their real motives and that their behavior is primarily a result of present conditions. Therefore, the foundations of a personality theory are rooted in the basic assumptions of the theorist; a theory’s implications about human nature, i.e., about what humans are? or what it means to be a human being? 71

72. II. How can we evaluate Theories of Personality? Verifiability Heuristic Value Internal Consistency Parsimony (simple ) Comprehensiveness Functional Significance 72

73. Verifiability : A theory is positively evaluated to the degree that its concepts lend themselves to verification by independent investigators. This means that a theory must be stated in such a way that its concepts are clearly, explicitly defined and logically related to one another so that the theory can be empirically tested. A good theory should be empirically testable, leading to modification of the theory if necessary . 73

74. b) Heuristic Value : The degree to which a theory directly stimulates a research. A theory by translating its core concepts into a form of operationalization can allow for relevant research activity. c ) Internal Consistency: This criterion stipulates that a theory should not contradict itself that is a good theory is internally consistent way. d ) Parsimony (simple): A theory may also be judged on the basis of the number of concepts it requires to explain events within its domain. The law of parsimony states that the preferred explanation is the one which demands the fewest number of concepts, i.e., is most economical. 74

75. e) Comprehensiveness : This criterion refers to the range and diversity of phenomena encompassed by a theory. The more comprehensive a personality theory is the more behavioral ground it covers. f) Functional Significance : Finally, a theory may be evaluated on the basis of how useful it is in helping people to understand everyday human behavior. All of us are interested in knowing more about ourselves and other people. 75

76. Theories of Personality A personality theory is a system of concepts, assumptions, ideas, and principles proposed to explain personality. Psychodynamic theories focus on the inner workings of personality, especially internal conflicts and struggles. Trait and type theories attempt to learn what traits make up personality and how they relate to actual behavior. Humanistic theories stress on private, subjective experience, and personal growth . Behavioral and social learning theories place importance on the external environment and on the effects of conditioning and learning . 76

77. i. Psychodynamic theories Psychodynamic theorists are not content with studying traits. Instead, they try to probe under the surface of personality to learn what drives, conflicts, and energies animate us. Psychodynamic theorists believe that many of our actions are based on hidden , or unconscious , thoughts , needs , and emotions . Psychodynamic theories explain human behavior in terms of the interaction of various components of personality. 77

78. Freud was the founder of this school. Freud drew on the physics of his day (thermodynamics) to coin the term psychodynamics. Based on the idea of converting heat into mechanical energy, he proposed that psychic energy could be converted into behavior. Freud’s theory places central importance on dynamic, unconscious psychological conflicts . 78

79. Psychoanalytic theory , the best-known psychodynamic approach, grew out of the work of Sigmund Freud, a Viennese physician. As a doctor, Freud was fascinated by patients whose problems seemed to be more emotional than physical. From about 1890 until he died in 1939, Freud evolved a theory of personality that deeply influenced modern thought. Let’s consider some of its main features. 79

80. Psychoanalysis: Freud ’ s Theory of Personality Freud ’ s theory suggest that personality is composed of the id , the ego , and the superego . id : the unorganized, inborn part of personality whose purpose is to immediately reduce tensions relating to hunger, sex, aggression, and other primitive impulses. ego : restrains instinctual energy in order to maintain the safety of the individual and to help the person to be a member of society. superego : the rights and wrongs of society and consists of the conscience and the ego-ideal.

81. Freud and Personality Structure Id - energy constantly striving to satisfy basic drives Pleasure Principle Ego - seeks to gratify the Id in realistic ways Reality Principle Super Ego - voice of conscience that focuses on how we ought to behave Ego Super Ego Id

82. “ the ID ” The id uses the most primitive of thinking process. Basic biological urges (e.g., hunger, self-protection). The id operates on the Pleasure Principle . Seeks pleasure and avoids pain : “ I want what I want NOW! ” The id operates completely at an unconscious level. No direct contact with reality. The id has 2 major instincts: Eros : life instinct = motivates people to focus on pleasure-seeking tendencies (e.g., sexual urges). Thanatos : death instinct = motivates people to use aggressive urges to destroy. The energy for the id ’ s instincts comes from the libido , (the energy storehouse).

83. “ the Ego ” The ego consists of a conscious faculty for perceiving and dealing intelligently with reality. The ego acts as a mediator between the id and the superego. The ego is partly conscious. Deals with the demands of reality. Makes rational decisions.

84. “ the Ego ” The ego serves the ID: Governed by ‘ Reality Principle ’ The ego is the Executive of the personality The ego controls higher mental processes. Reasoning, problem solving. The ego uses these higher mental processes to help satisfy the urges of the ID.

85. “ the Superego ” Sup erego : the moral part of personality. Internalized rules of parents and society. Superego consists of two parts: Conscience : “ notions of right/wrong. ” Ego Ideal : “ how we ideally like to be. ” Superego: constrains us from gratifying every impulse (e.g., murder) because they are immoral, and not because we might get caught Superego : partly conscious, partly unconscious.

86. Freud: superego, id, and ego According to Freud, an individual ’ s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are the result of the interaction of the id, the superego, and the ego.

87. The Dynamics of Personality How do the id, ego, and superego interact? Freud didn’t picture the id, ego, and superego as parts of the brain or as “little people” running the human psyche. Instead, they are conflicting mental processes. Freud theorized a delicate balance of power among the three. For example, the id’s demands for immediate pleasure often clash with the superego’s moral restrictions.

88. Perhaps an example will help clarify the role of each part of the personality . The id clamors for immediate satisfaction of its sexual desires but is opposed by the superego. The id says, “ Go for it !” The superego icily replies, “ Never even think that again !” And what does the ego say? The ego says, “ I have a plan !” Of course, this is a drastic simplification, but it does capture the core of Freudian thinking

89. To reduce tension, the ego could begin actions leading to friendship, romance, courtship, and marriage. If the id is unusually powerful, the ego may give in and attempt a seduction. If the superego prevails, the ego may be forced to displace or sublimate sexual energies to other activities (sports, music, dancing, push-ups, and cold showers).

90. Freud ’ s Theory of Personality: The id, the ego, and the superego are continually in conflict with one another. This conflict generates anxiety . If the ego did not effectively handle the resulting anxiety, people would be so overwhelmed with anxiety that they would not be able to carry on with the tasks of everyday living. The ego tries to control anxiety (i.e., to reduce anxiety) through the use of ego defense mechanisms .

91. Ego Defense Mechanisms: 91

92. Ego Defense Mechanisms Definition : An defense mechanism is a psychology tendency that the ego uses to help prevent people from becoming overwhelmed by any conflict (and resulting anxiety) among the id, the ego, and the superego. Defense mechanisms operate at an unconscious level : We are not aware of them during the time that we are actually using them. However, we may later become aware of their previous operation and use. 92

93. Defense Mechanisms Repression : pushing unacceptable and anxiety-producing thoughts into the unconscious; involves intentional forgetting but not consciously done; repressed material can be memories or unacceptable impulses. A rape victim cannot recall the details of the attack. Regression : acting in ways characteristic of earlier life stages/earlier stage of personality. A young adult, anxious on a trip to his parents/ home, sits in the corner reading comic books, as he often did in grade school. 93

94. Reaction formation : replacing an anxiety-producing feeling with its exact opposite, typically going overboard; repressed thoughts appear as mirror opposites. A man who is anxious about his interest in gay men begins dating women several times a week. Rationalization : creating false but believable excuses to justify inappropriate behavior; real motive for behavior is not accepted by ego. A student cheats on an exam, explaining that cheating is legitimate on an unfair examination. 94

95. Projection : attributing one ’ s own unacceptable feelings or beliefs to others; perceiving the external world in terms of one ’ s own personal conflicts. An employee at a store, tempted to steal some merchandise, suspects that other employees are stealing. Sublimation : substitute socially acceptable behavior for unacceptable impulses. Playing video games instead of getting in a fight. 95

96. Levels of Awareness What is the structure and development of personality, according to Sigmund Freud and his successors ( i.e.,psychoanalysts )? According to psychoanalysts, much of behavior is caused by parts of personality which are found in the unconscious and of which we are unaware . Freud ’ s 3 levels of awareness/consciousness: the conscious mind; the preconscious mind; and the unconscious mind. 96

97. Psychoanalysis: The Unconscious “ the mind is like an iceberg - mostly hidden ” Conscious Awareness small part above surface (Preconscious) Unconscious below the surface (thoughts, feelings, wishes, memories) Repression Banishing unacceptable thoughts and passions to unconscious: Dreams and Slips

98. Three levels of consciousness: Conscious mind : things we are focusing on. Preconscious mind : things are are not currently aware of but which we could focus on. Unconscious mind : that which we are unaware of.

99. The conscious refers to those ideas and sensations of which we are aware . It operates on the surface of personality, and plays a relatively small role in personality development and functioning. While it is true that psychologically healthy people have a greater awareness of their experiences than do unhealthy ones, still Freud believed that even relatively mature people are governed, to a degree greater than they would care to admit, by unconscious needs and conflicts 99

100. The preconscious contains those experiences that are unconscious but that could become conscious with little effort. For example , you may have forgotten the foods you had for supper yesterday, but you could probably recall them readily if you were asked to list them for a dietician who is trying to help you lose weight. The preconscious exists just beneath the surface of awareness. 100

101. the unconscious operates on the deepest level of personality. It consists of those experiences and memories of which we are not aware . Such mental states remain out of awareness because making them conscious would create tremendous pain and anxiety for us. The unconscious could include sexual abuse that we experienced during early childhood at the hands of a parent, relative, or family friend. It could consist of incestuous feelings, strong emotional reactions of anger or rage toward certain authority figures, or painful feelings of shame and humiliation growing out of competitive experiences. 101

102. Freud: Stages of Personality Development Freud ’ s psychoanalytic theory of personality suggests that personality develops through a series of stages , each of which is associated with a major biological function. More specifically, Freud theorized that as people age, they pass through several systematic stages of psychosexual development in their personality. 102

103. Psychosexual Stages of Development are Source of Unconscious Conflicts. The stages of personality development involve critical events that occur in every child ’ s life. At each level, there is a conflict between pleasure and reality . The resolution of this conflict determines personality. At any stage, “ a fixation ” can occur : If needs are either under-gratified or over-gratified, we become fixated at a particular stage . Each stage also involves an erogenous zone . Parts of the body that involve sexual pleasure.

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105. Freud ’ s Stages of Personality Development: Oral stage : the oral state is the first period, occurring during the first year of life. Anal stage : next comes the anal stage, lasting from approximately age 1 to age 3. Phallic stage : the phallic stages follows, with interest focusing on the genitals. Latency period : then follows the latency period lasting until puberty. Genital stage : after puberty, people move into the genital stage, a period of mature sexuality.

106. (1) Oral stage of development: Time period: Birth to 18 months: Erogenous zone is mouth . Gratification through sucking and swallowing. Oral fixation has two possible outcomes. Oral receptive personality : Preoccupied with eating/drinking. Reduce tension through oral activity. eating, drinking, smoking, biting nails Passive and needy; sensitive to rejection. Oral aggressive personality : Hostile and verbally abusive to others .

107. (2) Anal stage of development: Time period: 1 1/2 to 3 years of age. Erogenous zone is the anus. Conflict surrounds toilet training. Anal fixation has two possible outcomes . Anal retentive personality . Stingy, compulsive orderliness, stubborn, perfectionistic. Anal expulsive personality . Lack of self control, messy, careless .

108. (3) Phallic stage of development: Time period: 3 to 6 years. Erogenous zone is the genitals: self-stimulation of the genitals produces pleasure. At age 5 or 6, near the end of the phallic stage, children experience the Oedipal conflict (boys)/the Electra conflict (girls)--a process through which they learn to identify with the same gender parent by acting as much like that parent as possible. Oedipus complex (boys) vs Electra complex (girls) Child is sexually attracted to the other sex parent and wishes to replace the same sex parent.

109. (3) Phallic stage of development: Oedipus complex (little boys): Castration anxiety: Son believes father knows about his desire for mom. Fears dad will castrate him. Represses his desire and defensively identifies with dad.

110. (3) Phallic stage (continued): Electra complex (little girls): Penis envy : Daughter is initially attached to mom. Shift of attachment occurs when she realizes she lacks a penis. She desires dad whom she sees as a means to obtain a penis substitute (a child) . Represses her desire for dad. incorporates the values of her mother accepts her inherent “ inferiority in society

111. (4) Latency Period: During the latency period, little girls and little boys try to socialize only with members of their own gender. Freud posits that children do this so as to help minimize the awareness of “ sexuality. ” Thus , they continue the process of sexual repression that began in the previous stage (for those who successfully made it through the Oedipal Complex/Electra Complex).

112. (5) Genital Stage: When adolescence begin puberty, they enter the 5th stage of psychosexual development. They develop secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., pubic hair). The onset of the physical sexual characteristics “ re-awakens ” people sexual urges, and thus they are no longer able to successfully repress their sexual desires, impulses, and urges. They begin searching for a marital mate, with whom they can share sex and intimacy.

113. The Neo-Freudians Freud’s ideas quickly attracted a brilliant following. Just as rapidly, the importance Freud placed on instinctual drives and sexuality caused many to disagree with him. Those who stayed close to the core of Freud’s thinking are called neo-Freudians ( neo means “new”). Neo- Freudians accepted the broad features of Freud’s theory but revised parts of it. Some of the better-known neo-Freudians are Karen Horney, Anna Freud (Freud’s daughter), Otto Rank, and Erich Fromm. 113

114. Neo-Freudians Other early followers broke away more completely from Freud and created their own opposing theories. All place less emphasis on sex. Carl Jung : Personal vs. Collective Unconscious . Balance between introversion and extroversion . Alfred Adler : Striving for superiority = motivation to master environment. Notion of an Inferiority Complex . Karen Horney : Personality is Cultural rather than biological .

115. Alfred Adler (1870–1937) Adler broke away from Freud because he disagreed with Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious, on instinctual drives, and on the importance of sexuality. Adler believed that we are social creatures governed by social urges, not by biological instincts (Shulman, 2004). According to Adler, Individual Psychology is a science that attempts to understand the experiences and behavior of each person as an organized entity. He believed that all actions are guided by a person’s fundamental attitudes toward life. 115

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