Chemistry Form One
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About This Presentation
This document will be helpful to teachers and form one students
Slide Content
Page of 64
SIMPLIFIED APPROACH FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
CHEMISTRY
FORM ONE
EMANUEL J. KISUNTE AND SIMBA E. MTINDA
SIMPLIFIED APPROACH FOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS
CHEMISTRY
FORM ONE
EMANUEL J. KISUNTE AND SIMBA E. MTINDA
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page i of 64
COPYRIGHT
No part of this work may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, stored in any database or retrieved system, without the prior written
permission of the owner.
Written, edited and printed by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda in 2017
0655 – 450 – 712/0716 – 077 – 002
https://modernacademicsite.blogspot.com
Page i of 64
COPYRIGHT
No part of this work may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, stored in any database or retrieved system, without the prior written
permission of the owner.
Written, edited and printed by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda in 2017
0655 – 450 – 712/0716 – 077 – 002
https://modernacademicsite.blogspot.com
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page ii of 64
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Primarily, we hereby heartily thank our Almighty God for enabling
us to have strength throughout this fruitful work.
Our sincere appreciation also goes to Mr. Kiluwasha Abdul, a
chemistry teacher (Shebomeza Secondary School) who in one way
or another tirelessly helped us to accomplish the work.
It is indeed impossible to mention every person who helped to
improve this work. We still remember the role of all people, helped
us to reach the last stage of this task. We have nothing to give them;
instead may our loving father bless them all.
Page ii of 64
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Primarily, we hereby heartily thank our Almighty God for enabling
us to have strength throughout this fruitful work.
Our sincere appreciation also goes to Mr. Kiluwasha Abdul, a
chemistry teacher (Shebomeza Secondary School) who in one way
or another tirelessly helped us to accomplish the work.
It is indeed impossible to mention every person who helped to
improve this work. We still remember the role of all people, helped
us to reach the last stage of this task. We have nothing to give them;
instead may our loving father bless them all.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page iii of 64
CONTENTS
COPYRIGHT ................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................. ii
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY ............................................. 1
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY ........................... 3
HEAT SOURCES AND FLAMES ................................................ 24
THE SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE ................................................. 27
MATTER ....................................................................................... 30
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES ......................... 36
AIR, COMBUSTION, FIRE FIGHTING AND RUSTING ........... 52
REFERENCES .............................................................................. 59
OTHER READILY AVAILABLE WORKS ................................. 60
Page iii of 64
CONTENTS
COPYRIGHT ................................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................. ii
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY ............................................. 1
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY ........................... 3
HEAT SOURCES AND FLAMES ................................................ 24
THE SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE ................................................. 27
MATTER ....................................................................................... 30
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES ......................... 36
AIR, COMBUSTION, FIRE FIGHTING AND RUSTING ........... 52
REFERENCES .............................................................................. 59
OTHER READILY AVAILABLE WORKS ................................. 60
Page 1 of 64
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Chemistry - is a branch of science that deals with the
composition and decomposition of matter. Or Chemistry is
a branch of science that deals with matter and its properties.
Chemist – is a person who study chemistry
Application of chemistry
The knowledge of chemistry can be applied in different fields or
areas such as:-
In agriculture
In medicine (Hospitals)
In manufacturing industries
In education (school)
In food and beverage industry
In home care and cosmetics industry
This means that chemistry is applied in:-
Factories
Homes
Hospitals
Laboratories
Research
Universities
Table: products made through the application of Chemistry
Field/Area Products
Agricultures Fertilizers, pesticides, weed killers
and animal
Medicine Drugs, vaccines and food
supplements
Home care and
cosmetics
Detergents, beauty products, soaps,
shoes polish, toothpaste and
insecticides.
Food and beverage
industry
Soft drinks, common salt and yeast,
baking powder and canned food.
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
Chemistry - is a branch of science that deals with the
composition and decomposition of matter. Or Chemistry is
a branch of science that deals with matter and its properties.
Chemist – is a person who study chemistry
Application of chemistry
The knowledge of chemistry can be applied in different fields or
areas such as:-
In agriculture
In medicine (Hospitals)
In manufacturing industries
In education (school)
In food and beverage industry
In home care and cosmetics industry
This means that chemistry is applied in:-
Factories
Homes
Hospitals
Laboratories
Research
Universities
Table: products made through the application of Chemistry
Field/Area Products
Agricultures Fertilizers, pesticides, weed killers
and animal
Medicine Drugs, vaccines and food
supplements
Home care and
cosmetics
Detergents, beauty products, soaps,
shoes polish, toothpaste and
insecticides.
Food and beverage
industry
Soft drinks, common salt and yeast,
baking powder and canned food.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 2 of 64
Manufacturing industry Paints, chemicals, varnishes, cement
and plastics.
Textile industry Clothes and dyes
Transport Fuels, lubricants, oil, grease, tyres
Question - Why do you study chemistry?
Importance of Studying Chemistry
The importance of chemistry are:-
(i) To help us get professional people such as doctors,
veterinary, pharmacists and others.
(ii) It enables us to get employment opportunities in
everywhere, such as teaching.
(iii) It enables us to answer the fundamental questions such
as why iron gets rust? While water expands when
heated?
(iv) Chemistry is a fun.
(v) It enables us to manufacture different goods such as
medicines, food and others.
Page 2 of 64
Manufacturing industry Paints, chemicals, varnishes, cement
and plastics.
Textile industry Clothes and dyes
Transport Fuels, lubricants, oil, grease, tyres
Question - Why do you study chemistry?
Importance of Studying Chemistry
The importance of chemistry are:-
(i) To help us get professional people such as doctors,
veterinary, pharmacists and others.
(ii) It enables us to get employment opportunities in
everywhere, such as teaching.
(iii) It enables us to answer the fundamental questions such
as why iron gets rust? While water expands when
heated?
(iv) Chemistry is a fun.
(v) It enables us to manufacture different goods such as
medicines, food and others.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 3 of 64
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY
Introduction
Laboratory; is a special room or building where scientific
experiments are done.
Apparatus – are special tools and equipment used in laboratory.
Laboratory technician (Lab Technician) - is a person who study
about laboratory.
Laboratory Rules
1. Do not enter in the laboratory without permissions of your
teacher.
2. Keep the windows open for proper ventilation.
3. Master the location of all exists.
4. Read the instructions carefully before starting any activity
in the laboratory.
5. Do not eat, drink, smoke, play or run in the laboratory.
6. Do not taste or smell chemicals unless advised on how it
should be done.
7. Do not spill liquids on the floor.
8. Do not use the broken apparatus.
9. Turn off any gas or water taps that are not in use.
10. Clean up the equipment and store it safely.
11. Clean the working surfaces, benches and sinks.
12. Wash hands with soap.
Features of Good Laboratory
The good laboratory should have:-
1. Good water supply
2. Source of electricity power.
3. Large windows for proper ventilation.
Page 3 of 64
LABORATORY TECHNIQUES AND SAFETY
Introduction
Laboratory; is a special room or building where scientific
experiments are done.
Apparatus – are special tools and equipment used in laboratory.
Laboratory technician (Lab Technician) - is a person who study
about laboratory.
Laboratory Rules
1. Do not enter in the laboratory without permissions of your
teacher.
2. Keep the windows open for proper ventilation.
3. Master the location of all exists.
4. Read the instructions carefully before starting any activity
in the laboratory.
5. Do not eat, drink, smoke, play or run in the laboratory.
6. Do not taste or smell chemicals unless advised on how it
should be done.
7. Do not spill liquids on the floor.
8. Do not use the broken apparatus.
9. Turn off any gas or water taps that are not in use.
10. Clean up the equipment and store it safely.
11. Clean the working surfaces, benches and sinks.
12. Wash hands with soap.
Features of Good Laboratory
The good laboratory should have:-
1. Good water supply
2. Source of electricity power.
3. Large windows for proper ventilation.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 4 of 64
4. Emergency door for exits.
5. Fire extinguishers.
6. Wide tables in front of the laboratory room.
7. A store for keeping laboratory apparatus, chemicals and
reagents.
FIRST AID AND FIRST AID KIT
(a) First Aid – this is an immediate care given to a sick or
injured person before taken to hospital. Or is the help given
to a sick or injured person before taken she/he to hospital.
Question – why is it necessary to provide first aid to a
victim person?
Importance of First Aid
First aid helps to:-
1. Reduce the likelihood of death.
2. Shorten recovery time.
3. Prevent permanent disability.
4. Reduce pain.
5. Prevent the victim’s condition from getting worse.
6. Gives hope and encouragement to a victim.
Causes of Accidents in the Laboratory
Some possible causes of accidents in the laboratory
include:-
1. Failure to follow the right procedure for a given
experiment leads to explosions and damage.
2. Spilled liquids left on the floor may cause poisoning.
3. Improper disposal of chemical waste may cause
accident.
4. Wrong use of equipment could lead to accident.
Page 4 of 64
4. Emergency door for exits.
5. Fire extinguishers.
6. Wide tables in front of the laboratory room.
7. A store for keeping laboratory apparatus, chemicals and
reagents.
FIRST AID AND FIRST AID KIT
(a) First Aid – this is an immediate care given to a sick or
injured person before taken to hospital. Or is the help given
to a sick or injured person before taken she/he to hospital.
Question – why is it necessary to provide first aid to a
victim person?
Importance of First Aid
First aid helps to:-
1. Reduce the likelihood of death.
2. Shorten recovery time.
3. Prevent permanent disability.
4. Reduce pain.
5. Prevent the victim’s condition from getting worse.
6. Gives hope and encouragement to a victim.
Causes of Accidents in the Laboratory
Some possible causes of accidents in the laboratory
include:-
1. Failure to follow the right procedure for a given
experiment leads to explosions and damage.
2. Spilled liquids left on the floor may cause poisoning.
3. Improper disposal of chemical waste may cause
accident.
4. Wrong use of equipment could lead to accident.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 5 of 64
5. Use of wrong reagents, due to wrong labeling or
expired reagents may lead to accident.
6. Lack of adequate information on procedures.
7. Eating or drinking in the laboratory may cause
poisoning.
8. Poor ventilation in the laboratory may cause poisoning.
(b) First Aid Kit
This is a small box that contains items for first aid.
Components of the First Aid Kit and their uses
Items Picture/Diagram Uses
1. First Aid
Manual
Contains
guidelines on
how to use
the items in
the first aid
kit.
2. Plaster or
adhesive
bandage
Covering
small cuts or
wounds
3. Sterile gause
Covering
wounds to
protect them
from dirt and
germs
Page 5 of 64
5. Use of wrong reagents, due to wrong labeling or
expired reagents may lead to accident.
6. Lack of adequate information on procedures.
7. Eating or drinking in the laboratory may cause
poisoning.
8. Poor ventilation in the laboratory may cause poisoning.
(b) First Aid Kit
This is a small box that contains items for first aid.
Components of the First Aid Kit and their uses
Items Picture/Diagram Uses
1. First Aid
Manual
Contains
guidelines on
how to use
the items in
the first aid
kit.
2. Plaster or
adhesive
bandage
Covering
small cuts or
wounds
3. Sterile gause
Covering
wounds to
protect them
from dirt and
germs
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 6 of 64
4. Antiseptic
Cleaning
wounds to
kill germs
5. Soap
Washing
hands,
wounds and
equipment.
6. Scissors or
razorblade
Cutting
dressing
materials
7. Safety pin
Securing
bandages
8. Bandage
Keep
dressings in
place
9. Cotton wool
Cleaning and
drying
wounds
10. Thermometer
Taking body
temperature
11. Petroleum
jelly
Smoothing
chopped skin
Page 6 of 64
4. Antiseptic
Cleaning
wounds to
kill germs
5. Soap
Washing
hands,
wounds and
equipment.
6. Scissors or
razorblade
Cutting
dressing
materials
7. Safety pin
Securing
bandages
8. Bandage
Keep
dressings in
place
9. Cotton wool
Cleaning and
drying
wounds
10. Thermometer
Taking body
temperature
11. Petroleum
jelly
Smoothing
chopped skin
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 7 of 64
12. Liniment
Reducing
muscle pain
13. Torch
Source of
light
14. Whistle
Blown to call
for help
15. Pain killer
Reduce pain
16. Gentian violet
(GV)
For fungal
infections of
the skin and
mouth
First Aid Procedures
The following are some of the situations that may require first aid
and the procedure to follow in giving help:-
i. Burns
Burns are injuries resulting from the body coming
into contact with heat of harmful chemicals.
Burns caused by hot liquids or vapour are called
Scalds
Page 7 of 64
12. Liniment
Reducing
muscle pain
13. Torch
Source of
light
14. Whistle
Blown to call
for help
15. Pain killer
Reduce pain
16. Gentian violet
(GV)
For fungal
infections of
the skin and
mouth
First Aid Procedures
The following are some of the situations that may require first aid
and the procedure to follow in giving help:-
i. Burns
Burns are injuries resulting from the body coming
into contact with heat of harmful chemicals.
Burns caused by hot liquids or vapour are called
Scalds
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 8 of 64
Procedures
(i) Lay the victim down
(ii) Gently pour cold water on the burn for about 10
minutes.
(iii) Check breathing and pulse.
(iv) Gently remove any jewelry, shoes or bunt clothing
from injuring areas.
(v) Seek medical help immediately.
ii. Suffocation
This is the difficulty breathing due to lack of oxygen supply
into the lungs. Suffocation can be caused by drowning,
electric shock, gas or smoke poisoning, chocking, asthma.
Procedure
(i) Remove the cause of suffocation or the victim from
the cause of suffocation.
(ii) Make sure the victim’s air way is open for air to
reach the lungs.
(iii) Administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
This involves blowing air into the victim’s mouth-
to-mouth breathing.
(iv) Compressions can be done by placing the palm of
one hand in the space between the ripples and the
other hand over it and pushing the chest by using
your upper body weight.
(v) Keep the victims warm using a light blanket.
(vi) Immediately take the victim to the hospital.
iii. Choking
This occurs when food or a foreign object blocks the upper
part of the wind pipe.
Page 8 of 64
Procedures
(i) Lay the victim down
(ii) Gently pour cold water on the burn for about 10
minutes.
(iii) Check breathing and pulse.
(iv) Gently remove any jewelry, shoes or bunt clothing
from injuring areas.
(v) Seek medical help immediately.
ii. Suffocation
This is the difficulty breathing due to lack of oxygen supply
into the lungs. Suffocation can be caused by drowning,
electric shock, gas or smoke poisoning, chocking, asthma.
Procedure
(i) Remove the cause of suffocation or the victim from
the cause of suffocation.
(ii) Make sure the victim’s air way is open for air to
reach the lungs.
(iii) Administer cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR).
This involves blowing air into the victim’s mouth-
to-mouth breathing.
(iv) Compressions can be done by placing the palm of
one hand in the space between the ripples and the
other hand over it and pushing the chest by using
your upper body weight.
(v) Keep the victims warm using a light blanket.
(vi) Immediately take the victim to the hospital.
iii. Choking
This occurs when food or a foreign object blocks the upper
part of the wind pipe.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 9 of 64
A person suffering from choking
Procedures
1. Ask the victim to cough up the object.
2. If the object remains stuck, give firm but gentle taps
between the shoulder plate.
3. If the object is still stuck, apply quick abdominal trusts.
4. Stand behind the victim and make him or her lean
forward slightly.
5. Put your arms around the person, placing your first
hand just below the breath bone.
6. Press your first hand onto the victim’s abdomen.
iv. Shock
This is a failure of body system to take enough blood to the
vital organs. The vital organs include the heart, the lungs,
the brain, the kidney and the liver.
The known causes of shock include:-
(i) Bad news
(ii) Heart strokes
(iii) Severe illiness
(iv) Blood loss
(v) Dehydration
(vi) Poisoning
(vii) Severe burns
(viii) Accidents
A shocked person
Page 9 of 64
A person suffering from choking
Procedures
1. Ask the victim to cough up the object.
2. If the object remains stuck, give firm but gentle taps
between the shoulder plate.
3. If the object is still stuck, apply quick abdominal trusts.
4. Stand behind the victim and make him or her lean
forward slightly.
5. Put your arms around the person, placing your first
hand just below the breath bone.
6. Press your first hand onto the victim’s abdomen.
iv. Shock
This is a failure of body system to take enough blood to the
vital organs. The vital organs include the heart, the lungs,
the brain, the kidney and the liver.
The known causes of shock include:-
(i) Bad news
(ii) Heart strokes
(iii) Severe illiness
(iv) Blood loss
(v) Dehydration
(vi) Poisoning
(vii) Severe burns
(viii) Accidents
A shocked person
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 10 of 64
Signs and Symptoms of Shock
(i) The skin becomes cool and moist.
(ii) The pulse rate is weak and rapid.
(iii) The limbs may tremble and get weak.
Procedures
(i) Control the causes of shock such as bleeding.
(ii) Lay the person down with his or her feet higher
than his or her head.
(iii) Loosen tight clothing, belts and shocks.
(iv) Turn the person on his or her side to prevent.
choking if the person vomits or bleeds from the
mouth.
(v) Keep the person warm and comfortable if he or she
feels cold.
(vi) Seek treatment for injuries such as bleeding or
broken bones.
(vii) Seek medical help immediately.
v. Electric Shock
This is a shock occurs when a person comes into contact
with electricity.
Procedures
(i) Switch off the main switch immediately if possible.
(ii) Loosen any tight clothing, necklaces and bangles.
A person suffering from electric shock
Page 10 of 64
Signs and Symptoms of Shock
(i) The skin becomes cool and moist.
(ii) The pulse rate is weak and rapid.
(iii) The limbs may tremble and get weak.
Procedures
(i) Control the causes of shock such as bleeding.
(ii) Lay the person down with his or her feet higher
than his or her head.
(iii) Loosen tight clothing, belts and shocks.
(iv) Turn the person on his or her side to prevent.
choking if the person vomits or bleeds from the
mouth.
(v) Keep the person warm and comfortable if he or she
feels cold.
(vi) Seek treatment for injuries such as bleeding or
broken bones.
(vii) Seek medical help immediately.
v. Electric Shock
This is a shock occurs when a person comes into contact
with electricity.
Procedures
(i) Switch off the main switch immediately if possible.
(ii) Loosen any tight clothing, necklaces and bangles.
A person suffering from electric shock
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 11 of 64
(iii) If the victim is unconscious, apply mouth-to-mouth
respiration (CPR) immediately.
(iv) Take the person to the hospital immediately.
Caution
(i) Do not touch the person with bare hands if she or he
still in contact with an electric current.
(ii) Do not get near high-voltage electricity until power is
turned off.
vi. Bruises
This is an injury beneath the skin. Bruises can be identified
by pain, swelling or a mark under the skin.
The skin with bruises.
Procedure
(i) Wash the bruised part of the body
(ii) Apply cold compress
(iii) If the bruise is on a limb such as arm or leg and it
covers a large area.
(iv) After 48 hours, apply a cloth dipped in tepid water
to the bruise for about 10 minutes.
vii. Fainting
This is a sudden loss of consciousness caused by lack of
sufficient blood and oxygen supply to brain. The victim
feels weak, sweats and then falls down.
Page 11 of 64
(iii) If the victim is unconscious, apply mouth-to-mouth
respiration (CPR) immediately.
(iv) Take the person to the hospital immediately.
Caution
(i) Do not touch the person with bare hands if she or he
still in contact with an electric current.
(ii) Do not get near high-voltage electricity until power is
turned off.
vi. Bruises
This is an injury beneath the skin. Bruises can be identified
by pain, swelling or a mark under the skin.
The skin with bruises.
Procedure
(i) Wash the bruised part of the body
(ii) Apply cold compress
(iii) If the bruise is on a limb such as arm or leg and it
covers a large area.
(iv) After 48 hours, apply a cloth dipped in tepid water
to the bruise for about 10 minutes.
vii. Fainting
This is a sudden loss of consciousness caused by lack of
sufficient blood and oxygen supply to brain. The victim
feels weak, sweats and then falls down.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 12 of 64
A person fallen down after fainting
Procedure
(i) Loosen or remove any tight clothing from the victim.
(ii) Lay down the victim on his or her back.
(iii) Raise the legs of the victim to increase the flow of
blood to the brain.
(iv) Ensure that, the victim is in an open place with
plenty of air.
(v) Seek immediate medical help.
viii. Bleeding
This is the loss of blood through visible wound.
it can also be from an internal organ
bleeding may be light or severe
Excessive loss of blood can cause death.
(1) Light bleeding
The hand with a light bleeding
Procedure
i. Place the victim in a comfortable resting
position.
ii. Elevate the injured part.
iii. Clean the wound using clean water and
antiseptic or common salt.
Page 12 of 64
A person fallen down after fainting
Procedure
(i) Loosen or remove any tight clothing from the victim.
(ii) Lay down the victim on his or her back.
(iii) Raise the legs of the victim to increase the flow of
blood to the brain.
(iv) Ensure that, the victim is in an open place with
plenty of air.
(v) Seek immediate medical help.
viii. Bleeding
This is the loss of blood through visible wound.
it can also be from an internal organ
bleeding may be light or severe
Excessive loss of blood can cause death.
(1) Light bleeding
The hand with a light bleeding
Procedure
i. Place the victim in a comfortable resting
position.
ii. Elevate the injured part.
iii. Clean the wound using clean water and
antiseptic or common salt.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 13 of 64
iv. Dress the wound and bandage it
v. If bleeding proceeds, take the victim to
hospital.
(2) Severe bleeding
Severe bleeding
i. Use your fingers to apply direct
pressure onto the bleeding point for 5 to
15 minutes.
ii. Lay the victim down in a comfortable
position.
iii. Raise the injured part and support it in
a comfortable position that does not
cause pain.
iv. Carefully clean the wound but do not
remove any objects stuck in the wound
as this might lead to more bleeding.
v. Place sterile gauze on the wound and
press it down firmly.
vi. Seek medical help immediately.
(3) Nose Bleeding
A person suffers from nose bleeding
Page 13 of 64
iv. Dress the wound and bandage it
v. If bleeding proceeds, take the victim to
hospital.
(2) Severe bleeding
Severe bleeding
i. Use your fingers to apply direct
pressure onto the bleeding point for 5 to
15 minutes.
ii. Lay the victim down in a comfortable
position.
iii. Raise the injured part and support it in
a comfortable position that does not
cause pain.
iv. Carefully clean the wound but do not
remove any objects stuck in the wound
as this might lead to more bleeding.
v. Place sterile gauze on the wound and
press it down firmly.
vi. Seek medical help immediately.
(3) Nose Bleeding
A person suffers from nose bleeding
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 14 of 64
i. Loosen clothing around the neck and
chest.
ii. Let the victim sit with the head tipped
slightly forward.
iii. Have the victim pinch their nose and
ask them to breath through the mouth in
a few minutes.
iv. Place a wet piece of cloth at the back of
victim’s neck.
v. When bleeding stops, gently clean the
nostrils.
vi. If bleeding proceeds take the victim to
the hospital.
ix. Vomiting
This is the removal of the contents of the stomach through
the mouth. It can be caused by:-
Food poisoning
Drinking
Contaminated water
Inhaling poisonous fumes
Over eating.
Procedure
i. Give the victim lot of clear fluids, including
an oral rehydration drink.
ii. Get medical assistance if:-
(a) There is persistence vomiting
(b) The victim vomits blood
(c) The victim has higher fever
(d) The victim is very dehydrated
A person suffers from vomiting
Page 14 of 64
i. Loosen clothing around the neck and
chest.
ii. Let the victim sit with the head tipped
slightly forward.
iii. Have the victim pinch their nose and
ask them to breath through the mouth in
a few minutes.
iv. Place a wet piece of cloth at the back of
victim’s neck.
v. When bleeding stops, gently clean the
nostrils.
vi. If bleeding proceeds take the victim to
the hospital.
ix. Vomiting
This is the removal of the contents of the stomach through
the mouth. It can be caused by:-
Food poisoning
Drinking
Contaminated water
Inhaling poisonous fumes
Over eating.
Procedure
i. Give the victim lot of clear fluids, including
an oral rehydration drink.
ii. Get medical assistance if:-
(a) There is persistence vomiting
(b) The victim vomits blood
(c) The victim has higher fever
(d) The victim is very dehydrated
A person suffers from vomiting
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 15 of 64
1. Chemistry apparatus
Apparatus – are special tools and equipment that are used in the
laboratory. They are used for various purposes such as heating,
testing, measuring, filtering and grinding.
(i) For Measuring
(a) Pipette – is an instrument used to measure specific
volume of liquids.
(b) Measuring Cylinder – is an instrument used to
measure volume of liquids.
(c) Thermometer - is an instrument used to measure
and indicate the temperature of substance.
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1. Chemistry apparatus
Apparatus – are special tools and equipment that are used in the
laboratory. They are used for various purposes such as heating,
testing, measuring, filtering and grinding.
(i) For Measuring
(a) Pipette – is an instrument used to measure specific
volume of liquids.
(b) Measuring Cylinder – is an instrument used to
measure volume of liquids.
(c) Thermometer - is an instrument used to measure
and indicate the temperature of substance.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 16 of 64
(d) Burette – is an instrument used to accurately
measure and dispense liquids.
(e) Electronic balance – is an instrument used to
measure the mass of chemicals.
(f) Stop watch – is an instrument used to accurately
measure time in the laboratory.
(ii) For Testing
The following are some of the apparatus used in various
laboratory tests.
(a) Beaker - this is an instrument used to estimate volumes
of liquids (Chemicals) in the laboratory.
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(d) Burette – is an instrument used to accurately
measure and dispense liquids.
(e) Electronic balance – is an instrument used to
measure the mass of chemicals.
(f) Stop watch – is an instrument used to accurately
measure time in the laboratory.
(ii) For Testing
The following are some of the apparatus used in various
laboratory tests.
(a) Beaker - this is an instrument used to estimate volumes
of liquids (Chemicals) in the laboratory.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 17 of 64
(b) Test tube - this is an instrument used for holding
chemicals or for heating substances for short periods.
(c) Dropper - this is an instrument used to add liquids
during an experiment; drop by drop.
(d) Flasks
These are used for holding liquids during experiments.
There are four (4) types of flasks namely:-
(e) Gas Jar - It is an instrument used for collecting gases
during experiments.
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(b) Test tube - this is an instrument used for holding
chemicals or for heating substances for short periods.
(c) Dropper - this is an instrument used to add liquids
during an experiment; drop by drop.
(d) Flasks
These are used for holding liquids during experiments.
There are four (4) types of flasks namely:-
(e) Gas Jar - It is an instrument used for collecting gases
during experiments.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 18 of 64
(f) Thistle funnel - It is an instrument used to add reagents
into flasks during experiments.
(iii) For heating
The following apparatus are used for heating substances.
(a) Burners and lamps
They are used for heating substances in the laboratory.
(b) Boiling tube
It is used when the amount of substance is too large for a
test tube.
(c) Tripod stand
It is placed on the wire gauze and is used for heating.
(d) Crucible
It is used to heat substance to very high temperatures.
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(f) Thistle funnel - It is an instrument used to add reagents
into flasks during experiments.
(iii) For heating
The following apparatus are used for heating substances.
(a) Burners and lamps
They are used for heating substances in the laboratory.
(b) Boiling tube
It is used when the amount of substance is too large for a
test tube.
(c) Tripod stand
It is placed on the wire gauze and is used for heating.
(d) Crucible
It is used to heat substance to very high temperatures.
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(e) Evaporating Dish
It is used to heat and evaporate liquids and solutions.
(f) Deflagrating Spoon
It is a spoon used to heat small amounts of substances inside
a gas jar.
(g) Wire Gauze
It is used to spread out the flame and heat evenly under the
container.
(iv) For Filtering
The following apparatus are usually used when filtering
substances.
(a) Filter Funnel
It is used to separate solids from liquids.
(v) Grinding
(a) Mortar and Pestle
A pestle is a small heavy tool used for crushing things. A
mortar and pestle are usually used for crushing or grinding
substances.
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(e) Evaporating Dish
It is used to heat and evaporate liquids and solutions.
(f) Deflagrating Spoon
It is a spoon used to heat small amounts of substances inside
a gas jar.
(g) Wire Gauze
It is used to spread out the flame and heat evenly under the
container.
(iv) For Filtering
The following apparatus are usually used when filtering
substances.
(a) Filter Funnel
It is used to separate solids from liquids.
(v) Grinding
(a) Mortar and Pestle
A pestle is a small heavy tool used for crushing things. A
mortar and pestle are usually used for crushing or grinding
substances.
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Page 20 of 64
(vi) For Holding
The following apparatus are used for holding or
supporting other apparatus.
(a) Test Tube Holder
This is an instrument that is used for holding a test
tube while heating.
(b) Retort stand and Clamp
These are used to hold apparatus such as burette
during experiments.
(c) Tongs
This is an instrument used to hold hot-substances
and apparatuses.
(vii) Storage
The following containers are used for storing substances
that are used in chemistry experiments.
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(vi) For Holding
The following apparatus are used for holding or
supporting other apparatus.
(a) Test Tube Holder
This is an instrument that is used for holding a test
tube while heating.
(b) Retort stand and Clamp
These are used to hold apparatus such as burette
during experiments.
(c) Tongs
This is an instrument used to hold hot-substances
and apparatuses.
(vii) Storage
The following containers are used for storing substances
that are used in chemistry experiments.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 21 of 64
(a) Reagent bottles
These are bottles used to store different chemicals.
(b) Plastic wash bottle
This container is used to store distilled water.
2. Scooping
Is the picking of powdery or non-powdery substance using a
spoon with a deep bowl. Tools used for scooping include:-
(a) Spatula
This is an instrument used for scooping small quantities of
powder or crystalline chemicals.
3. Safety
The following instruments are used for safety and protection,
especially during the experiments.
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(a) Reagent bottles
These are bottles used to store different chemicals.
(b) Plastic wash bottle
This container is used to store distilled water.
2. Scooping
Is the picking of powdery or non-powdery substance using a
spoon with a deep bowl. Tools used for scooping include:-
(a) Spatula
This is an instrument used for scooping small quantities of
powder or crystalline chemicals.
3. Safety
The following instruments are used for safety and protection,
especially during the experiments.
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Page 22 of 64
(a) Safety goggles
These are used to protect the eyes from chemical spills,
strong light and harmful vapours in the laboratory.
Chemical warning signs
Chemical warning signs – these are safety symbols found
on chemical containers, especially those used in the
laboratory.
Significance of chemical warning signs is to ensure safety
in the laboratory.
Table: some chemical warning signs and their meanings
Symbol Diagram Meaning
1. Harmful or
irritant
or
This substance is
harmful or
poisonous in
body parts.
2. Radioactive
This substance
emits harmful
radiations.
3. Corrosive
This substance
corrodes surfaces
as well as the
human body.
4. Toxic
This substance is
dangerous and
can cause death.
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(a) Safety goggles
These are used to protect the eyes from chemical spills,
strong light and harmful vapours in the laboratory.
Chemical warning signs
Chemical warning signs – these are safety symbols found
on chemical containers, especially those used in the
laboratory.
Significance of chemical warning signs is to ensure safety
in the laboratory.
Table: some chemical warning signs and their meanings
Symbol Diagram Meaning
1. Harmful or
irritant
or
This substance is
harmful or
poisonous in
body parts.
2. Radioactive
This substance
emits harmful
radiations.
3. Corrosive
This substance
corrodes surfaces
as well as the
human body.
4. Toxic
This substance is
dangerous and
can cause death.
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Page 23 of 64
5. Oxidant
This substance
reacts easily with
oxygen.
6. Flammable
This substance
catches fire
easily.
7. Explosive
This substance
explodes easily.
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5. Oxidant
This substance
reacts easily with
oxygen.
6. Flammable
This substance
catches fire
easily.
7. Explosive
This substance
explodes easily.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 24 of 64
HEAT SOURCES AND FLAMES
Heat - is the condition of being hot. Heat sources are things that
produce or emit heat.
Kind of Sources of Heat
There are two kinds of sources of heat:-
1. Natural source of heat – are sources of heat that occur
naturally; for example, sun, star and others.
2. Artificial sources of heat – are those sources made by
human being. For example, spirit lamp, Bunsen burner,
kerosene stove, gas stove.
Heat Sources in the Laboratory
There are varieties of heat sources that can be used in a chemistry
laboratory. Examples are spirit lamp, Bunsen burner, gas stove,
kerosene stove.
Flames
A flame is a burning region that produces heat and light. It is a
visible glowing part of a fire.
Types of Flame
There are two types
(a) Luminous flame.
(b) Non-luminous flame.
(a) Luminous Flame – is a flame which is formed when the air
hole is closed. Examples of luminous flames are: kerosene
lump, spirit candle flames, Bunsen burner flames.
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HEAT SOURCES AND FLAMES
Heat - is the condition of being hot. Heat sources are things that
produce or emit heat.
Kind of Sources of Heat
There are two kinds of sources of heat:-
1. Natural source of heat – are sources of heat that occur
naturally; for example, sun, star and others.
2. Artificial sources of heat – are those sources made by
human being. For example, spirit lamp, Bunsen burner,
kerosene stove, gas stove.
Heat Sources in the Laboratory
There are varieties of heat sources that can be used in a chemistry
laboratory. Examples are spirit lamp, Bunsen burner, gas stove,
kerosene stove.
Flames
A flame is a burning region that produces heat and light. It is a
visible glowing part of a fire.
Types of Flame
There are two types
(a) Luminous flame.
(b) Non-luminous flame.
(a) Luminous Flame – is a flame which is formed when the air
hole is closed. Examples of luminous flames are: kerosene
lump, spirit candle flames, Bunsen burner flames.
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Page 25 of 64
Diagram
(b) Non-luminous flame – is a flame that is formed when the
air holes are opened. Example of the flame are gas stove,
kerosene stove, charcoal burner, Bunsen burner.
Diagram
Differences between luminous and non-luminous flame
Luminous flame Non-luminous flame
1. Yellow in colour 1. Blue in colour
2. Produces soot 2. Does not produce soot
3. Produces less heat 3. Produces more heat
4. Has a wavy flame 4. Has a triangular flame
5. Burns quietly 5. Burns noisily
6. Has four zones 6. Has three zones
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Diagram
(b) Non-luminous flame – is a flame that is formed when the
air holes are opened. Example of the flame are gas stove,
kerosene stove, charcoal burner, Bunsen burner.
Diagram
Differences between luminous and non-luminous flame
Luminous flame Non-luminous flame
1. Yellow in colour 1. Blue in colour
2. Produces soot 2. Does not produce soot
3. Produces less heat 3. Produces more heat
4. Has a wavy flame 4. Has a triangular flame
5. Burns quietly 5. Burns noisily
6. Has four zones 6. Has three zones
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Page 26 of 64
Useful of Non-luminous Flame
Since non-luminous flame is very hot hence it is used for:-
(i) Heating substances in the laboratory.
(ii) Flame test of certain chemical substances.
(iii) Welding metals .
(iv) For cooking since it does not produce soot.
All these activities happen because the non-luminous flame is
very hot and does not produce soot.
How the Bunsen burner Works?
(i) Gas enters the burner through a tube connected to a jet
inside the base.
(ii) Air enters the burner through air hole at the base.
(iii) The amount of air coming in can be varied by turning
the collar.
(iv) At the top of the barrel, the mixture of gas and air
burns.
(v) The type of flame obtained depends on amount of
oxygen available for burning.
(vi) When the air hole is closed less oxygen enters resulting
to a luminous flame.
(vii) When the air holes are open, enough oxygen enters
resulting to a non-luminous flame.
The Bunsen burner
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Useful of Non-luminous Flame
Since non-luminous flame is very hot hence it is used for:-
(i) Heating substances in the laboratory.
(ii) Flame test of certain chemical substances.
(iii) Welding metals .
(iv) For cooking since it does not produce soot.
All these activities happen because the non-luminous flame is
very hot and does not produce soot.
How the Bunsen burner Works?
(i) Gas enters the burner through a tube connected to a jet
inside the base.
(ii) Air enters the burner through air hole at the base.
(iii) The amount of air coming in can be varied by turning
the collar.
(iv) At the top of the barrel, the mixture of gas and air
burns.
(v) The type of flame obtained depends on amount of
oxygen available for burning.
(vi) When the air hole is closed less oxygen enters resulting
to a luminous flame.
(vii) When the air holes are open, enough oxygen enters
resulting to a non-luminous flame.
The Bunsen burner
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 27 of 64
THE SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE
The scientific procedure refers to as an organized set of guidelines.
Main steps of the scientific procedure
Scientific method is a way of studying a problem by testing facts
systematically. The following steps are taken when testing the fact.
1. Problem identification.
2. Formulation of hypothesis.
3. Experimentation and observation.
4. Data collection and analysis.
5. Data interpretation.
6. Drawing conclusion.
7. Report results.
1. Problem identification
This is the first step by which a problem is identified. For
example, problem identification is to make a critical
observation about something and ask questions about what
you have noticed.
2. Formulation of hypothesis
This is the second step after identifying the problem.
Hypothesis is an intelligent guesses or the best possible
answer to the question.
3. Experimentation and observation
This is the step after hypothesis formulation. Experiment is
the process of testing hypothesis. In the experiment, some
factors affect the problem to be investigated. These factors
are called variables.
Variables are the factors that affect the problem during
investigation (experiment). They can change or be changed
during the experiment. Examples of those variables include
temperature, volume, speed and light.
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THE SCIENTIFIC PROCEDURE
The scientific procedure refers to as an organized set of guidelines.
Main steps of the scientific procedure
Scientific method is a way of studying a problem by testing facts
systematically. The following steps are taken when testing the fact.
1. Problem identification.
2. Formulation of hypothesis.
3. Experimentation and observation.
4. Data collection and analysis.
5. Data interpretation.
6. Drawing conclusion.
7. Report results.
1. Problem identification
This is the first step by which a problem is identified. For
example, problem identification is to make a critical
observation about something and ask questions about what
you have noticed.
2. Formulation of hypothesis
This is the second step after identifying the problem.
Hypothesis is an intelligent guesses or the best possible
answer to the question.
3. Experimentation and observation
This is the step after hypothesis formulation. Experiment is
the process of testing hypothesis. In the experiment, some
factors affect the problem to be investigated. These factors
are called variables.
Variables are the factors that affect the problem during
investigation (experiment). They can change or be changed
during the experiment. Examples of those variables include
temperature, volume, speed and light.
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Page 28 of 64
Type of variables
There are three types of variables namely:-
(i) Dependent variable.
(ii) Independent variable.
(iii) Controlled variable.
(i) Dependent Variable
Is the factor in the experiment that changes its
volume when the value of other variables changes.
Therefore, dependent variable is the factor being
measured.
(ii) Independent variable
This is the factor that is manipulated (controlled) so
as to obtain different values for comparison.
(iii) Controlled variable
This is the factor in the experiment that does not
change. Otherwise controlled variable is the factor
kept constant during the experiment. It does not
affect the result of the experiment.
4. Data collection and Analysis
This involves collecting and recording what observed
during the experiment. Analysis include comparing the
results obtained at different stage of the experiment and
representing them in a diagram or table.
5. Data interpretation
After recording and analysis the data, you look for trends or
patterns and explain why they occur that way.
6. Drawing Conclusions
A conclusion is a summary of the results of experiment and
a statement of how the results related to the hypothesis.
7. Reporting results
Scientists usually communicate their findings by publishing
them in scientific journals and publication.
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Type of variables
There are three types of variables namely:-
(i) Dependent variable.
(ii) Independent variable.
(iii) Controlled variable.
(i) Dependent Variable
Is the factor in the experiment that changes its
volume when the value of other variables changes.
Therefore, dependent variable is the factor being
measured.
(ii) Independent variable
This is the factor that is manipulated (controlled) so
as to obtain different values for comparison.
(iii) Controlled variable
This is the factor in the experiment that does not
change. Otherwise controlled variable is the factor
kept constant during the experiment. It does not
affect the result of the experiment.
4. Data collection and Analysis
This involves collecting and recording what observed
during the experiment. Analysis include comparing the
results obtained at different stage of the experiment and
representing them in a diagram or table.
5. Data interpretation
After recording and analysis the data, you look for trends or
patterns and explain why they occur that way.
6. Drawing Conclusions
A conclusion is a summary of the results of experiment and
a statement of how the results related to the hypothesis.
7. Reporting results
Scientists usually communicate their findings by publishing
them in scientific journals and publication.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 29 of 64
The figure showing steps in the scientific procedures
Application of Scientific Procedure
The following are the common areas where scientific procedures
can be applied.
1. When carrying out experiment
An experiment is a scientific test that is done in order to
study what happens and gain new knowledge.
2. In project work
A project is a planned piece of work that involves careful
study of a subject or problem over a period of time, so as to
find information on the subject or problem.
3. In a field study (Field Work)
A field study involves doing answers to problems and test
hypothesis.
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The figure showing steps in the scientific procedures
Application of Scientific Procedure
The following are the common areas where scientific procedures
can be applied.
1. When carrying out experiment
An experiment is a scientific test that is done in order to
study what happens and gain new knowledge.
2. In project work
A project is a planned piece of work that involves careful
study of a subject or problem over a period of time, so as to
find information on the subject or problem.
3. In a field study (Field Work)
A field study involves doing answers to problems and test
hypothesis.
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Page 30 of 64
MATTER
Matter – is anything that occupies space and has got mass. An
example of matter is anything that is found within our environment
including air, stones, vegetation, food, water e.t.c
Mass – is a measure of the quantity of matter in the object. The SI
unit of mass are Kilogram (kg) and gram (gm)
States of Matter
Matter exists in three different physical states namely:-
(i) Solid states example; stones, ice, woods, metals.
(ii) Liquid states; example water, milk, spirit
(iii) Gas states; example, Bromine gas (Br2), Iodine gas (I2),
Oxygen gas (O2)
Change of State in Matter
Matter may change its state from one form to another. For example,
ice melts to form liquid.
Diagram of change of state in matter
Terms to define
1. Melting – is a process in which solid state changes into
liquid state. Example ice melts into water.
2. Evaporation – is the process in which liquid state changes
into vapour. For example water evaporates into vapour.
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MATTER
Matter – is anything that occupies space and has got mass. An
example of matter is anything that is found within our environment
including air, stones, vegetation, food, water e.t.c
Mass – is a measure of the quantity of matter in the object. The SI
unit of mass are Kilogram (kg) and gram (gm)
States of Matter
Matter exists in three different physical states namely:-
(i) Solid states example; stones, ice, woods, metals.
(ii) Liquid states; example water, milk, spirit
(iii) Gas states; example, Bromine gas (Br2), Iodine gas (I2),
Oxygen gas (O2)
Change of State in Matter
Matter may change its state from one form to another. For example,
ice melts to form liquid.
Diagram of change of state in matter
Terms to define
1. Melting – is a process in which solid state changes into
liquid state. Example ice melts into water.
2. Evaporation – is the process in which liquid state changes
into vapour. For example water evaporates into vapour.
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Page 31 of 64
3. Condensation – is the process in which gas (vapour) state
changes to liquid state after cooling. For example, vapour to
water.
4. Freezing – is the process in which liquid changes into solid.
For example water changes into ice.
5. Sublimation – is the process in which solid state changes
directly into gas without passing over liquid. For example,
ice changes to form vapour, snad changes to form jiodine
gas.
6. Deposition – (Reverse Sublimation) – is the process in
which gas changes directly to solid. For example, iodine gas
to sand.
7. Melting point – is the temperature at which a solid melts to
form liquid.
8. Boiling point – is the temperature at which a liquid boils to
form vapour (gas).
Importance of Changes of States of Matter
(i) Water Cycle – is a tendency in which, water has ability to
change from liquid to vapour, from vapour to clouds and
finally into rain.
(ii) Refrigeration – in refrigerators, there are some chemicals
that change their state under the energy known as
refrigerants. The change from liquid to vapour absorbs
energy from the surroundings and thus cause the cooling
effect. Air conditioners work with the same principle.
(iii) Refinery – petroleum refinery and distillers works under the
principle that liquids can change into vapour and then the
vapour cools into liquids.
(iv) Mettalurgy – mettalurgy involves the purification of metals
from their ores and the manufacture of alloys. The changes
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3. Condensation – is the process in which gas (vapour) state
changes to liquid state after cooling. For example, vapour to
water.
4. Freezing – is the process in which liquid changes into solid.
For example water changes into ice.
5. Sublimation – is the process in which solid state changes
directly into gas without passing over liquid. For example,
ice changes to form vapour, snad changes to form jiodine
gas.
6. Deposition – (Reverse Sublimation) – is the process in
which gas changes directly to solid. For example, iodine gas
to sand.
7. Melting point – is the temperature at which a solid melts to
form liquid.
8. Boiling point – is the temperature at which a liquid boils to
form vapour (gas).
Importance of Changes of States of Matter
(i) Water Cycle – is a tendency in which, water has ability to
change from liquid to vapour, from vapour to clouds and
finally into rain.
(ii) Refrigeration – in refrigerators, there are some chemicals
that change their state under the energy known as
refrigerants. The change from liquid to vapour absorbs
energy from the surroundings and thus cause the cooling
effect. Air conditioners work with the same principle.
(iii) Refinery – petroleum refinery and distillers works under the
principle that liquids can change into vapour and then the
vapour cools into liquids.
(iv) Mettalurgy – mettalurgy involves the purification of metals
from their ores and the manufacture of alloys. The changes
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Page 32 of 64
of state from solid to liquid and back to solid state make
mettallurge possible.
(v) Drying of materials – a material will dry up if the liquid
changes to vapour. An example is wet clothes dry when
placed under the sun rays.
Behaviour of Particles in Matter
All matters are made up of small particles known as molecules.
The behaviour of these particles differ in the three states of
matter. The particles in the gaseous state are far apart from each
other and they can move fast.
Diagram
The particles in the liquid state are close together but they can
move. Diagram
The particles in the solid state are firmly packed together and
they do not move apart.
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of state from solid to liquid and back to solid state make
mettallurge possible.
(v) Drying of materials – a material will dry up if the liquid
changes to vapour. An example is wet clothes dry when
placed under the sun rays.
Behaviour of Particles in Matter
All matters are made up of small particles known as molecules.
The behaviour of these particles differ in the three states of
matter. The particles in the gaseous state are far apart from each
other and they can move fast.
Diagram
The particles in the liquid state are close together but they can
move. Diagram
The particles in the solid state are firmly packed together and
they do not move apart.
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Diagram
Table: Properties of Gases, Liquid and Solids
Property Gas Liquid Solid
Shape Has no
definite shape
Takes the
shape of the
container it
is in.
Retains a fixed
shape
Movement of
particles
Particles
move fast one
another
Particles
move or
slide fast one
another
They do not
move into place
Compressibility Compressible Not easily
compressible
Not easily
compressible
Space between
particles
Lots of free
space
between
particles
Little free
space
between
particles
No free space
between
particles
Flow Flows easily Flows easily Does not flow
easily
Volume Takes the
volume of its
container
Has a fixed
volume
Has a fixed
volume
Size Has no size Has no size Has a size
Expansivity They can
expand faster
They can
expand fast
They have low
expansivity
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Diagram
Table: Properties of Gases, Liquid and Solids
Property Gas Liquid Solid
Shape Has no
definite shape
Takes the
shape of the
container it
is in.
Retains a fixed
shape
Movement of
particles
Particles
move fast one
another
Particles
move or
slide fast one
another
They do not
move into place
Compressibility Compressible Not easily
compressible
Not easily
compressible
Space between
particles
Lots of free
space
between
particles
Little free
space
between
particles
No free space
between
particles
Flow Flows easily Flows easily Does not flow
easily
Volume Takes the
volume of its
container
Has a fixed
volume
Has a fixed
volume
Size Has no size Has no size Has a size
Expansivity They can
expand faster
They can
expand fast
They have low
expansivity
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 34 of 64
Physical and Chemical Changes
1. Physical Change – is a change in which no new substance is
formed. Example of physical changes include all physical
properties of matter, such as boiling, freezing, melting,
sublimation, evaporation, dissolving, crushing.
(i) Dissolving salt in water
(ii) Melting of ice or candle wax
(iii) Drying of wet clothes
(iv) Grinding of piece of chalk.
(v) Melting of magnesium ribon.
Melting of ice showing the physical change
2. Chemical change – is a change in which new substance is
formed. Example of chemical change are all chemical
properties of matter such as souring, heating, burning,
rusting, decaying, rotting e.t.c.
(i) Burning of charcoal or paper
(ii) Souring of milk
(iii) Rusting of iron
(iv) Rotting of fruits
(v) Deacaying of meat
(vi) Cook of food.
Burning of paper
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Physical and Chemical Changes
1. Physical Change – is a change in which no new substance is
formed. Example of physical changes include all physical
properties of matter, such as boiling, freezing, melting,
sublimation, evaporation, dissolving, crushing.
(i) Dissolving salt in water
(ii) Melting of ice or candle wax
(iii) Drying of wet clothes
(iv) Grinding of piece of chalk.
(v) Melting of magnesium ribon.
Melting of ice showing the physical change
2. Chemical change – is a change in which new substance is
formed. Example of chemical change are all chemical
properties of matter such as souring, heating, burning,
rusting, decaying, rotting e.t.c.
(i) Burning of charcoal or paper
(ii) Souring of milk
(iii) Rusting of iron
(iv) Rotting of fruits
(v) Deacaying of meat
(vi) Cook of food.
Burning of paper
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Table: Differences between Physical and Chemical
Changes
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
1. No new substance is formed New substance is formed
2. No energy is used Energy is used
3. Change is reversible Change is irreversible
4. The mass of substance do
not alter or change
The mass of substance
alter or changes
5. Involves the physical change
of matter
Involves the chemical
chemical change of matter
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Table: Differences between Physical and Chemical
Changes
Physical Changes Chemical Changes
1. No new substance is formed New substance is formed
2. No energy is used Energy is used
3. Change is reversible Change is irreversible
4. The mass of substance do
not alter or change
The mass of substance
alter or changes
5. Involves the physical change
of matter
Involves the chemical
chemical change of matter
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 36 of 64
ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
1. Elements and Symbols
All matter is made up of substances called element. There is
no difference between atoms and elements.
(a) Elements
Are pure chemical substances which cannot be split into
simpler substance by simple chemical process.
Examples of elements are:
sulphur (s)
Neone (Ne) and
Carbon (C)
Types of Elements
There are two types of elements namely:-
(i) Non – metals
Are elements that gains electrons and have
negative ions (all gaseous). For example,
Co2,O2, N2, Ne, F2 e.t.c.
(ii) Metals
These are elements that loose electrons and
have positive ions (all metals). For
example, Na, Mg, Al, Ca, e.t.c.
(b) Names and Symbols
All known elements have names. Letters known as
chemical symbols usually represent these names.
Chemical Symbols – are abbreviations or short
representations of the name of elements.
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ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES
1. Elements and Symbols
All matter is made up of substances called element. There is
no difference between atoms and elements.
(a) Elements
Are pure chemical substances which cannot be split into
simpler substance by simple chemical process.
Examples of elements are:
sulphur (s)
Neone (Ne) and
Carbon (C)
Types of Elements
There are two types of elements namely:-
(i) Non – metals
Are elements that gains electrons and have
negative ions (all gaseous). For example,
Co2,O2, N2, Ne, F2 e.t.c.
(ii) Metals
These are elements that loose electrons and
have positive ions (all metals). For
example, Na, Mg, Al, Ca, e.t.c.
(b) Names and Symbols
All known elements have names. Letters known as
chemical symbols usually represent these names.
Chemical Symbols – are abbreviations or short
representations of the name of elements.
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Page 37 of 64
Criteria for Assigning Symbols
(i) Chemical symbol of elements can be
represented from the first letter of its
English name. for example:-
S/No. Name Symbol
1. Carbon C
2. Iodine I
3. Fluorine F
4. Hydrogen H
5. Nitrogen N
6. Phosphorus P
7. Sulphur S
8. Oxygen O
(ii) Symbols of elements can be derived from
two letters in its English name, the first
letter must be capital and the second must
be a small letter. For example:-
S/No. Name Symbol
1. Calcium Ca
2. Chlorine Cl
3. Cobalt Co
4. Magnesium Mg
5. Manganese Mn
6. Neone Ne
7. Argon Ar
8. Silcon Si
9. Lithium Li
10. Helium He
11. Beryllium Be
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Criteria for Assigning Symbols
(i) Chemical symbol of elements can be
represented from the first letter of its
English name. for example:-
S/No. Name Symbol
1. Carbon C
2. Iodine I
3. Fluorine F
4. Hydrogen H
5. Nitrogen N
6. Phosphorus P
7. Sulphur S
8. Oxygen O
(ii) Symbols of elements can be derived from
two letters in its English name, the first
letter must be capital and the second must
be a small letter. For example:-
S/No. Name Symbol
1. Calcium Ca
2. Chlorine Cl
3. Cobalt Co
4. Magnesium Mg
5. Manganese Mn
6. Neone Ne
7. Argon Ar
8. Silcon Si
9. Lithium Li
10. Helium He
11. Beryllium Be
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Page 38 of 64
(iii) In some cases, the symbols are derived
from Latin names instead of the common
English names. For example.
S/No. English
Name
Latin Symbol
1. Sodium Natrium Na
2. Potassium Kalium K
3. Copper Cuprum Cu
4. Iron Ferrum Fe
5. Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
6. Silver Argentum Ag
7. Gold Aurum Au
8. Tin Stannum Sn
9. Lead Plumbum Pb
The table of First Twenty (20) Elements
This table is also known as periodic table. Periodic table has two
rows namely:
(i) Group
(ii) Period
(i) Group
This is a vertical row in the periodic table.
It is written in roman form (I, II, III, IV, V,
VI,VII).
(ii) Period
This is a horizontal row in the periodic
table. It is just written in numeral from (1,
2, 3, 4).
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(iii) In some cases, the symbols are derived
from Latin names instead of the common
English names. For example.
S/No. English
Name
Latin Symbol
1. Sodium Natrium Na
2. Potassium Kalium K
3. Copper Cuprum Cu
4. Iron Ferrum Fe
5. Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
6. Silver Argentum Ag
7. Gold Aurum Au
8. Tin Stannum Sn
9. Lead Plumbum Pb
The table of First Twenty (20) Elements
This table is also known as periodic table. Periodic table has two
rows namely:
(i) Group
(ii) Period
(i) Group
This is a vertical row in the periodic table.
It is written in roman form (I, II, III, IV, V,
VI,VII).
(ii) Period
This is a horizontal row in the periodic
table. It is just written in numeral from (1,
2, 3, 4).
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Page 39 of 64
In addition, it has eight groups and four periods.
Group I – III are metals while group IV – VIII
are non – metals.
Periodic Table
A list of first 20 elements of the periodic table
Number Elements Symbol
1 Hydrogen H
2 Helium He
3 Lithium Li
4 Beryllium Be
5 Boron B
6 Carbon C
7 Nitrogen N
8 Oxygen O
9 Fluorine F
10 Neon Ne
11 Sodium Na
12 Magnesium Mg
13 Aluminium Al
14 Silicon Si
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulphur S
17 Chlorine Cl
18 Argon Ar
19 Potassium K
20 Calcium Ca
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In addition, it has eight groups and four periods.
Group I – III are metals while group IV – VIII
are non – metals.
Periodic Table
A list of first 20 elements of the periodic table
Number Elements Symbol
1 Hydrogen H
2 Helium He
3 Lithium Li
4 Beryllium Be
5 Boron B
6 Carbon C
7 Nitrogen N
8 Oxygen O
9 Fluorine F
10 Neon Ne
11 Sodium Na
12 Magnesium Mg
13 Aluminium Al
14 Silicon Si
15 Phosphorus P
16 Sulphur S
17 Chlorine Cl
18 Argon Ar
19 Potassium K
20 Calcium Ca
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Page 40 of 64
Significance of Chemical Symbols
The use of symbols has made easier for Chemists and other people
because of the following:-
1. They help to quickly understand the element instead
of memorizing its full names.
2. It is possible to write equations in an abbreviation
form instead of writing each element in its full
name.
3. It is simple to identify the quantity of an element
through a symbol than in its full name.
2. Compounds (Cpds)
Compound is a pure substance that is formed when two or
more elements combined chemically. A compound is also
known as a molecule. Molecules are formed when non-
metal compounds combine chemically.
Good examples of compounds are (Metals + Non-metals)
(i) Sodium chloride (Nacl).
(ii) Calcium oxide (Cao).
(iii) Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
Examples of molecules are (Non-metals + Non-metals)
(i) Oxygen molecules (O2)
(ii) Water molecule (H2O)
(iii) Chlorine molecule (Cl2)
3. Mixtures
Mixture is a physical combination of two or more
substances in any ratio. Examples of mixtures are milk, soil,
air, soda, sand + salt, muddy water e.t.c.
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Significance of Chemical Symbols
The use of symbols has made easier for Chemists and other people
because of the following:-
1. They help to quickly understand the element instead
of memorizing its full names.
2. It is possible to write equations in an abbreviation
form instead of writing each element in its full
name.
3. It is simple to identify the quantity of an element
through a symbol than in its full name.
2. Compounds (Cpds)
Compound is a pure substance that is formed when two or
more elements combined chemically. A compound is also
known as a molecule. Molecules are formed when non-
metal compounds combine chemically.
Good examples of compounds are (Metals + Non-metals)
(i) Sodium chloride (Nacl).
(ii) Calcium oxide (Cao).
(iii) Aluminium Oxide (Al2O3)
Examples of molecules are (Non-metals + Non-metals)
(i) Oxygen molecules (O2)
(ii) Water molecule (H2O)
(iii) Chlorine molecule (Cl2)
3. Mixtures
Mixture is a physical combination of two or more
substances in any ratio. Examples of mixtures are milk, soil,
air, soda, sand + salt, muddy water e.t.c.
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Types of Mixtures
(i) Homogenous mixtures
(ii) Heterogeneous mixtures
(i) Homogenous Mixture
This is a mixture having a uniform
composition, appearance and properties.
Examples of homogeneous mixture are
milk, soil, air and powder.
Milk solution showing homogeneous mixture
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture
This is a mixture that has different
compositions, appearance and properties.
Examples include:
(a) Mixture of ice and water
(b) Mixture of black soil and brown soil
(c) Mixture of oil and water
Mixture of oil and water
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Types of Mixtures
(i) Homogenous mixtures
(ii) Heterogeneous mixtures
(i) Homogenous Mixture
This is a mixture having a uniform
composition, appearance and properties.
Examples of homogeneous mixture are
milk, soil, air and powder.
Milk solution showing homogeneous mixture
(ii) Heterogeneous mixture
This is a mixture that has different
compositions, appearance and properties.
Examples include:
(a) Mixture of ice and water
(b) Mixture of black soil and brown soil
(c) Mixture of oil and water
Mixture of oil and water
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Page 42 of 64
Differences between Mixtures and Compounds
Mixtures Compounds
1. Combined physically 1. Combines chemically
2. Can be separated by
physical means
2. They cannot be separated
by physical means
3. No chemical change
involves when a mixture is
formed.
3. Chemical change involve a
compound is formed.
4. No energy involve 4. Energy involve
5. The elements combine in
any ratio
5. The ratio of element
cannot be changed
Questions
1. Is an air a compound of mixture? Give four reasons.
2. Is a water, compound, or mixture? Give three reasons.
1. Air is a mixture because
(i) Air is formed by several gases combined physically.
(ii) No energy involved when an air is formed.
(iii) The mixture of gases to form air can be separated
by physical means.
(iv) The properties of an air are those of the individual.
2. Water is a compound because:-
(i) It is formed when hydrogen and oxygen combined
chemically.
(ii) It cannot be separated by physical means.
(iii) Energy is used when water is formed.
Solutions, Suspensions and Emulsions
(a) Solutions
A solution - is a homogenous mixture of two or more
substance in a form of solvent and solutes.
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Differences between Mixtures and Compounds
Mixtures Compounds
1. Combined physically 1. Combines chemically
2. Can be separated by
physical means
2. They cannot be separated
by physical means
3. No chemical change
involves when a mixture is
formed.
3. Chemical change involve a
compound is formed.
4. No energy involve 4. Energy involve
5. The elements combine in
any ratio
5. The ratio of element
cannot be changed
Questions
1. Is an air a compound of mixture? Give four reasons.
2. Is a water, compound, or mixture? Give three reasons.
1. Air is a mixture because
(i) Air is formed by several gases combined physically.
(ii) No energy involved when an air is formed.
(iii) The mixture of gases to form air can be separated
by physical means.
(iv) The properties of an air are those of the individual.
2. Water is a compound because:-
(i) It is formed when hydrogen and oxygen combined
chemically.
(ii) It cannot be separated by physical means.
(iii) Energy is used when water is formed.
Solutions, Suspensions and Emulsions
(a) Solutions
A solution - is a homogenous mixture of two or more
substance in a form of solvent and solutes.
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Page 43 of 64
. a good example is a
mixture of water and salt.
A solvent – is a solvent in which the solute dissolves in
it. Examples of solutes are water, milk and juice.
A solute – is a substance, which dissolves in a solvent.
Examples of solutes are glucose, salt, sugar e.t.c.
Illustration of a solution
Soluble substances – are substances that can dissolve
in solvent completely. Examples of soluble substances
are glucose, salt, and sugar.
Insoluble substances – are substances that can dissolve
in solvent partially or do not dissolve at all. Examples,
of insoluble substance are chalk power, soil, salt in
petrol.
Types of Solutions
(i) Saturated solutions.
(ii) Unsaturated solutions.
(iii) Super saturated solutions.
(i) Unsaturated Solution
This is a solution in which more solute can still
dissolve in solvent at a given temperature.
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. a good example is a
mixture of water and salt.
A solvent – is a solvent in which the solute dissolves in
it. Examples of solutes are water, milk and juice.
A solute – is a substance, which dissolves in a solvent.
Examples of solutes are glucose, salt, sugar e.t.c.
Illustration of a solution
Soluble substances – are substances that can dissolve
in solvent completely. Examples of soluble substances
are glucose, salt, and sugar.
Insoluble substances – are substances that can dissolve
in solvent partially or do not dissolve at all. Examples,
of insoluble substance are chalk power, soil, salt in
petrol.
Types of Solutions
(i) Saturated solutions.
(ii) Unsaturated solutions.
(iii) Super saturated solutions.
(i) Unsaturated Solution
This is a solution in which more solute can still
dissolve in solvent at a given temperature.
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(ii) Saturated solution
This is a solution, which can dissolve equal
amount of solute and solvent at a given
temperature.
(iii) Super Saturated Solution
This is a solution in which more solute
dissolves in solvent than saturated in a given
temperature.
Application of saturation
The concept of saturation can be applied when
(i) Separating certain mixture in laboratories
(ii) Extracting some minerals such as common salt
(b) Suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of a solute and
solvent. The suspended particles are slightly visible and
tend to settle at the bottom of the bottle. Examples of
suspensions are muddy water, chalk powder in water,
medicine, paints and sprays.
Differences between suspension and solution
Solutions Suspensions
1. They are homogeneous
mixture
They are heterogeneous
mixture
2. They are transparent or
clean
They are opaque or not clear
3. Their particles dissolve
completely
Their particles settle at the
bottom of standing
4. Their components are
separated by evaporation
method
Their components are
separated by filtration method
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(ii) Saturated solution
This is a solution, which can dissolve equal
amount of solute and solvent at a given
temperature.
(iii) Super Saturated Solution
This is a solution in which more solute
dissolves in solvent than saturated in a given
temperature.
Application of saturation
The concept of saturation can be applied when
(i) Separating certain mixture in laboratories
(ii) Extracting some minerals such as common salt
(b) Suspension
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of a solute and
solvent. The suspended particles are slightly visible and
tend to settle at the bottom of the bottle. Examples of
suspensions are muddy water, chalk powder in water,
medicine, paints and sprays.
Differences between suspension and solution
Solutions Suspensions
1. They are homogeneous
mixture
They are heterogeneous
mixture
2. They are transparent or
clean
They are opaque or not clear
3. Their particles dissolve
completely
Their particles settle at the
bottom of standing
4. Their components are
separated by evaporation
method
Their components are
separated by filtration method
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(c) Emulsions
An emulsion is a mixture of liquids that do not
completely mix with each other.
Types of Emulsions
An emulsion is usually formed from two forms of
liquids namely:-
(i) Miscible liquids
(ii) Immiscible liquids
(i) Miscible Liquids
These, are two liquids that mix completely.
Example of miscible liquids is:-
1. Mixture of water and milk
2. Mixture of spirit and water
3. Mixture of diesel and petrol
(ii) Immiscible Liquids
These are two liquids that do not mix.
Examples include:-
1. Mixture of oil and water.
2. Mixture of paint and water.
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Many mixtures contain useful substances mixed with unwanted
materials. Therefore, there are some ways or methods used in order
to obtain those useful substances. These methods include:-
1. Decantation method
2. Evaporation method
3. Distillation method
4. Sublimation method
5. Filtration method
6. Chromatography method
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(c) Emulsions
An emulsion is a mixture of liquids that do not
completely mix with each other.
Types of Emulsions
An emulsion is usually formed from two forms of
liquids namely:-
(i) Miscible liquids
(ii) Immiscible liquids
(i) Miscible Liquids
These, are two liquids that mix completely.
Example of miscible liquids is:-
1. Mixture of water and milk
2. Mixture of spirit and water
3. Mixture of diesel and petrol
(ii) Immiscible Liquids
These are two liquids that do not mix.
Examples include:-
1. Mixture of oil and water.
2. Mixture of paint and water.
Methods of Separating Mixtures
Many mixtures contain useful substances mixed with unwanted
materials. Therefore, there are some ways or methods used in order
to obtain those useful substances. These methods include:-
1. Decantation method
2. Evaporation method
3. Distillation method
4. Sublimation method
5. Filtration method
6. Chromatography method
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Page 46 of 64
7. Solvent extraction method
8. Layer separation (funnel separation)
9. Magnetism method
1. Decantation Method
This is the method of separating a heterogeneous mixture of
liquid and solid by pouring out of the liquid only and
leaving the solid at the bottom of the container. Example of
decantation method include:-
(i) Separation of Muddy from water.
(ii) Separation chalk powder from water.
Separation of mud from water
2. Evaporation Method
This is the method of separating solid from a liquid solution
by heating. Examples of mixtures separated by evaporation
are:-
(a) Mixture of common salt (Nacl) and water
(b) Mixture of sugar and water
Evaporation method
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7. Solvent extraction method
8. Layer separation (funnel separation)
9. Magnetism method
1. Decantation Method
This is the method of separating a heterogeneous mixture of
liquid and solid by pouring out of the liquid only and
leaving the solid at the bottom of the container. Example of
decantation method include:-
(i) Separation of Muddy from water.
(ii) Separation chalk powder from water.
Separation of mud from water
2. Evaporation Method
This is the method of separating solid from a liquid solution
by heating. Examples of mixtures separated by evaporation
are:-
(a) Mixture of common salt (Nacl) and water
(b) Mixture of sugar and water
Evaporation method
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3. Distillation Method
This is the method of separating mixtures by heating a
liquid to very high temperature until it vapourizes (turns
into a gas). Then the gas is then cooled until it turns back to
liquid.
Types of Distillation Method
There are two types of distillation method namely:-
(a) Simple Distillation
(b) Frictional Distillation
(a) Simple Distillation
This is a kind of distillation used to separate liquids
containing dissolved substances. For example,
distillation of water from muddy water.
Diagram
(b) Fractional Distillation Method
This is the method of separating a mixture of two or
more liquids that form a homogeneous solution with
different boiling points. Example is a separation of
ethanol (78
0
c)
and water (100
0
c).
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3. Distillation Method
This is the method of separating mixtures by heating a
liquid to very high temperature until it vapourizes (turns
into a gas). Then the gas is then cooled until it turns back to
liquid.
Types of Distillation Method
There are two types of distillation method namely:-
(a) Simple Distillation
(b) Frictional Distillation
(a) Simple Distillation
This is a kind of distillation used to separate liquids
containing dissolved substances. For example,
distillation of water from muddy water.
Diagram
(b) Fractional Distillation Method
This is the method of separating a mixture of two or
more liquids that form a homogeneous solution with
different boiling points. Example is a separation of
ethanol (78
0
c)
and water (100
0
c).
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Page 48 of 64
Diagram
4. Layer (Funnel) Separation Method
This is the method used for separating immiscible liquids
using separating funnel. Example of immiscible liquids are:-
(i) Mixture of kerosene and water
(ii) Mixture of cooking oil and water
Diagram
5. Sublimation
This is the method used whereby a solid changes directly to
gas through heating. Example of sublimation method are:-
(i) Mixture of iodine gas and sand
(ii) Mixture of iodine gas and ammonium chloride
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Diagram
4. Layer (Funnel) Separation Method
This is the method used for separating immiscible liquids
using separating funnel. Example of immiscible liquids are:-
(i) Mixture of kerosene and water
(ii) Mixture of cooking oil and water
Diagram
5. Sublimation
This is the method used whereby a solid changes directly to
gas through heating. Example of sublimation method are:-
(i) Mixture of iodine gas and sand
(ii) Mixture of iodine gas and ammonium chloride
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Page 49 of 64
Diagram
6. Filtration Method
This is the method used to separate a heterogeneous mixture
of a solid and liquid. The solid remain is known as the
residue and the liquid obtained is known as filtrate.
Examples of substances separated by filtration include
muddy water from water.
Diagram
7. Chromatography Method
This is the method of separating colours from substances.
Example is the separation of green colour (Chlorophyll)
from green leaves.
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Diagram
6. Filtration Method
This is the method used to separate a heterogeneous mixture
of a solid and liquid. The solid remain is known as the
residue and the liquid obtained is known as filtrate.
Examples of substances separated by filtration include
muddy water from water.
Diagram
7. Chromatography Method
This is the method of separating colours from substances.
Example is the separation of green colour (Chlorophyll)
from green leaves.
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Page 50 of 64
Diagram
8. Solvent Extraction
This is the method of separating oil from plant materials
especially seeds. Example of plants materials containing
oil:-
(i) Oil from groundnuts
(ii) Oil from milk
(iii) Oil from meats
Extraction of oil from groundnuts
9. Magnetism Method
This is the method used to separate magnetic materials from
non-magnetic materials. example is the separation of iron
fillings from sand soil.
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Diagram
8. Solvent Extraction
This is the method of separating oil from plant materials
especially seeds. Example of plants materials containing
oil:-
(i) Oil from groundnuts
(ii) Oil from milk
(iii) Oil from meats
Extraction of oil from groundnuts
9. Magnetism Method
This is the method used to separate magnetic materials from
non-magnetic materials. example is the separation of iron
fillings from sand soil.
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Table: Application of Separation of Mixtures
Method Application
1. Filtration Purification of water
Extraction of juices from fruits
Extraction of cream from milk
2. Distillation Purification of water
Manufacture of alcohol
3. Sublimation Purification of substance
4. Chromatography In medical diagnosis and studies
In security for crime detection
In chemical analysis and tests
5. Solvent extraction Extraction of certain edible oils
from seeds
Extraction of some metals from
sludge mixtures.
6. Decantation In water treatment systems
Separation of blood components
7. Evaporation In extraction of common salt
8. Layer separation In the recovery of liquids from
contaminants
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Table: Application of Separation of Mixtures
Method Application
1. Filtration Purification of water
Extraction of juices from fruits
Extraction of cream from milk
2. Distillation Purification of water
Manufacture of alcohol
3. Sublimation Purification of substance
4. Chromatography In medical diagnosis and studies
In security for crime detection
In chemical analysis and tests
5. Solvent extraction Extraction of certain edible oils
from seeds
Extraction of some metals from
sludge mixtures.
6. Decantation In water treatment systems
Separation of blood components
7. Evaporation In extraction of common salt
8. Layer separation In the recovery of liquids from
contaminants
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AIR COMBUSTION, FIRE FIGHTING AND
RUSTING
1. Composition of Air
Air – is a colour less, homogenous mixture of gases in the
atmosphere. These gases include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and the noble gases. The noble gases include helium,
krypton, argon, neon and xenon.
Composition of air
Gas Approximate percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Noble gases 0.94%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Water vapour 0 – 4%
Note that, the percentage of water vapour in the air is not
constant and can vary depending on factors like weather and
geographical location.
2. Combustion – is a chemical reaction that involves the
burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen to produce
light and heat. Or
Combustion is the burning of substance in the presence of
oxygen to produce heat and light.
Combustible – are materials that catch fire and burn easily.
Example of combustible materials are:-
(i) Pieces of paper
(ii) Candles
(iii) Magnesium ribbon
(iv) Wood
(v) Kerosene
(vi) Petrol
(vii) Spirit
(viii) Dry grass
Page 52 of 64
AIR COMBUSTION, FIRE FIGHTING AND
RUSTING
1. Composition of Air
Air – is a colour less, homogenous mixture of gases in the
atmosphere. These gases include nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide and the noble gases. The noble gases include helium,
krypton, argon, neon and xenon.
Composition of air
Gas Approximate percentage
Nitrogen 78%
Oxygen 21%
Noble gases 0.94%
Carbon dioxide 0.03%
Water vapour 0 – 4%
Note that, the percentage of water vapour in the air is not
constant and can vary depending on factors like weather and
geographical location.
2. Combustion – is a chemical reaction that involves the
burning of a substance in the presence of oxygen to produce
light and heat. Or
Combustion is the burning of substance in the presence of
oxygen to produce heat and light.
Combustible – are materials that catch fire and burn easily.
Example of combustible materials are:-
(i) Pieces of paper
(ii) Candles
(iii) Magnesium ribbon
(iv) Wood
(v) Kerosene
(vi) Petrol
(vii) Spirit
(viii) Dry grass
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 53 of 64
Application of Combustion
Combustion is applied in many areas
Table: Areas where Combustion is Applied
Area Application
Industries In engines
In large boilers
Incinerator of burning wastes
During welding and smelting
Domestic Cooking
Heating homes
Burning wastes
Laboratory Sterilization
During experiments
3. Fire Fighting
Fire - is the process of combustion in which combustible
material combine with oxygen and gives off light, heat and
flame.
Firefighting – is the extinguishing of harmful fires or is the
removing of harmful fires.
Classification of fires and the appropriate extinguishers
Fire can be classified according to the types of material that
is burning. Use of the wrong extinguisher for a particular
fire could result in the fire spreading instead of it being put
out.
Page 53 of 64
Application of Combustion
Combustion is applied in many areas
Table: Areas where Combustion is Applied
Area Application
Industries In engines
In large boilers
Incinerator of burning wastes
During welding and smelting
Domestic Cooking
Heating homes
Burning wastes
Laboratory Sterilization
During experiments
3. Fire Fighting
Fire - is the process of combustion in which combustible
material combine with oxygen and gives off light, heat and
flame.
Firefighting – is the extinguishing of harmful fires or is the
removing of harmful fires.
Classification of fires and the appropriate extinguishers
Fire can be classified according to the types of material that
is burning. Use of the wrong extinguisher for a particular
fire could result in the fire spreading instead of it being put
out.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 54 of 64
Table: Classification of Fires and the Appropriate
extinguishers
Class Burning material Appropriate extinguisher
A Ordinary solid
combustible
materials such as
paper, wood and
clothing
Use water
Any type of portable
extinguisher except
carbon dioxide.
B Flammable liquids
such as petrol,
alcohol, kerosene
and oil.
If fire is small, use a
fire blanket or sand.
If fire is large use a dry
powder, foam or carbon
dioxide extinguisher.
C Flammable gases
such as butane and
propane.
Dry powder
extinguisher
Carbon dioxide
extinguisher
D Combustible metals
such as magnesium,
sodium and lithium
especially in powder
form.
Dry powder
extinguisher
Form extinguisher
E Electrical equipment Use carbon dioxide or
dry powder
extinguisher.
Note: switch off power from
the main switch.
F Cooking appliance
with oils and fats at
high temperatures.
Use wet chemical
extinguishers.
Components Needed to Start a Fire
There are three components needed to start a fire as shown
below.
1. Air (oxygen gas)
2. Heat
3. Fuel
Page 54 of 64
Table: Classification of Fires and the Appropriate
extinguishers
Class Burning material Appropriate extinguisher
A Ordinary solid
combustible
materials such as
paper, wood and
clothing
Use water
Any type of portable
extinguisher except
carbon dioxide.
B Flammable liquids
such as petrol,
alcohol, kerosene
and oil.
If fire is small, use a
fire blanket or sand.
If fire is large use a dry
powder, foam or carbon
dioxide extinguisher.
C Flammable gases
such as butane and
propane.
Dry powder
extinguisher
Carbon dioxide
extinguisher
D Combustible metals
such as magnesium,
sodium and lithium
especially in powder
form.
Dry powder
extinguisher
Form extinguisher
E Electrical equipment Use carbon dioxide or
dry powder
extinguisher.
Note: switch off power from
the main switch.
F Cooking appliance
with oils and fats at
high temperatures.
Use wet chemical
extinguishers.
Components Needed to Start a Fire
There are three components needed to start a fire as shown
below.
1. Air (oxygen gas)
2. Heat
3. Fuel
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 55 of 64
These three components are referred to as the fire triangle.
Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers
A portable fire extinguisher – is the one that can be easily moved
from one place to another. These portable fire extinguishers
include:-
(i) Dry powder extinguisher
(ii) Form extinguisher
(iii) Water extinguisher
(iv) Carbon dioxide (Co2) extinguisher
Precautions when Using Fire Extinguishers
The following precautions should be followed when using fire
extinguishers.
(i) Keep a reasonable distance from the fire.
(ii) Never use a portable extinguisher on people; instead, use a
fire blanket.
(iii) Do not test a portable extinguisher to see if it works. It may
leak and fail to work during emergence.
(iv) Do not return used portable extinguisher to the wall.
(v) When a fire gets out of control, remove it away.
Page 55 of 64
These three components are referred to as the fire triangle.
Types of Portable Fire Extinguishers
A portable fire extinguisher – is the one that can be easily moved
from one place to another. These portable fire extinguishers
include:-
(i) Dry powder extinguisher
(ii) Form extinguisher
(iii) Water extinguisher
(iv) Carbon dioxide (Co2) extinguisher
Precautions when Using Fire Extinguishers
The following precautions should be followed when using fire
extinguishers.
(i) Keep a reasonable distance from the fire.
(ii) Never use a portable extinguisher on people; instead, use a
fire blanket.
(iii) Do not test a portable extinguisher to see if it works. It may
leak and fail to work during emergence.
(iv) Do not return used portable extinguisher to the wall.
(v) When a fire gets out of control, remove it away.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 56 of 64
4. Rusting
Rust – is the reddish-brown coating on metals.
Rusting – is a chemical process that occurs in iron or steel.
Diagram
Iron sheets affected by rust
Conditions for Rusting
There are conditions necessary for rusting and these include:-
(i) Oxygen
(ii) Moisture (water)
(iii) Steel or iron
Methods of Preventing Rusting
Some of methods used to prevent rusting are mentioned below:-
(i) Painting – this is the coating of items with a special
pigment paint (Zinc). Zinc is used because it is a non-
reactive metal.
Page 56 of 64
4. Rusting
Rust – is the reddish-brown coating on metals.
Rusting – is a chemical process that occurs in iron or steel.
Diagram
Iron sheets affected by rust
Conditions for Rusting
There are conditions necessary for rusting and these include:-
(i) Oxygen
(ii) Moisture (water)
(iii) Steel or iron
Methods of Preventing Rusting
Some of methods used to prevent rusting are mentioned below:-
(i) Painting – this is the coating of items with a special
pigment paint (Zinc). Zinc is used because it is a non-
reactive metal.
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 57 of 64
Diagram
Painting
(ii) Oiling – is a coating of iron with oil. Some machine
parts cannot be protected by painting instead oiling is
applied.
Diagram
Oiling
(iii) Galvanization – is the process of coating iron or steel
with zinc.
Diagram
Page 57 of 64
Diagram
Painting
(ii) Oiling – is a coating of iron with oil. Some machine
parts cannot be protected by painting instead oiling is
applied.
Diagram
Oiling
(iii) Galvanization – is the process of coating iron or steel
with zinc.
Diagram
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 58 of 64
(iv) Tin Plating – is the coating of iron with tin.
Diagram
(v) Use of Silica Gel – is a chemical containing silicon
found in sand and rocks.
Silica gel – is a substance in the form of grains and
absorbs moisture. Most of them are used in camera
parts.
(vi) Use of Plastic – parts of machines or instruments and
household items that do not have to be made of steel or
iron are made of plastic.
Diagram
Inside of can plated with tin -
strip
Page 58 of 64
(iv) Tin Plating – is the coating of iron with tin.
Diagram
(v) Use of Silica Gel – is a chemical containing silicon
found in sand and rocks.
Silica gel – is a substance in the form of grains and
absorbs moisture. Most of them are used in camera
parts.
(vi) Use of Plastic – parts of machines or instruments and
household items that do not have to be made of steel or
iron are made of plastic.
Diagram
Inside of can plated with tin -
strip
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 59 of 64
REFERENCES
Pearson (2009). Chemistry for Secondary Schools, Form 1 & 2.
Pearson Education Centre; Malaysia.
Longman (2010). Chemistry Forms 1 & 2 Students’ Book. Oxford
University Press Tanzania L.t.d.
Most of the diagrams and images were retrieved from the following
link:(https://www.google.com/search?q=laboratory+apparatus&clie
nt=firefoxb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiFkem
Q_LrWAhWIB8AKHe8gAlQQ_AUICigB )
Page 59 of 64
REFERENCES
Pearson (2009). Chemistry for Secondary Schools, Form 1 & 2.
Pearson Education Centre; Malaysia.
Longman (2010). Chemistry Forms 1 & 2 Students’ Book. Oxford
University Press Tanzania L.t.d.
Most of the diagrams and images were retrieved from the following
link:(https://www.google.com/search?q=laboratory+apparatus&clie
nt=firefoxb&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiFkem
Q_LrWAhWIB8AKHe8gAlQQ_AUICigB )
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 60 of 64
OTHER READILY AVAILABLE WORKS
To order or improve this work, communicate with us through:-
0655 – 450 – 712
0716 – 077 – 002
Or
Visit us through the following blog to get this work and many others
(https://modernacademicsite.blogspot.com)
.
This work consists of
examinations of all basic
subjects except English.
However, the NECTA
appreciated answers of
students who performed well
were summoned to create this
pamphlet. The aim is to help
students understand how to
attempt the examination in
regard with the requirement
of the National Examination
Council of Tanzania
(NECTA)
Page 60 of 64
OTHER READILY AVAILABLE WORKS
To order or improve this work, communicate with us through:-
0655 – 450 – 712
0716 – 077 – 002
Or
Visit us through the following blog to get this work and many others
(https://modernacademicsite.blogspot.com)
.
This work consists of
examinations of all basic
subjects except English.
However, the NECTA
appreciated answers of
students who performed well
were summoned to create this
pamphlet. The aim is to help
students understand how to
attempt the examination in
regard with the requirement
of the National Examination
Council of Tanzania
(NECTA)
Prepared by Emanuel J. Kisunte and Simba E. Mtinda
Page 61 of 64
Page 61 of 64
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