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1. Chapter Three Individual Behavior and Differences

2. Learning Objectives Define perception and explain its role in understanding and coping with organizational life. Describe how self-efficacy can influence an employee’s behavior. Discuss why the increasing diversity of the workforce will require the adoption of a different approach/style of managing employees. Compare the meanings of ability and skills. Identify why it’s difficult to change a person’s attitude.

3. Introduction Managers spend considerable time judging the fit between individuals, job tasks, and effectiveness. Both the manager’s and the subordinate’s characteristics typically influence such judgements. Without some understanding of behavior, decisions about who performs what tasks in a particular manner can lead to irreversible long-run problems. Employees differ from one another in many respects. A manager needs to ask how such differences influence subordinate’s behavior and performance.

4. The Basic for Understanding Behavior The manager’s observation and analysis of individual behavior and performance require consideration of variables that directly influence individual behavior, or what an employee does (e.g., produces output, sells car, service machines). The individual variables include abilities, and skills, background, and demographic variables. Such individual variables as abilities/skills, personality, perception, and experiences affect Behavior.

5. Continue… Employee’s behavior lead to outcome. They can result in positive long-term performance and personal growth or the opposite, poor long-term performance and a lack of growth. Human behavior is too complex to be explained by one sweeping generalization. Effective management requires that individual behavior differences be recognized and, when feasible taken into consideration while managing organizational behavior.

6. Individual Differences To understand Individual Differences, managers must: (1) observe and recognize the difference. (2) study variables that influence individual behavior. (3) discover relationship among the variables. For example, managers are in a better position to make optimal decisions if they know employee’s attitudes, perceptions, and mental abilities as well as how these other variables are related.

7. Individual Differences Continue.. Behavior: is anything that a person does, talking to a manager, listening to a co-worker , filing a report, inputting a memo into a word processor, and placing a completed unit in inventory are behaviors. The desired result of any employee’s behavior is effective performance. In organizations, therefore, individual and environmental variables affect not only behavior but also performance.

8. Individual Differences Continue.. The individual variables may be classified as abilities and skills, background, and demographic. Each of these classes of variables helps explain individual differences in behavior and performance. Abilities and skills: some employees, although highly motivated, simply do not have the abilities or skills to perform well. Abilities and skills play a major role in individual behavior and performance.

9. Individual Differences Continue.. An Ability: is a trait (innate or learned) that permits a person to do something mental or physical. Skills: are task-related competencies, such as the skill to operate a lathe or a computer, or the skill to clearly communicate a group’s mission and goals. Job Analysis: is the process of defining and studying a job in terms of behavior and specifying education and training needed to perform the job.

10. Individual Difference Continue.. Demographics: the most important demographic classifications are gender and race, cultural diversity too can impact work situation. Gender Differences: it’s general accepted that, from the moment of birth, boys and girls are treated differently. Research has shown that men and women are equal in terms of learning ability, memory, reasoning ability, creativity, and intelligence.

11. Individual Difference Cont … Racial and Cultural Diversity: the workforce is now much more diverse in terms of cultural background, values, language skills, and educational preparation. Diversity: is a term to describe the cultural, ethnic, and racial variations in a population. Many culturally diverse groups form around the world ( e.g., Vietnam, South Korea, Mexico, Russia) are spread through the workforce.

12. Individual Psychological Variables Unraveling the complexity of psychological variables such as personality, perception, attitudes, and values is a challenge for even experienced managers. Even psychologists have a difficult time agreeing on these variables’ meaning and importance, so our goal is to provide meaningful information about them that managers can use in solving on-the-job behavior and performance problems . The manager must continually observe individuals because what goes on inside a person can be easily hidden or masked .

13. Perception Perception: The process by which an individual gives meaning to the environment. It involves organizing and interpreting various stimuli into a psychological experience. The cognitive map of the individual is not, then, a photographic representation of the physical world : it is, rather, a partial, personal construction in which certain objects, selected out by the individual for a major role, are perceived in an individual manner.

14. Stereotype Stereotype: is an overgeneralized, oversimplified, and self-perpetuating belief about people’s personal characteristics . For example, many people stereotype used-car salespeople, men stereotype female executives, young employees stereotype older managers, and female workers stereotype male managers. Most people engage in some form of stereotyping, both of other people and of occupations.

15. Selective Perception The concept of selective perception is important to managers, who often receive large amounts of information and data and may tend to select information that supports their viewpoints . People ignore information or cues that might make them feel discomfort. For example, a salesperson from a pharmaceutical firm is asked by his manager to give her an update on his sales for the current quarter.

16. The Manager’s Characteristics The manager’s characteristics: People frequently use themselves as benchmarks in perceiving others. Research indicates that ( 1) knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately, (2 ) one’s own characteristics affect the characteristics identified in others, (3 ) people who accept themselves are more likely to see favorable aspects of other people.

17. Situational Factors Situational Factors: The press of time, the attitudes of the people a manager is working with, and other situational factors all influence perceptual accuracy . If a manager is pressed for time and has to fill an order immediately, his perceptions are influenced by time constraints. The press of time literally forces the manager to overlook some details, rush certain activities, and ignore certain stimuli, such as requests from other managers or from superiors.

18. Needs Needs: Perceptions are significantly influenced by needs and desires. In other words, the employee, the manager, the vice president, and the director see what they want to see. Like the mirrors in the amusement park’s funhouse, needs and desires can distort the world the manager sees. The influence of needs in shaping perceptions has been studied in laboratory settings .

19. Emotions Emotions: is a person’s emotional state has a lot to do with perception. A strong emotion, such as total distaste for an organizational policy, can make a person perceive negative characteristics in most company policies and rules. Determining a person’s emotional state is difficult. Because strong emotions often distort perceptions, managers need to discern which issues or practices trigger strong emotions within subordinates.

20. Attribution Attribution: The process of perceiving the causes of behaviour and outcomes . Dispositional attribution: Emphasize some aspect of the individual, such as ability or skill, to explain behaviour. Situational attributions: Attributions that emphasize the environment’s effect on behaviour.