Cmpe226 characterization of semiconductors

engineering

1. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Chapter 8

2. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Summary
The sinusoidal waveform (sine wave) is the fundamental
alternating current (ac) and alternating voltage waveform.
Sine waves
Electrical sine waves are
named from the
mathematical function
with the same shape.

3. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
A wave is a disturbance. Unlike water waves, electrical
waves cannot be seen directly but they have similar
characteristics. Allperiodic waves can be constructed from
sine waves, which is why sine waves are fundamental.
Summary

4. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Summary
Sine waves are characterized by the amplitude and period.
Theamplitudeis the maximum value of a voltage or current;
the periodis the time interval for one complete cycle.
Sine waves0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t ( s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
The amplitude (A)
of this sine wave
is 20 V
The period is 50.0 s
A
T

5. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Summary
The period of a sine wave can be measured between
any two corresponding points on the waveform.
Sine waves
TTTT
TT
By contrast, the amplitude of a sine wave is only
measured from the center to the maximum point.
A

6. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
3.0 Hz
SummarySummary
Frequency
Frequency ( f ) is the number of cycles that a sine wave
completes in one second.
Frequency is measured in hertz(Hz).
If 3 cycles of a wave occur in one second, the frequency
is
1.0 s

7. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Summary
The period and frequency are reciprocals of each other.
Summary
Period and frequencyT
f
1

andf
T
1

Thus, if you know one, you can easily find the other.
If the period is 50 s, the frequency is0.02 MHz = 20 kHz.
(The 1/xkey on your calculator is handy for converting between fand T.)

8. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Sine wave voltage and current values
There are several ways to specify the voltage of a
sinusoidal voltage waveform. The amplitude of a sine
wave is also called the peak value, abbreviated as V
Pfor
a voltage waveform.0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t ( s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
The peak voltage of
this waveform is 20 V.
V
P

9. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t ( s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
The voltage of a sine wave can also be specified as
either the peak-to-peak or the rms value. The peak-to-
peak is twice the peak value. The rms value is 0.707
times the peak value.
Sine wave voltage and current values
The peak-to-peak
voltage is 40 V.
The rms voltage
is 14.1 V.
V
PP
V
rms

10. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd0 V
10 V
-10 V
15 V
-15 V
-20 V
t ( s)
0 25 37.5 50.0
20 V
For some purposes, the average value (actually the half-
wave average) is used to specify the voltage or current.
By definition, the average value is as 0.637 times the
peak value.
Sine wave voltage and current values
The average value for
the sinusoidal voltage
is 12.7 V.
V
avg

11. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Angular measurements can be made in degrees (
o
) or
radians. The radian (rad) is the angle that is formed when
the arc is equal to the radius of a circle. There are 360
o
or
2pradians in one complete revolution.
Angular measurementR
R 1.0
-1.0
0.8
-0.8
0.6
-0.6
0.4
-0.4
0.2
-0.2
0
0 2ppp
2
p
4
p
4
3 p
2
3p
4
5 p
4
7

12. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Because there are 2pradians in one complete revolution
and 360
o
in a revolution, the conversion between radians
and degrees is easy to write. To find the number of
radians, given the number of degrees: degrees
360
rad 2
rad 


p rad
rad 2
360
deg 


p
To find the number of degrees, given the radians:
Angular measurement

13. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Instantaneous values of a wave are shown as vor i. The
equation for the instantaneous voltage (v) of a sine
wave is
Sine wave equation
where
If the peak voltage is 25 V, the instantaneous
voltage at 50 degrees is sin
p
Vv
V
p=
 =
Peak voltage
Angle in rad or degrees
19.2 V

14. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Sine wave equationv = = 19.2 V V
p
sin
V
p
90
500
= 50
V
p
V
p
= 25 V
A plot of the example in the previous slide (peak at
25 V) is shown. The instantaneous voltage at 50
o
is
19.2 V as previously calculated.

15. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd0
0
90
90
180
180
360
The sine wave can be represented as the projection of a
vector rotating at a constant rate. This rotating vector is
called a phasor. Phasors are useful for showing the
phase relationships in ac circuits.
Phasors

16. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Phase shift
where
f= Phase shift
The phase of a sine wave is an angular measurement
that specifies the position of a sine wave relative to a
reference. To show that a sine wave is shifted to the
left or right of this reference, a term is added to the
equation given previously.fsin
PVv

17. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Phase shiftV
o
lt
a
g
e

(
V
)
270 3600 90 180
40
45 135 225 315
0
Angle ()
30
20
10
-20
-30
-40
405
Peak voltage
Referenc e
Notice that a lagging sine
wave is below the axis at 0
o
Example of a wave that lags the
reference
v= 30 V sin (-45
o
)
…and the equation
has a negative phase
shift

18. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Phase shiftV
o
lt
a
g
e

(
V
)
270 3600 90 180
40
45 135 225 3150
Angle ()
30
20
10
-20
-30
-40
Peak voltage
Referenc e
-45
-10
Notice that a leading sine
wave is above the axis at 0
o
Example of a wave that leads the
reference
v= 30 V sin (+ 45
o
)
…and the equation
has a positive phase
shift

19. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
The power relationships developed for dc circuits apply to
ac circuits except you must use rms values when
calculating power. The general power formulas are:
Power in resistive AC circuitsrms rms
2
2
rms
rms
P V I
V
P
R
P I R




20. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Assume a sine wave with a peak value of 40 V is
applied to a 100 Wresistive load. What power is
dissipated?
Power in resistive AC circuits2 2
28.3 V
100
rms
V
P
R
  
W V
o
lt
a
g
e

(V
)
40
0
30
20
10
-1 0
-2 0
-3 0
-40
V
rms= 0.707 xV
p= 0.707 x 40 V = 28.3 V
8 W

21. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Frequently dc and ac voltages are together in a waveform.
They can be added algebraically, to produce a composite
waveform of an ac voltage “riding” on a dc level.
Superimposed dc and ac voltages

22. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Pulse definitionsAm plitude
Pulse
width
Baseline
Am plitude
Pulse
width
Baseline
(a) Positive-going pulse (b) Negative-going pulse
Leading (rising) edge
Trailing (falling) edge
Leading (falling) edge
Trailing (rising) edge
Ideal pulses

23. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Pulse definitions
Non-ideal pulsesA
0.9 A
0.1A
t
r t
t
f
W
t t
0.5 A
A
(a) (b)Rise and fall tim es Pulse width
Notice that rise and fall times are measured between
the 10% and 90% levels whereas pulse width is
measured at the 50% level.

24. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Triangular and sawtooth waves
Triangular and sawtooth waveforms are formed by
voltage or current ramps (linear increase/decrease)
Triangular waveforms have
positive-going and negative-
going ramps of equal duration.
The sawtooth waveform consists
of two ramps, one of much longer
duration than the other.

25. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Harmonics
All repetitive non-sinusoidal waveforms are composed
of a fundamental frequency(repetition rate of the
waveform) and harmonic frequencies.
Odd harmonicsare frequencies that are odd multiples
of the fundamental frequency.
Even harmonicsare frequencies that are even multiples
of the fundamental frequency.

26. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Harmonics
A square wave is composed only of the fundamental
frequency and odd harmonics (of the proper amplitude).

27. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Sine wave
Alternating
current
Period (T)
Frequency (f)
Hertz
Current that reverses direction in response to a
change in source voltage polarity.
The time interval for one complete cycle of a
periodic waveform.
A type of waveform that follows a cyclic
sinusoidal pattern defined by the formula
y= Asin .
Selected Key Terms
A measure of the rate of change of a periodic
function; the number of cycles completed in 1 s.
The unit of frequency. One hertz equals one
cycle per second.

28. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Instantaneous
value
Peak value
Peak-to-peak
value
rms value
The voltage or current value of a waveform at
its maximum positive or negative points.
The voltage or current value of a waveform
measured from its minimum to its maximum
points.
The voltage or current value of a waveform at
a given instant in time.
Selected Key Terms
The value of a sinusoidal voltage that indicates
its heating effect, also known as effective
value. It is equal to 0.707 times the peak value.
rmsstands for root mean square.

29. Chapter 8
©Copyright 2007 Prentice-HallElectric Circuits Fundamentals -Floyd
Radian
Phase
Amplitude
Pulse
Harmonics
The maximum value of a voltage or current.
A type of waveform that consists of two equal and
opposite steps in voltage or current separated by a
time interval.
A unit of angular measurement. There are 2p
radians in one complete 360
o
revolution.
Selected Key Terms
The frequencies contained in a composite
waveform, which are integer multiples of the pulse
repetition frequency.
The relative angular displacement of a time-varying
waveform in terms of its occurrence with respect to
a reference.