Chapter two PR on significance of tourism .docx

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Public relations
Public Relations as a “modern term” was introduced in the United States of America by the
United States Post Office Railway Union in the first decade of the twentieth century (Heath&
Coombs,2006). Although the practice is believed to have existed a long time ago since humans
began to interact. The concept has evolved and gone through different phases as a “discipline and
a career”. The earliest phase known as the “ Journalistic and Publicity Tradition”, during this
phase of development, emphasis was placed on creating awareness and building the reputation of
individuals or organisations through PR. This era is compared with modern day ‘advertising and
promotional’ activities, where “the message for the widest possible audience” becomes
significant. As the practice evolved into “The Persuasive Communication Campaign Tradition”,
attention was given to providing compelling and comprehensive messages by the organization to
its publics. Organisations must ensure that, the receiver (publics) understand and accept the
message. The third phase is “The Relationship Building and Two –way Communication
Tradition” this tradition emphasizes mutually beneficial relationship between organisations and
their publics (Heath &Coombs, 2006)

Public relations as a discipline has experienced several definitions by both practitioners and
scholars alike because of its evolving nature, or “theoretical underpinnings” shared by different
scholars and practitioners. Therefore different definitions of the concept have emerged based on
‘varying assumptions, values, and perspectives’. This has generated endless argument about a
common definition for PR (Davidson, 2016; Fitch & L`Etang, 2013b; Russell & Lamme, 2016).
One of the founders of modern PR Rex Harlow of Stanford University agrees with this assertion
after he had reviewed 472 PR definitions in 1977. He said “This historical review reveals how
inextricable the development of concept has been, and is bound to the ‘movement of thought and
action’ of the society in which the public relations practitioner does their work. It shows the
present form, content and status of the public relations definition, but even more the effect of
environmental factors and change upon its development (p.49).
“Public Relations” is not merely a terminology but a concept that depicts different meanings to
different people depending on the cultural environment in which it is practiced (L`Etang, 2013).
Most of the common place terms such as continuous ,” planned , deliberate, two-way
communication, strategic management function” among others found in most PR definitions
reflect the dominant idea of PR as a “functional/normative” discipline, which stems from
Gruning`s “Excellence” theory(Gower,2006, L`Etang ,2013). It also explains the PR concept as
an evolving field of study with no standard definition as to its changing nature, theoretical
framework, and scope commonly shared by both scholars and practitioners. The concept
emerged from a study in 1984 which observed that PR could be used to accomplish
organizational strategies and goals through regular interactions with its identified publics and
stakeholders, the use of two-way communication to nurture and maintain healthy relationships
(Gruing, 2013). PR scholars such as Terry Flynn, Fran Gregory align with the idea that public
relations is the “strategic management of relationships” between an organization and its various
publics by using communication to accomplish organizational goals(Flynn, 2014).

Among PR scholars there is a convergence that the discipline is about using persuasive
communication to maintain a healthy relationship between an organization and its publics
(Heath, 2010). On the other hand, some scholars have “contested” the Excellence theory and
have advanced different definitions because they are of the opinion that PR practice is
characterized by different assumptions, values and worldviews (Curtin, 2012, Edwards, 2012,
Pieczka & L`Etang, 2006) so to advocate a common definition would create a challenge. In
addition the Public Relations Society of America in 2011 organized a programme on crowd
sourcing to find a common definition that spells out the key elements of what PR professionals
do, it was observed that the job of PR is “so complex” and entails various parts so it would be
difficult to find a common definition (Rickey, 2012).
Other scholars have emphasized the technical aspect of PR, which has informed their description
of the discipline as a” collection of communication techniques” thus insisting on the technical
aspect of the discipline, especially since practitioners engage in crafting communication tools
such as press releases, press statements, and interviews among others to interact with their
publics .(Gregory, 2012).The very critical scholars have described PR as tool for “manipulation
and propaganda” because in their view PR practitioners seem to place the interest of their
organisations above its publics and the larger society. They have challenged “normative
concepts” especially the idea of symmetry in the light of apparent differences in power that exist
between executives and employees within an organization (Berger, 2005; Reber & Beger, 2006)
on one hand ,organisations and their publics on the other (Berger, 2005;Roper, 2005). Another
school of thought looks at the field of PR from a practical viewpoint. They argue that PR activity
should impact the society in which it operates. Organisations operating in any society are
expected to “adapt” to the expectations of the environment (Ihen & Verhoeven, 2012; van Ruler
& Veric, 2004). For example German sociologist Jurgen Habermas advocates a paradigm shift in
our outlook to PR to embrace the PR function as a sort of ‘cultural intermediary’(L`Etang, 2013).
Such “paradigmatic worldview” stems from the fact that PR practice is sometimes influenced by
the cultural norms of their environment. Moreover some scholars have looked at the ethical
perspective of PR. Such scholars have argued that every profession has its ideals, norms, and
principles that underpin its practice. In view of this, there should be a concerted effort in
upholding the ethics of the profession. For instance whether it is ethical for PR to be used as a
tool for propaganda, corporate social responsibility, and the whole problem of determining the
worth of PR function to the benefit of society (L`Etang, 2013). Just as the concept of PR has
experienced different viewpoints, so has the role of PR practitioners been a subject of debate
with many looking at it from various perspectives. Generally, there are four identified roles
namely expert-prescriber, communication facilitator, problem solving facilitator, and
communication technician according to Broom and Smith (Broom,1992, Broom & Smith, 1979).
Researcher`s like Dozier have argued earlier that communication managers are no different from
the ‘expert prescriber’, ‘communication facilitator’, and the ‘problem- solving facilitator’ roles.
In addition, within the organizational setup they (communication managers) form part of the
communication experts .However the role of the communication technician is different and
focuses on the technical know-how of the PR work. He further distinguishes managers as the
“policy –initiators” who take responsibility for the outcome of PR strategies. He added that the
job of the technician involves crafting communication tools to execute policy initiatives of others
(Dozier, 1992).

In contrast, another study undertaken by Viera and Grantham in conjunction with the Public
Relations Society of America identified an additional role for the practitioner. They are classified
into five (5)negotiator, policy advisor , brand officer, internal communicator, and press agent.
Among these the negotiator and policy advisor are part of top management and make policy
decisions (Viera & Grantham, 2013). The advent of technology; internet, social media, and the
proliferation of media houses have further diversified the communication space and speed which
hitherto were not available. The outcome is that, communication officer`s perception of being in
control of messages has eroded. Stakeholders can now communicate with institutions and each
other more freely and frequently, which affects the way their relationship is managed (Gruning,
2009, Luoma-aho & Vos, 2010). Thus, it is required of practitioners to adopt a more consumer
and audience oriented approach which places more premium on mutual relationship (Priem,
Butler &Li, 2013; Luoma-aho, 2015), and also incorporates other roles into their practice such
as strategic counselors, business environment, trends spotters and digital experts.(Alfonsi, 2012).
Whiles the expansion of the digital communication space has led to the elevation of the status of
communication function in many organisations ,PR has failed to adequately exploit the
opportunity to position itself as a significant management function (Lewis &Nichols, 2012,
Rowe & Hutchins, 2014).This is due to a seeming lack of PR professionals capable of operating
at the board level. In addition, most organizations are yet to involve communication officers at
topmost managerial circles (Steyn, 2012). Furthermore PR role is thought to be a “support
function” waiting to execute policy initiatives of their chief executives. Thus, it is perceived as
‘reactive’. Due to its multi-facet nature, scholars have found it challenging to outline the
required “competencies. Capabilities, skills” for its practice. Again the apparent small number of
PR theories and methods, the general lack of consensus on a standardized theory and
methodology commonly shared by most scholars have implications for the PR profession.
(Meadows, 2014; Sisco, Collins, & Zoch, 2011).In the opinion of the PR fraternity the
challenges confronting the profession are the inability to attract and develop the requisite skill
and talent which may include the above (Holmes & Cook, 2016).Meanwhile, other professions
have outlined measures to enable them streamline the profession by setting benchmarks and
standards for practice, however PR appears to be having challenges in this direction.(Gregory,
2008, Lester, 2014; Manley & Valin, 2017)
Public Relation and Tourism
The literature defines Public Relations as a strategic form of communication, which focuses on
obtaining the public’s understanding and acceptance regarding the process of establishing a good
relationship between an organization and the public, especially in terms of shaping reputation
and communicating information (Gaither, 2008). Through the communication and promotion
strategies which they develop, Public Relations facilitate the building of confidence-based
connections between the various organizations and the many categories of public, creating
interactive relationships between the various levels of society. The British Institute of Public
Relations defines Public Relations as a “management reputation”, given that Public Relations are
focused on reputation – the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about.
Therefore, the practice of Public Relations is the discipline which centers on reputation, with the
purpose of gaining understanding, support and influence of public opinion and behaviour
(Petrovici, 2011). Public Relations represent a unique way of promoting the organization, its
products or services, by building a higher visibility in the public space.

The Public Relations activities imply conscious, planned and long-term efforts in building and
maintaining relations of mutual trust and understating both with the public opinion as a whole
and the different target groups (Kunczik, 2002). In this respect, Public Relations aims at building
positive relations between an organization and its public, an organization and the environment,
by means of a two-way communication (DiMeo, 2002). In the tourism sector, Public Relations
are more than a necessity. To meet the constant challenges, the Public Relations in the tourism
sector should evolve towards turning into a management function, which should lead to
responsible approach. The literature argues that the Public Relations represent the fifth “P” of a
marketing strategy: product, price, place and promotion (Wilcox et al., 2009). According to
specialists, cultivating Public Relations takes longer, but when they are actuated, they can
contribute to promoting the company on the market (Kotler & Rackham, 2006).
The major challenge consists in identifying the most efficient ways of promoting tourist
products, building a positive image, increasing the visibility of tourist destinations, in order to
attract a significant number of tourists. According to specialists, a tourist product may be
approached from a global perspective, regarded like a unitary whole, respectively from an
individual perspective, due to its intrinsic features, namely: unique elements, which individualize
the product even more; location at the “source”, which means that tourism planning should occur
only in areas with tourism potential (beach, mountains, mineral springs, thermal waters,
historical monuments etc.); developed tourism infrastructure, respectively transportation,
accommodation, food and entertainment units with specific equipment; a varied segmentation of
consumers, with needs, tastes and different motivations (Gherasim, 1999; Petrocivi, 2014).

Public Relations may support the tourism sector, building a positive image and a favourable
attitude towards the tourism product (Stăncioiu, 2000). The explanation lies in the fact that in the
tourism sector, a favourable image creates motivation in making the decision to buy the tourism
product. In this case, the final image appears like the result of a bidirectional process: from the
offerer, who projects and transfers an official image, respectively from the potential tourist, who
perceives that reality in a certain way, from the perspective of preferences, experiences or the
information obtained from other reference sources, other than the official ones (Baud-Bovy &
Lawson, 1977). Public Relations in tourism is a key element of the marketing mix, which resorts
to “general influence tools” such as the relations with the media materialized in press tours,
conferences on tourism, fairs and expositions, promotional activities, special events (Kotler, Rein
& Haider, 2001). Creating a positive image which may mean respect and professionalism should
constitute a reference point throughout this entire process, because Public Relations aim at
“building” a favourable climate not only at the level of the tourism market, but also at the level
of the entire ensemble, with all its internal and external components (Bucur-Sabo, 2006).
The ongoing transmission of messages meant to inform consumers about tourism products, with
the intention of developing a positive attitude towards the product and company, respectively to
generate favourable changes in their consumption mentality and habits represent an instantiation
of tourism promotion (Bucur-Sabo, 2006). From the perspective of Public Relations, this implies

the management of the communication between the company and the target public, by means of
constant and proper informing of the various categories of audiences (Grunig & Hunt, 1984).
Materials for promoting tourism destinations include: magazines, brochures and tourist guides,
which may contain information about certain events, characteristic of a certain area or scheduled
activities (audio-visual presentations, expositions), rules of conduct for tourist safety; maps and
information on tourist attractions; information centers in public spaces, parks, shops, stations and
restaurants; graphic boards placed on tourist tracks and in belvedere points (Henche, 2004). In
their turn, interpreter guides also play an essential part by the accuracy and coherence of the
information provided during tourist circuits. The promotion actions performed by Public
Relations cannot be efficient without properly specialized and trained staff, which may provide
quality services and meet the clients’ expectations. In this case, Public Relations play a strategic
part not only in attracting tourists to the various destinations, but also in maintaining their
satisfaction after they arrive at the respective destinations. In coordinating these efforts, there
may be engaged all the responsible factors, from local or regional tourism agencies to
counselling authorities, organizations, local collectives, public authorities etc.
An internationally topical subject is the concept of responsible tourism. Responsible tourism is
about taking responsibility, responding, taking action to address the social, economic and
environmental issues of sustainability that arise in destinations (Goodwin, 2011). According to
the Cape Town Declaration (2002, p.3-4), environmental concerns should be managed,
“throughout the life cycle of tourist establishments and operations - including the planning and
design phase”; the responsible tourism is defined as having a number of characteristics:
minimising negative economic, environmental, and social impacts; generating greater economic
benefits for local people and enhancing the well-being of host communities; involving local
people in decisions that affect their lives and life chances; contributing to the conservations of
natural and cultural heritage, to the maintenance of the world’s diversity; providing more
enjoyable experiences for tourists through more meaningful connections with local people, and a
greater understanding of local cultural, social and environmental issues; providing access for
physically challenged people; being culturally sensitive, engenders respect between tourists and
hosts, and building local pride and confidence.
Responsible tourism recognizes the diversity of the world’s cultures and environments and
encourages the positive interaction between the tourism industry, local communities and
travelers” (Coppola, 2010, p.51). At the same time, responsible tourism offers an opportunity to
connect with the people who create the holiday experience, stimulating the holidaymakers to talk
about their experiences and to tell stories (Krippendorf, 1999). As King (2002, p.105-108)
observes the travel is about “experiences, fulfilment and rejuvenation” rather than about “places
and things” and that this lifestyle market is of increasing importance.
Functions of PR in promoting tourist destinations
Tourism is a major economic activity which is highly competitive: a major employer, and one of
the world’s fastest-growing industries. Tourism can bring renewed pride in cultures and crafts;
conserve heritage and historic buildings as well as help to conserve natural resources (such as
wildlife, forests, waterfalls and many others) of any given region. The arts and crafts of the
Eskimo and the Balinese have been revived by tourism (Lickorish, 1991). Most importantly, the
economic benefits serve as the main driving force for tourism promotion. Tourism is a major

element of the service sector which is responsible for about 40% and 65% of GDP in developing
and developed countries respectively (Cooper et al, 1998). In 2010, 940 million people were
recorded as arriving in a country from abroad because of tourism and this amounted to about
$919 billion dollars (UNWTO, 2011). Tourists spend their money on a wide variety of goods and
services-accommodation, food and beverage, transport, communications, entertainment services,
retail outlets etcetera (Cooper et al, 1998).
Cooper et al (1998) assesses the cascading effect of tourist expenditure throughout the host
economy at three different levels - the direct, indirect and induced levels. The direct level
involves tourists spending money in tourist establishments, such as hotels, restaurants, and taxis
etcetera. The establishments that directly receive the tourist expenditure purchases goods and
services from other sectors within the local economy-for instance, hotels purchase the services of
builders, carpenters, food and beverage suppliers, electricity and water etcetera. The suppliers to
these establishments will also need to source goods and services from others establishments
within the local economy and thus the process continues. The generation of economic activity
brought about by these subsequent rounds of expenditure is what is known as indirect effect.
During the direct and indirect rounds of expenditure, local residents attain income in the form of
wages, salaries, profits and interest, which will in part be re-spent in the local economy on goods
and services, ultimately engendering further rounds of economic activity. Despite these potential
benefits, there can be disadvantages of tourism industry as well. The production of tourist goods
and services requires the commitment of resources that could have otherwise being used for
alternative purposes. Cooper et al (1998) provides an illustration of a tourism resort which may
involve the migration of labour from rural to urban areas – which may lead to the former losing a
productive unit of labour and the latter implying additional pressure on social amenities such as
health, education, housing and other public services. For many countries, tourism is the single
most important activity in its economy (Lickorish, 1991).
Case studies of successful PR campaigns in tourism
Along with the growing economic importance of international tourism, governments have made
a considerable effort through NTOs to market their country in the international travel market
(Webster & Ivanov, 2007). The goal of NTOs is to generate greater demand for their
destinations; this destination promotion takes many forms, including advertising, direct
marketing, sales promotion, personal selling, and public relations (Dore & Crouch, 2003). These
strategies provide tourists with information on a particular destination and substantially affect
their destination choice, especially when tourists have insufficient knowledge regarding that
destination (Kulendran & Dwyer, 2009; Lourens, 2007). Among the strategies, Public Relations
is defined as a strategic communication process that builds mutually beneficial relationships
between organizations and their publics (Public Relations Society of America, 2015). Public
Relations includes press relations, publications, corporate communications, events, and
community relations (Kotler et al., 2014; Presenza, Sheehan, & Ritchie, 2005). According to the
framing theory, Public Relations involves attribute framing by emphasizing characteristics of
products or services in communication (Hallahan, 1999).
Public Relations can influence consumer decisions because this attribute framing attracts
consumer attention to or refocuses attention on the objects’ specific aspects described (Kim,

2015). In the tourism context, Public Relations has been an important destination promotion
strategy (Hanusch, 2012) that communicates destination information and stimulates consumer
preference (Dore & Crouch, 2003). Public relations activities include the development of press
releases and press kits and the provision of locations and financial incentives to filmmakers and
television producers. However, these public Relations activities are hardly involved in how
promoted destinations are depicted in the media and when the public can access these media
products. Because of these characteristics, tourists believe that Public Relations is a
communication channel which cannot be controlled by tourism stakeholders and that it produces
relatively unbiased tourism information (Lahav & Avraham, 2008).
For instance, destination information produced by the media, which is frequently used in Public
Relations activities, is perceived as more credible and thus more persuasive than advertised
information (Loda & Coleman, 2005). These perceptions lead Public Relations efforts to be
translated into practical outcomes. Lee and Yoon (2010) investigated the relationship between
country-level Public Relations and economic performances, including tourist arrivals using
Public Relations contracts that foreign governments made with Public Relations agencies in the
US and the contracts’ dollar value. The results showed that the number of Public Relations
contracts was significantly correlated with the number of US tourists to the promoted country.
The concept of Destination Branding
Although branding has been a concept used by marketers since the late 1980s, destination
branding is a relatively new development. It combines marketing products and services and the
commoditization of people’s cul- ture and environment. Research regarding destination brand
measurement indicates that conceptualizing how tourists evaluate a destination brand appears to
be complex (Boo, Busser, & Baloglu, 2009). The complexity of this issue requires a particular
focused effort by tourism researchers since it comprehends “a multiplicity of concerns needing a
multidisciplinary response” (Gnoth, 1998, p. 759).
The development of destination branding is one example of how tourism practitioners borrow
and use ideas with little regard to academic debates (Murphy et al., 2007). Several authors have
suggested speciﬁc destination branding processes, making a number of statements about the
value of the branding concept for improving tourism destination marketing (Morgan & Pritchard,
2002; Morgan, Pritchard & Piggott, 2003). Their arguments are based on the assumption that a
strong brand can have a positive differential marketing effect because: 1) it attracts more
favourable attributes and beneﬁts perceptions and overall preferences, 2) it can also attract
greater price premiums and 3) it can result in consumers paying greater attention to
communications, retaining more information from them and reacting in a more positive way
(Hoefﬂer & Keller, 2003). Furthermore, a destination brand can assist tourists in consolidating
and reinforcing their perceptions of the destination after their travel experience (Ritchie &
Ritchie, 1998).
Theoretical foundations of destination branding
Several approaches to destination branding are found in the liter- ature. Destination branding has
been considered synonymous with (re)positioning (Gilmore, 2002), image-building (Curtis,
2001; Cai 2002), image-reconstruction (Hall, 2002) of a destination and analogous to corpo- rate
or umbrella branding, whereby a destination functions like a company that produces various

product/service brands (Gnoth, 2002; Papadopoulos & Heslop, 2002). Morgan, Pitchard and
Pride (2004) consider that the key for destination branding is to develop an emotional link with
tourists, which agrees with the views of Morrison and Anderson (2002) who argue that des-
tination branding is “[the] process used to develop a unique identity and personality that is
different from all competitive destinations” (2002, p. 17). Tourism literature is consistent when
illustrating the process of branding a destination as a collective effort (Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2003;
Morgan et al., 2002, 2003, 2004; Morrison & Anderson, 2002). However, some consider the
concept of destination branding a myth and a misleading notion due to the lack of clear
ownership and control (Mundt, 2002). The process of destina- tion branding can only be
successful if all the destination stakeholders are involved. A synergetic interaction, unity and
collaboration among stakehold- ers is an essential feature for a positive outcome as far as
destination brand is concerned, making this process a “highly complex and politicised activity”
(Morgan et al., 2003, p. 2869)

Key elements of effective destination branding
Destination Image
Equally, several statements emerge in tourism literature about destination image. For instance,
Blain, Levy, & Ritchie (2005) suggested that destination image should be included in the
deﬁnition of destination brand. According to Cai (2002, p. 723), the image of a destination
branding is the set of “perceptions about a place as reﬂected by the associations held in tourist
memory.” Such a concept serves to enhance destination marketing by pro- viding potential
tourists with information that allows them to identify a destination, differentiate it from its
competitors and build up expectations about the likely holiday experience offered by the
destination. The author further considered brand image building to be an important component in
the formation of a destination branding model, “selecting a consistent ele- ment mix to identify
and distinguish [a destination] through positive image building” (Cai, 2002, p. 722).
Building a destination brand image essen- tially means identifying the most relevant associations
for the destination and strengthening their linkages to the destination brand (Keller, 1993).
Ekinci (2003) provides a model or framework for destination branding that incorporates many of
these arguments. In this model destination image is made up of three components: the overall
image, destination brand and, within destination brand, brand personality. Destination image is
then linked to the tourist’s self-image. This connection between self-image and destination image
is consistent with the arguments that lifestyle and value systems are key elements in destination
choice processes (Ekinci, 2003). It has been proposed that consumer decisions are often based on
whether or not a product ﬁts into their lifestyle and/or whether it offers a desirable experience
(Morgan et al., 2002). Such arguments have also been made with respect to destination
marketing. In particular, it is suggested that nowadays travel is more about experiences,
fulﬁlment, and rejuvenation rather than about “places and things” (King, 2002).
The author states that travel and tourism marketers need to focus on and conﬁrm more of what
the customer would like to see in themselves and their lifestyles, rather than on the tangible
properties of the product or service being promoted. This means that destination marketing
organizations need to place more emphasis on the creation and promotion of holiday experiences
that link key brand values and assets to the holiday aspirations and needs of customers as set out
in Ekinci’s model (King, 2002). In spite of the growing importance of destination brands, most
concep- tual and empirical research has focused on destination images (Cai, 2002; Hall, 2002;

Hankinson, 2005; Papadopoulos & Heslop, 2002; Prebensen, 2007; Pritchard & Morgan, 2001;
Tasci et al., 2007). However, it has been suggested that, despite the pivotal role of visual image
in brand evaluations, other brand assessment dimensions should be considered (Hankinson,
2004; Konecnik & Gartner, 2007), for instance the brand personality dimension.
Destination Brand Personality
Despite the growing body of literature on destination branding, there is little empirical evidence
that visitors can and do associate brand personality traits with destinations and that they can
differentiate destinations on the basis of perceived personality and brand identity. Tourists
receive and interpret the various messages sent by destinations and build a representation of the
‘behaviour’ of the destination. Adopting Aaker’s (1997) assumptions and transferring them to
the tourism ﬁeld, Ekincy and Hosany (2006) state that personality traits can be both directly and
indirectly associated with a destination. In a direct way, through citizens of the country, hotel
employees, restaurants and tourist attractions, or simply through the tourist’s imagery. In an
indirect manner, personality traits can be attributed to destinations through marketing programs
such as cooperative advertising, value pricing, celebrities of the country and media construction
of destinations (Ekinsy & Hosany, 2006). Accordingly, Ekinci and Hosany (2006) argue that,
similar to con- sumer goods/brands, tourism destinations are rich in terms of symbolic values and
personality traits, given that they consist of a bundle of tangible and intangible components (e.g.,
visitor attractions, hotels and peo- ple) associated with particular values, histories, events and
feelings. Once again, adopting Aaker’s (1997) research, Hosany, Ekinci, and Uysal (2006, p.
639) view destination brand personality as a multidimensional construct deﬁned as “the set of
human characteristics associated to a tourism destination.” The authors also argue that
destination image and destination personality are related concepts: “Brand image seems to be an
encompass- ing concept and brand personality is more related to affective components of brand
image” (2006, p. 641).
The lack of research regarding destination brand measurement may be an indication of the
complexity involved in understanding how tourists evaluate a destination brand. Destination
brand personality has been measured using the brand personality scale originally developed for
consumer goods. Consequently, personality traits found so far for the tourism destination may
not fully reﬂect all the personality characteristics of a destination. Although Aaker’s (1997)
brand personality scale has been extended to gauge personality traits that tourists ascribe to
destinations (D’Astous & Boujbel, 2007; Back & Lee, 2003; Douglas & Mills, 2006; Ekinci &
Hosany, 2006; Henderson, 2000; Hosany & Ekinci, 2003; Murphy et al., 2007a), the scale
reveals to be inappropriate. For instance, Henderson (2000) identiﬁed a different set of six
personality dimensions (cosmopolitan, youthful, vibrant, modern Asia, reliability, and comfort)
when he analyzed the Asia-Singapore branding process. Aiming to evaluate destinations in
Middle East and North Africa, Douglas and Mills (2006) could only ﬁnd characteristics that
ﬁtted two of Aaker’s dimensions: excitement and ruggedness. Similarly, Back and Lee (2003)
found support for only four of the dimensions (sincerity, excitement, competence, and
sophistication).
In Hosany and Ekinci’s (2003) study, the ﬁve dimensions could not be replicated as they only
found three valid personality dimensions (competence, extraversion and excitement), and they
could not provide evidence that tourists are able to differentiate destinations based on the
destination’s personality. In addition, there is little evidence in the destination branding literature

of the application of the concept on a national level to cover regional tourist destinations
(Murphy et al., 2007b). It is hoped that continued work will lead towards both the development
of a brand personality conceptual framework more suitable for tourism destinations and a better
understanding of the inﬂuence brand perceptions have on destination choice when compared to
other factors inﬂuencing perceptions and visitation. Similarly, there is a need for a destination
brand measure (Blain et al., 2005; Deslandes, 2003; Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2003; Ooi, 2004;
Ritchie & Ritchie, 1998). Research has suffered from the lack of a common theory and of a
consensual taxonomy of personality traits used to describe products. The validity of the early
product personality scales, based on human personal- ity, was questioned because human and
product personalities might have different antecedents. As a result, some dimensions of human
personality might be mirrored in brands, whereas others might not (Kassarjian, 1971; Pereira et
al., 2009).
Current state of Ghana’s tourism sector
Tourism is the fourth largest foreign exchange earner and a significant contributor to economic
growth and development in Ghana (Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015). In 2015, the direct contribution of
the Travel & Tourism industry to Ghana’s GDP was US$ 7265 billion, which represents 3.3% of
total GDP (Jumia travel, 2015). The direct contribution measures spending by services that cater
to domestic and international tourists. These services include accommodation, food and
beverage, transportation, culture, sports and recreation as well as retail trade. The total
contribution of tourism to the economy is much larger when the Travel & Tourism industry’s
expenditures on investments, government taxes, materials, labour, energy, etc., are included
(Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015). In 2015, total contribution of Travel & Tourism to Ghana’s economy
was US$ 2.7 billion, representing 7.8% of the GDP (Jumia travel, 2015). Travel & Tourism
generated 292,000 jobs directly in 2015 (2.6% of total employment), and the total contribution
was 6.5% of total employment (7116, 500 jobs) (Jumia travel, 2015; WTTC, 2016).
International tourist arrivals and receipts have been increasing substantially since 1991 except for
a slight dip in arrivals in 2005. According to the Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA), the country
recorded a 15.5% increase in international tourist arrivals between 2009 and 2011 (Dogbevi,
2012). Over the years, the country has witnessed a steady increase in the number of tourist
arrivals which has translated into increases in tourism receipts accrued by the country. A total of
over 16.33 million international tourists arrived in Ghana from the period spanning 1985-2017.
The highest growth rate in arrivals was recorded in 2001 whereas the highest number of arrivals
recorded was in 2014. The movement in arrivals shows an overall average annual rate of
approximately 3% over the period (1985-2017). The country has recorded fluctuations in the
number arrivals with some periods recording negative growth. The number of arrivals fell by
almost 33% from 582,108 in 2004 to 392,454 in 2005. This could be explained by the fact that
the country adopted some reforms in the collection of data on tourist arrivals and as well as
reclassified her tourism data in 2005 (Bentum-Ennin, 2014). It is also worth mentioning that the
arrival figures recorded also fell slightly from 672,434 in 2008 to 667,275 in 2009. Likewise,
between 2014 and 2015, arrivals recorded fell by 18%. This is largely attributable to the Ebola
outbreak on the continent which led to the decision by majority of airline companies to freeze
flight routes (WTTC, 2018). Also, the government in response to the outbreak, put a three month
ban on all international conferences and gatherings in Ghana.

The main overseas sources of international tourists are the United States of America (USA), the
United Kingdom (UK), Germany, France, the Netherlands, Canada, Switzerland, Italy, China,
India and Lebanon. Based on African countries, sources of foreign tourists include Côte d’Ivoire,
Nigeria, Togo, Burkina Faso, Liberia, Sierra Leone and South Africa (IDC, 2012). Tourists in the
ECOWAS sub-region accounted for the largest share. The importance of regional sources, as
implies that policies towards improving the number of tourist arrivals must give attention to
regional incentives (B.O.G, 2007). In contrast to tourism arrivals in Ghana, popular African
destinations receive large numbers of visitors as highlighted in the statistics provided by the
World Bank (2016) for tourism in 2014. There is significant activity in the air transport
subsector. Kotoka International Airport (KIA) remains the only airport in Ghana for international
flights, and is currently serviced by most major airlines including KLM Royal Dutch Airlines,
Ethiopian Airlines, Air Namibia, Lufthansa, Emirates, Delta Airlines and British Airways
(ChinaGoAbroad, 2016; Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015).
Institutional and Legal Framework of the Tourism Industry in Ghana
The industry has a well laid down institutional framework which see to the formulation of
polices, administration and development of the sector. The Ministry of Tourism, Culture and
Creative Arts is responsible for the formulation of policies and regulation for tourism, creative
arts and culture. Policies and regulations designed by the ministry is implemented by the Ghana
Tourism Authority (GTA), an agency under the ministry established by an Act of Parliament-The
Tourism Act, 2011 (Act, 817). The Act charges the GTA with the responsibility of inspecting,
licensing, registering, regulating and classifying tourism accommodation and related
establishments, catering services, travel and charter operations. The GTA is also responsible for
marketing and promotion of tourist sites both in and outside Ghana, tourism research, and
product development. Other agencies under the Ministry include the Ghana Museums and
Monuments Board (GMMB), the Hotel, Catering, Tourism Training Centre (HOTTCATT) and
the Ghana Tourism Development Company (GTDC). The GTA also works closely with agencies
like the Ghana Airports Company, Ghana Investment Promotion Council (GIPC), the Wildlife
Division of the Forestry Commission, traditional rulers and chiefs, District Assemblies and other
non-governmental organizations to propel tourism growth in the country. With the collection of
tourism statistics, the Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) collaborates with agencies like Ghana
Immigration Service (GIS) and the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS). The private sector of the
industry is also represented by various associations covering hotels, travel and tours, caterers, car
rentals, tour guides etc. The apex body of these associations is the Ghana Tourism Federation
(GHATOF). The body is represented on advisory boards and technical committees of Ministries,
Departments and Agencies (MDAs) when it comes to decision making concerning the industry
(Frimpong‐Bonsu, 2015).
Analysis of existing PR strategies used by tourism agencies in Ghana
Public Relations is very key to the promotion and communication activities of the Ghanaian
hospitality and tourism industry. Hospitality institutions in general engage with the media and
other stakeholders through regular public relations activities and outputs, by issuing press
statements, press conferences, interviews, trips to tourist destinations among others. Practitioners
of hospitality and tourism industry produce press releases to increase awareness and create a
favourable reputation among their publics on varying subjects such as policies, facilities, cuisine,

programmes and events (Arcero, 2003). As a tool for enhancing communication, the hospitality
sector use PR to create cordial interaction between organisations and their stakeholders who
could be ‘internal publics’(employees and investors), ‘external publics’(customers, suppliers,
media, government officials among others .(Nelson, 2004) explains that, public relations is
central to the Hospitality sector, more importantly, to communicate its ‘vision, mission, and
values’ as a service industry. The hospitality industry embark on various PR activities and
events to promote its image and reputation. According to (Goldblatt, 2005) some events
organized by practitioners to promote the industry may be grouped into educational, awareness
creation and marketing , celebration of life , and for reuniting people .Events occupy a very
prominent place in the calendar of most hospitality and tourism organisations and it forms part of
its PR strategies (Celtic & Cetinkaya, 2013). Hospitality organisations and tourism destinations
have associated themselves with national festivals such as Homowo, odwira .Afahye, among
others by sponsoring these events. These events have become ‘demand generators’ and play
significant role by contributing to the hospitality and tourism and travel and tours sector(Getz,
2005). Entertainment programmes are organized as publicity and for socio-economic benefits
to the hospitality and tourism sector (Gertz, 2005; Small, 2007).

Allen (2009) Explains that hotels have ‘convention center’ for hosting international and domestic
conferences of different types and form important events in the PR strategies of the hospitality
and tourism sector since it offers opportunities for domestic and international travels.
Incorporating such activities help to highlight an organisation's name and its operations. A
carefully planned and executed public relations function can play a key role in a hotel`s
promotional campaign. Through public relations, you can project a hotel, restaurant, a tourist
site, and its products and services to current and prospective customers (Brookins, 2017).
Relations with the media and other stakeholders of the hospitality industry takes various forms
like press releases and conferences. PR practitioners in the hospitality industry employ press
conferences to interact with the press and other stakeholders in the hospitality industry. They
also grant interviews and organize press trips for journalists, and other relevant publics and
stakeholders to visit facilities and tourist sites.
Tourism destinations are part of goods and services offered by the hospitality industry in general.
They thrive on media exposure. The image of a tourism destination gains prominence when
media representation becomes greater, especially when the reader has no experiences of a
destination (Jenkins, 2001). Images from hospitality destination are produced through various
outlets and agents, including the news media. Hence, public relations managers must monitor
and cultivate a favourable representation of their hospitality organisations in the minds of the
media. Within the hospitality and tourism industry, practitioners may create, co-ordinate or
sponsor the organisation of events like trade fairs, exhibitions, concerts and festivals. All these
events help to not only promote the image of individual hospitality organization, but also attract
media attention and favourable visibility for the sector as a whole.(Gertz, 2005). Workshops,
corporate meetings, birthday parties, seminars, conventions and fellowship meetings are another
PR technique used by practitioners in the hospitality and tourism sector. . These events provide
the platform for engagements between professionals and promoters of destination sites, tour and
travel agencies, from the same potential market to interact and promote the product and services
they offer.(Small, 2007). The PR practitioners of hospitality industry also engage in the
merchandising of products as part of promoting and publicizing destinations. Publications of
brochures, hotel guides, catalogues. maps, among others, inform potential publics and orient

them to the places they visit. Such materials are very persuasive in order to convince readers to
make a purchase decision (Huertas, 2008)
In the Ghanaian hospitality industry, informal communication or “word of mouth” (WOM) is
significant in promoting the image and reputation of the tourism and hospitality industry. It
serves as external source of information for planning trips, because it is seen as credible (Fotis,
Buhalis,& Rossides, 2012). Through WOM, current and prospective customers exchange views
and information that points patrons to or away from products, services, and organisations
(Seth,2012) . Word of mouth (WOM) is perceived to create more interpersonal relationship, as
opposed to communication that passes through mass-media channels about products, brands,
services and their knowledge from producers/providers to customers. With the absence of
commercial influence of WOM, consumers consider it as trustworthy source and can be
persuaded by this kind of information than by media sources (Casalo et al,2011; Litvin et
al ,2008). In (WOM) the Human factor is the key element performing the task of promoting
organizational image (Bharwani &Butt, 2012). As result there must be mutual relationship and
understanding between the organization and the customer (Kusluvan et al, 2010).
Challenges in promoting Ghana as a tourism destination
Despite the perceived successes of tourism in Ghana, the industry is beset with many problems.
1.Lack of awareness of tourism as a tool for development: The lack of understanding and
limited appreciation for tourism among officials in both private and public sectors, as
well as within local communities, contributes to the little attention given to the sector
(Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015). In 2015, the total contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP
was 7.8% and generated 716,500 jobs, but a large portion of the benefits are derived from
services that support the tourism attractions (WTTC, 2016). As a result, the sector has
intangible dimensions that may not be easily recognized by citizens and officials who
interact with tourists.
2.Poor quality of service: Inadequate skilled manpower in the tourism industry accounts for
poor service quality across all segments of the industry, and the absence of a feasible
national training institute for the industry hinders skill development and training
(Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015; Ghana National Commission for UNESCO, 2010).
3.Low investment in the tourism sector: Despite the many attractive opportunities to grow
Ghana’s diverse tourism potential in ecotourism, beach tourism, cultural heritage tourism,
and conference and business tourism; limited sources of long-term capital for tourism
investments has led to many of these assets being undeveloped (Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015).
4.Inadequate infrastructure and tourism support services at tourist sites: According to
Frimpong-Bonsu (2015), inadequate transportation; poor access roads to tourist sites;
poor accommodation, restaurants, and rest stops; and lack of cash machines are major
challenges that are especially severe in rural areas, where most of the attractions are
located. He further suggests that there is an uncertainty between public and private sector
operators as to who should lead the development of tourism infrastructure. Poor tourism
infrastructure is worsened by poor sanitation around many tourist sites, which makes
them unattractive to international visitors. For instance, reviews left on travel guide
websites such as trip advisor highlight the unhygienic nature of beaches in the Greater
Accra Region; with one tourist from the USA noting that ‘’the Kokrobite beach (like all

of them in Greater Accra) is pretty littered with trash and waste - and the water is not
known to be particularly hygienic, either’’ (MegMc, 2016).
5.Perception of Ghana as an expensive destination: Ghana is considered an expensive
tourist destination due to high accommodation and air transport costs (Frimpong-Bonsu,
2015). According to Bentum-Ennin (2014b), a standard room at a 4 star Golden Tulip
hotel in Ghana is $225, in Nigeria it is $195 while in the USA it is $100, and this is the
same with the cost of air transportation to Ghana. According to Statista (2014), Ghana
was the 20th most expensive country worldwide in 2014 in terms of hotel rates, with the
average daily rate of first-class branded hotels amounting to US$ 192.3. Bentum-Ennin
(2014b), attributes this to the cost of doing business in the country, which leaves
operators no choice than to pass these costs on to consumers. High taxes and high fuel
costs, the prolonged energy crisis, utility tariffs, as well as the large depreciation of the
cedi against major foreign currencies have significantly increased operating costs in
recent years and led to the closure of some tourism establishments. Up until recently, the
country had a rigid and expensive visa regime (Frimpong-Bonsu, 2015). The country has
started a visa-on-arrival scheme for all African Union Nationals whose countries do not
have a visa-free agreement with Ghana. This is great news for the tourism industry as it
means that many travellers would find it convenient to travel to Ghana without having to
pay exorbitant visa fees. For the Tourism sector, as more people are able to travel freely
to Ghana, sales at tourist sites will be boosted and referrals from tourists to other
travellers will also increase (Bizcommunity, 2016).

The role of social media, websites, and digital platforms in tourism PR
Internet
Public relations practitioners have access to efficient communication channels on the internet,
which facilitate ethical, strategic, and mutually beneficial public-organisation communication.
Technologies of information and communication, sometimes referred to as new media or social
media, enable businesses to communicate with a global audience around-the-clock. Stakeholders
can thus use new media to dispute organisational behavior and obtain information (Amodu,
Omojola, Okorie, Adeyeye, & Adesina, 2019;Obayi & Onwude, 2018). A variety of new and
modern media have been used for public relations campaigns in recent years due to the
development of the internet and a variety of social media, such as social networking sites, chat
rooms, web logs, podcasts, video sharing websites, and micro-blogs (Obayi & Onwude, 2018).
The internet’s distinguishing and most important feature is its openness for interactive two-way
communication with user-to-user interactivity. It is anticipated that this transition from
monologue to dialogue between stakeholders and public relations professionals will revolutionise
the field and highlight the “public” component of public relations (Obayi & Onwude, 2018). The
one-way structure of communication is highlighted in classic public relations models; with the
transfer to new channels of communication, the structural character of communication has
altered, and a novel bi-directional structure has been disclosed. Priority is given to new models
where reciprocal communication and feedback are prevalent and the significance of the target
audience is noted, in contrast to the unidirectional and fake nature of the initial public relations
models (Amodu et al., 2019).

News release
The news release is an announcement by a company written in news (journalistic) format, is the
most popular type of publicity. Standard news releases are a common building block for stories
written by journalists and bloggers. For example, organisations or individuals or a government
official can hold daily press briefings in order to communicate with the public and inform them
about crises or situations (Akgöz et al., 2023).
Press releases
The most crucial public relations tool, press releases, have evolved with the rise in prominence
of online communication methods (Carver, 2014). Press releases were once a vital tool in the
public relations industry. Public relations and marketing professionals today employ them as a
communication tool, taking into consideration the shifting goals, target audiences, and scope of
news. It's critical to realise that phrase templates might not be the ideal starting point for crafting
a news release with news or a story (Carver, 2014). A well-written release should provide value,
benefits, and an interesting tale to every recipient. Considering most news releases are driven by
product development, they are typically internally focused. The best releases should emphasize
the external world, mirror the state of the market, work within it, and draw attention to the
advantages for potential stakeholders. It should focus on the story, the news, and the supporting
elements rather than making up comments to make the tale more compelling. In summary, press
releases are meant to notify media outlets and journalists about noteworthy occurrences, news,
organisational upgrades, or new product launches (Akgöz et al., 2023).
Email
Email has mostly replaced traditional print staff newsletters. Owing to the fact that their internet
content is more instantaneous and participatory. Businesses are able to quickly understand
employee thoughts and attitudes since employees can give “feedback” on information. Online
newsletters are more timely and provide a more relevant experience (Seitel, 2017). Email is
becoming the preferred means of media communications, as blast-faxing was in the 1990s. Email
is a common tool used by journalists to pitch story ideas, although some are wary of receiving
images, data sheets, and other attachments due to the possibility of internet viruses (Konuk,
2021).
Websites
Arguably the most popular, extensively utilised, and traditional form of social media is the
website. They make it possible for organisations, people, and governments to disseminate
information to the general public in a structured, unified manner (Seitel, 2017).Websites function
as a platform for promotion of brands and a repository of data for all users because the Internet
has enabled businesses to reach beyond geographical boundaries and connect with potential
customers. Using the website of an organisation, one can create an online community where
members can exchange ideas at any time and from any location. Websites are utilised for many
different public relations purposes, such as informing stakeholders, providing media with
content, obtaining audience statistics, building a company's brand, and many more (Hia et al.,
2020). Generally speaking, websites are used by organisations for external communication and
public relations objectives, particularly raising awareness of their offerings. The website is
highlighted as a valuable resource for individuals, providing a central center for department-
related information and resources, as well as a platform for communication and collaboration

(Rahman, 2019). It includes information about the company's goals, offerings, news, events, and
contact data. In order to have an online presence and to be a resource for stakeholders and
journalists, websites are necessary (Ayiku & Tandoh, 2021).
Social Media
Social media are online programs built on the technical and philosophical foundations of
websites. Social media includes many different platforms, such as blogs, wikis, photo and video
sharing, and many more. Public relations has been considerably improved by new media, such as
social media and blogs, as well as to traditional mainstream media outlets (Zolotova & Lee,
2013). The rise in prominence of social media and blogs have had a positive impact on how
businesses engage and communicate with both internal and external audiences, as well as how
traditional media outlets have reported specific issues (Dhir et al., 2019). Social media has
expedited communication, enabling companies to respond to complaints more quickly. One-way,
traditional communication has given way to two-way, complex, peer-to-peer communication
with the advent of social media (Erhard, 2023).
Social media has had a significant impact on public relations since weblogs first appeared over a
decade ago. Social media has grown in popularity, influence, and formats, including wikis,
podcasts, message boards, photo and video sharing, RSS, search engine marketing, forums,
social and professional networks, and microblogging websites (Rathore & Ilavarasan, 2018).
Through these channels, organisations and their audiences can communicate directly and in both
directions. A free platform for exchanging ideas, information, and viewpoints is offered by social
media and blogs, which facilitates communication and expands one's audience. They enable
businesses to connect directly with both newer, more youthful customers and their target
audience. Businesses can now get quick public opinion surveys and unfiltered media for the
general public in today's globalised culture thanks to these media. Professionals can engage in
dialogue and interaction with their audience by using social media platforms such as Facebook
and LinkedIn (Lipińska, 2018).
A blog
A blog, which stands for weblog, is a type of personal website used by individuals as an online
journal where they may express their opinions and analysis on a range of topics (Seitel, 2017).
From alternative media to pros in communication and mainstream media, it has grown,
promoting conversation on a variety of topics like politics, current events, moral quandaries,
hobbies, and sports. Through blog sharing, organisations can locate, share, and subscribe to
interesting blogs. Employees can utilise blogs to readily submit their opinions and comments on
the company (Seitel, 2017). Authors can interact with readers via comments, queries, and more
content on a blog by posting frequently on a range of subjects. It might include links, ads,
pictures, music, and video. Because they require less maintenance than webpages, blogs are
more appealing to return visitors. A blog is more interesting and has more readers (Philip, 2017).
Video sharing
With companies taking a YouTube-like approach and providing video libraries for employees to
search through, comment on, tag, embed, and upload, video sharing has become more and more
popular as a medium for internal communication (Seitel, 2017). Users can upload, edit, and
distribute videos with a wide audience on numerous websites. These platforms are a vital

communication tool because they may be used for presentations, conferences, seminars, and
newscasts. With companies seeing the benefits of BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) for
improved internal communication, mobile has also developed as a tool for employee
communication (Seitel, 2017).
Social networking
Social networking a subset of social media, is described how individuals or groups communicate
on websites like Facebook, Twitter, YouTube LinkedIn, MySpace, WhatsApp, Line, Microblogs,
WeChat, and other like ones (Allagui & Breslow, 2016). Another words, social networking is a
type of social media that is used for interacting with people who have similar interests. Since a
billion people now communicate via social media, as well as businesses, politicians, nonprofits,
colleges, and hospitals, the expansion of these platforms has created new potential for public
relations practice (Subramani, 2019). Despite early disruptors like MySpace and Second Life,
these websites have remained well-liked and have grown to be expected by those in public
relations. Professionals need to be adept at using these platforms and their different capabilities if
they want to prosper in this fast changing environment (Seitel, 2017).
Social networking is used for public relations activities like interacting with target audiences and
organisations, sharing news and updates, addressing client concerns, and boosting brand
reputation in addition to informing followers about current events (affairs), rallying them around
a cause, and offering a platform for criticism (Sadiku et al., 2019). In 2016, the social media
platform TikTok was established with the intention of disseminating content contributed by
users. Public relations professionals shouldn't neglect TikTok in their endeavors since it is the
fastest-growing app globally and has room to develop. TikTok has a reputation for being “anti-
marketing” since its users are used to seeing videos with jokes, catchy music, and influencers.
The trendjacking strategy is used by public relations and marketing professionals to create low-
cost, “amateurish-looking” video campaigns. These projects ought to appear to have been created
by “do-it-yourself” enthusiasts and ought to be simple, engaging, and motivating (He et al.,
2022).
Digital Storytelling
Using multimedia tools to develop emotional connections with target customers, unveil company
identity, and foster trust are all part of digital storytelling. Given that it aims to elicit real-life
experiences from the target audience, it is a suggested PR application. Future digital PR apps are
expected to place a strong emphasis on digital storytelling, according to PR specialists. Through
the development of trust and emotional connections, this strategy aims to enhance
communication between the brand and its target audience (Etike, 2021).
Intranets
Intranets are tools for internal communication that integrate infrastructure, workflow, and
process management to transfer information quickly and efficiently between managers,
employees, and professionals in communication (Seitel, 2017). Additionally, intranets are used
by businesses in a variety of sectors as knowledge management systems or as a platform for
disseminating content. The intranet, also referred to as W3, is now where the organisation may
be heard (Seitel, 2017). If fully implemented, intranet usage is predicted to surpass print-based
media and other methods as the main means of internal communication in the future. Public

relations practitioners need to improve their intranet communication abilities in order to
communicate effectively. They must become comfortable with technology, use new talents with
grace, work with HR, IT, and other departments, and be prepared to breakdown traditional
methods (Seitel, 2017).
Extranets
Public relations teams can develop and carry out international communications plans from their
multiple offices, as well as from their agencies and suppliers, by using extranets, which are
interactive websites. They consist of a calendar of account activity, a database of documents, and
a contact list for each team member. Businesses can utilise these technologies to streamline
communications and promote their products and services. Through extranets, companies can
interact with a variety of external audiences, such as investors, the media, suppliers, and
significant customers. They use firewalls to safeguard and segregate data, ensuring that only the
intended audience may access it (Seitel, 2017).
Podcasting
The word “podcast” originates from the phrase’s“pod” from Apple's iPod and “cast” from
“broadcast”, which means to send for public use. RSS feeds are used to make it accessible online
for users of PCs, iPods, MP3 players, and smartphones. Given that they are portable,
inexpensive, and offer information 24/7, podcasts are widely used on social networking sites
(Wilcox et al., 2015). Podcasting is the process of producing audio content that may be
downloaded. Businesses use podcasts for a variety of purposes, including staff training materials,
corporate news, in-depth interviews with CEOs and other professionals, and segments that offer
customer guidance on how to use goods and services (Wilcox et al., 2015).

The Role of Stakeholders in Tourism Public Relations
The United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) emphasizes that tourism is
inherently a multi-faceted industry that requires the involvement of various stakeholders. Key
stakeholders in this context include private sector businesses, local communities, NGOs, and
educational institutions, each playing distinct roles in promoting sustainable tourism. Private
sector businesses contribute to sustainable tourism by representing the tourism sector, operating
tourism services, and establishing links to domestic and international markets. Their roles also
encompass product development, investment, and improvement initiatives, as well as
employment creation and local income generation. Moreover, they are instrumental in reflecting
economic, social, and environmental sustainability in their operations. NGOs and civil society
organizations (CSOs) have increasingly expanded their roles in tourism governance and
administration, specifically in fostering collaborations that promote sustainable tourism. These
organizations represent diverse stakeholder interests by actively engaging them in strategic
planning, and to contribute to tourism development initiatives through capacity building and the
provision of technical expertise. Recent studies highlight how CSOs facilitate stakeholder
engagement, foster sustainable practices, and support local communities in tourism development
(Cheer & Lew, 2018).
They also play a critical role in local governance by raising awareness, building capacity, and
providing citizen- based monitoring and evaluation of tourism projects (World Bank, 2017).

Furthermore, CSOs contribute to research and advocacy efforts that promote transparency,
accountability, and sustainable tourism policies (Gössling et al., 2021). Educational institutions
also play a crucial role in developing local tourism programs by enhancing human capital
through education and skills training. They act as advocates for sustainable tourism, designing
and promoting research-based campaigns, and empowering local communities and organizations
through targeted training programs. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2019), these institutions not only facilitate knowledge
dissemination but also provide specialized expertise in policy formulation and strategic
development. In addition, recent studies emphasize the growing role of academic institutions in
promoting sustainable tourism practices through research and community-based projects (Dredge
& Jamal, 2015; Scheyvens, 2020). Their role in fostering innovation and capacity building
continues to be instrumental in shaping sustainable tourism practices at the local and regional
levels.
Finally, local communities are integral to tourism development as they engage in planning and
decision- making processes, represent community interests, and ensure equitable benefit-sharing.
Their interaction with tourists not only fosters cultural exchange but also allows for mutual
benefit and the review of income derived from tourism activities. The UNWTO emphasizes the
critical roles of various stakeholders in sustainable tourism development, advocating for a
balanced and inclusive approach. Stakeholders such as governments, private sector entities, local
communities, NGOs, and tourists play distinct roles in promoting tourism sustainability.
According to the UNWTO's Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (2014), key stakeholders
include: Governments, which establish policy frameworks to balance economic growth with
environmental conservation and ensure legal compliance across the industry. They are also
tasked with infrastructure development and regulatory measures that promote sustainability
(UNWTO, 2017).
The private sector, particularly tourism enterprises in hospitality and travel, must adopt
sustainable business practices, such as reducing environmental impacts, promoting fair
employment practices, and partnering with local communities to support local economies (Font
et al., 2019). Research has emphasized that sustainable business practices contribute significantly
to the overall resilience of the tourism industry and help build sustainable supply chains
(Bramwell & Lane, 2020). Local communities are vital to sustainable tourism by providing
authentic cultural experiences and preserving natural and cultural resources. They should be
empowered to actively participate in decision- making processes, as their involvement is key to
safeguarding their environment and ensuring equitable benefits from tourism (Scheyvens &
Biddulph, 2018). Recent studies highlight the importance of community-based tourism as a tool
for enhancing local economies and preserving cultural heritage (Novelli, 2016).
Tourists themselves are essential stakeholders, as they must adopt responsible travel behaviours
that reduce their environmental footprints, respect local cultures, and contribute to the well-being
of host communities (Dodds & Butler, 2019). Engaging tourists in sustainable tourism practices
such as choosing eco-friendly accommodations and supporting local businesses remains critical
to the future of sustainable tourism (UNEP & UNWTO, 2022). The UNWTO encourages
collaboration among these groups to ensure tourism's benefits are widely shared and its negative
impacts minimized. Each stakeholder's contribution to long-term sustainability is crucial to

maintaining a healthy balance between the economic, social, and environmental dimensions of
tourism.
Strategies for engaging stakeholders to enhance tourism branding
Stakeholder participation is a critical component in achieving sustainable tourism, as it facilitates
balanced decision-making that considers the needs and interests of all relevant parties. Phanumat
(2015) argued that while top-down tourism development policies can accelerate growth, they
often fail to generate positive outcomes for host communities directly from tourism activities.
This gap highlights the necessity for inclusive frameworks that prioritize local voices and
concerns in tourism planning. A multi-stakeholder participatory approach implemented in
community-based tourism in Thailand exemplifies this, demonstrating that such participation is
essential for equitable benefit distribution. However, the findings also reveal that this approach is
not yet widely practiced in many developing countries, suggesting a need for greater advocacy
and institutional support to promote inclusive tourism governance.
Research by Sanja et al. (2018) emphasized that stakeholder engagement extends beyond mere
participation. It requires active involvement in governance and public administration processes.
Effective stakeholder engagement ensures that diverse groups, such as community leaders, the
private sector, educational institutions, and civil society organizations are involved in critical
aspects of governance, including planning, decision-making, implementation, monitoring, and
evaluation. The lack of effective integration of stakeholders in the planning process can lead to
disillusionment and missed opportunities for local communities, resulting in a disconnect
between tourism initiatives and the needs of those most affected by them. Furthermore, the
Stakeholder Theory, developed by Freeman (1984), provides a foundational framework for
understanding the dynamics of stakeholder engagement in tourism. This theory posits that
organizations should consider the interests of all stakeholders, not just shareholders, in their
decision- making processes.
Applying this theory to tourism development emphasizes the importance of recognizing and
balancing the diverse interests of different stakeholder groups, which can lead to more
sustainable outcomes. A study by Eshun et al. (2020) supports this perspective, suggesting that
effective stakeholder engagement can lead to increased trust and collaboration among parties,
ultimately fostering a more resilient tourism sector. In addition, the concept of Collaborative
Governance (Ansell & Gash, 2008) underscores the importance of partnerships among
stakeholders in achieving sustainable tourism. This model promotes joint decision- making
processes where stakeholders work collaboratively to address common goals, thereby enhancing
the legitimacy and effectiveness of tourism initiatives. A study by Liu et al. (2021) found that
collaborative governance frameworks in tourism foster inclusivity, enabling local communities
to actively participate in decision-making, which is crucial for sustainable development.
Moreover, the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) can be applied to understand the
motivations and intentions of stakeholders to engage in tourism initiatives. This theory posits that
an individual's intention to engage in a behaviour is influenced by their attitudes, subjective
norms, and perceived behavioral control. Applying this framework in the tourism context can
help identify factors that encourage or hinder stakeholder participation, providing valuable
insights for designing effective engagement strategies. Overall, enhancing stakeholder

participation and engagement is essential for sustainable tourism development. The integration of
diverse perspectives through multi-stakeholder approaches, grounded in theoretical frameworks
such as Stakeholder Theory and Collaborative Governance, can lead to more equitable outcomes
and greater community satisfaction. As demonstrated by the literature, fostering effective
stakeholder engagement not only benefits individual stakeholders but also contributes to the
overall sustainability and resilience of tourism systems.
Theoretical review
The Excellence Theory of Public Relations
Excellence Theory is one of the theories proposed during the first two decades in which the field
of PR emerged and focuses on the “organizational roles of public relations – whether as an
internal function that helps organizations to function more effectively, or a function that assists
organizations to fulfil their social obligations” (Valentini and Edwards 2019, 195). The theory
provides an explanation for the value of PR to an organization and postulates a set of theoretical
principles describing how the communication function should be organized, structured and
practiced in an organization (Grunig and Grunig 2003, 35). The theory posits that for an
organization to be effective it must act to solve problems and see to the goals of stakeholders as
well as those of management. If this is not the case, stakeholders will either mount pressure on
the organization to change or oppose the organization in a manner that will add cost and risk to
organizational policies and decisions. The theory proposes that the principles which make a PR
department excellent are that the department should serve both managerial and technical roles.
This moves away from the notion that PR provides communication technician support to other
managerial functions. So, essentially, the managerial role of excellent PR departments goes
beyond the administration of PR programs but positions excellent PR units as important and
fundamental to the strategic management of organizations (Grunig and Grunig, 2003). In
carrying out that strategic management role, PR practitioners identify and target key publics who
can influence management decisions or be impacted by management decisions and develop
strategic programs to build positive relations with them. Two main tenets of the theory, which
this study stands on, are: (1) practitioners should take part in strategic decision-making, aside
from the technical roles and communication activities that they engage in; (2) PR departments
must also not be subordinated to other departments. Essentially the theory says that excellent PR
is rooted in strategic management. The studies informing the development of the theory showed
that PR loses its unique role in strategic management if it is subsumed under marketing or other
management functions. In contradistinction to approaches to PR that view it as a technical
support function for other management functions in organizations, excellence theory advocates
that PR be a unique management function that enables organizations to manage their socio-
political constituents. Essentially, an excellent PR function works with other management
functions to help build relationships with relevant stakeholders. Guided by environmental
scanning, relationship-building, issues and crises management objectives as well as informal and
scientific evaluation of communication programs, PR professionals take part in strategic
decision-making processes and counsel other managers about the consequences of potential
decisions on publics (Grunig 2011). This leads to good management decisions which also result
in strong long-term relations with the various publics of organizations. In addition, for PR to play
this unique role, the theory holds that this function should not be subsumed under other
management functions.

Relevance to the Research
The Excellence Theory provides a framework for understanding how strategic PR practices can
enhance stakeholder engagement, build trust, and positively influence perceptions of Ghana as a
tourism destination. It emphasizes the importance of creating dialogue with key stakeholders
such as tourists, local communities, and international partners to improve destination branding.
The theory also intrinsically makes a case for the understanding of, and support for,
communication management by non-PR-practicing senior management (Grunig and Grunig
2003). That is why this study also has the objective of seeking the views of top management
about the role PR plays in organizations as well as the expectations they have from practitioners.
Interviews with top managers shed light on whether managers hold views on PR excellence that
conform to the normative implications of the Excellence Theory.
The Destination Branding Theory
This theory focuses on how places, such as cities or countries, can be branded to create a unique
identity and differentiate themselves in the global market. It highlights the importance of:
Crafting a consistent and compelling brand narrative, Leveraging cultural, historical, and natural
assets to shape a destination’s image and Using marketing and PR strategies to influence tourists’
perceptions and decisions. Pritchard and Morgan (1995) were the first to examine brand identity
in the destination context. They indicated that even when some destinations are similar, they can
be differentiated through their identity (Pritchard & Morgan, 1996). Therefore, each tourist des-
tination should build its identity to indicate its unique and differentiating aspect (Morgan &
Pritchard, 1999; Pritchard & Morgan, 1998).
A destination builds its brand identity based on competitiveness, uniqueness, and desired identity
(Gnoth, 2002; Ruzzier & Go, 2008). Furthermore, developing the identity of a place must be a
dialogue process among the stakeholders (Kavaratzis & Hatch, 2013; Saraniemi & Komppula,
2019). Different authors have investigated brand identity to explain the essence and meaning of
the tourist destination (wheeler et al., 2011; Yen et al., 2020) and communicate their identity so
that a place is more competi- tive and attractive for tourists (Usakli & Baloglu, 2011). For
example, in rural destinations, cai (2002) proposed that destination brand identity should match
the vision and perception of the place that should be perceived in the market. Dredge and Jenkins
(2003) posit that the correct development of destination identity allows to present and attract
tourists to a place. Subsequently, Ruzzier and Go (2008) determined destination brand identity to
develop cultural and visual elements to persuade tourists to prefer a destination.
Echtner & Bent Ritchie (1991) highlight the need for effective destination marketing strategies,
creating a distinct appealing destination. They review literature on imagery and conclude that
destination image is a combination of perceptions, attributes, characteristics and psychological
associations with intangible aspects of a destination; a combination of functional and holistic
attributes. Destination branding should start within the local community, Anholt (2004) suggests
blending with rejuvenation strategies, integrating the local community in projects defining local
culture, aspirations and realities. Kavaratzis (2004) compares destination branding to corporate
branding, creating corporate identity and personality, with functional, symbolic and affective

attributes, characterized by the residents attitudes, aspirations, and behavior in a strategic
destination development. City residents become the best brand champions and transmit the core
values, relevant, sustainable, and easy to communicate, creating an emotional bond with visitors
and local community. Brand personality interacts with the target market and core values must
apply to every aspect of it to create brand saliency Morgan et al (2004) fragmented nature, small
local organisations competing with larger national operators for the same market, creating the
risk of clashing images transmitted locally with the ones from national operators (Laws, 1995).
Relevance to the Research
Destination Branding Theory underpins the role of PR in shaping and promoting a cohesive
brand image for Ghana’s tourism sector. It provides insights into how PR campaigns can
emphasize Ghana’s unique attractions, address negative stereotypes, and enhance its
competitiveness in the global tourism market.
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