Components and contrasts of meaning

semantics for ELT

1. Components and Contrasts of Meaning Latif Y. Hamad-Amin 5/13/2014 1

2. Under the Subject of Semantics, We S hall D eal with Concepts of Semantic Features Components of M eaning Meaning Relations Componential Analysis Taxonomy Relative Oppositions 5/13/2014 2

3. Semantic Feature S emantic feature is a notational method which can be used to express the existence or non-existence of pre-established semantic properties by using plus and minus signs. Semantic properties: The components of meaning of a word. Meaning as collection of properties/features typically with two possible values (+ / -) Example of componential analysis: baby is [+ young], [+ human], [+animate] 5/13/2014 3

4. Components of meaning The meanings of the individual items can be expressed by combinations of these features : man girl boy woman horse window ANIMATE + + + + + - HUMAN + + + + - - MALE + - + - + - ADULT + - - + + - 5/13/2014 4

5. Neutralization child and adult are not specified for sex, man ( = 'human being') is unspecified for both sex and adulthood, and the adjective female (-MALE) is unspecified for both species and adulthood . This feature represented by the symbol [ o ]. man: +HUMAN (OMALE) (OADULT) adult : +HUMAN +ADULT (OMALE) child : +HUMAN -ADULT (OMALE) female : (OHUMAN) (OADULT) –MALE Men have lived on this planet for over a million years 5/13/2014 5

6. Meaning Relations Synonym A ntonym Polysem y Hyponym Incompatibility 5/13/2014 6

7. S ynonym Synonym: words that have the same meanings or that are closely related in meaning [ more than one form having the same meaning ] e.g .: ‘John is grown up.’ entails ‘John is an adult.’ Other examples: answer = reply Almost = nearly Buy = purchase Freedom = liberty ‘sameness’ is not ‘total sameness’- only one word would be appropriate in a sentence. E.g. Sandy only had one correct answer on the test. (but NOT reply) 5/13/2014 7

8. Antonym Antonym: words of opposite meaning . For example: quick × slow, big × small, old × young, male × female, true × false, alive × dead. Antonyms are divided into two parts. Gradable antonyms: they can be used in comparative constructions. such as the pair big × small, like This book is bigger than that book . × That book is smaller than this book. Non-gradable Antonyms: Such antonyms have “complementary pairs, comparative constructions and negative of one member does imply the other. For example : The person is not dead, it means that the person is alive. 5/13/2014 8

9. Polysemy A word which has multiple meanings related by extension, e.g. bright: ‘shining’ ; ‘intelligent ’ Shining = It is a bright sunshine. Intelligent = He is a bright child. ‘Head’ of the body and the person at the top of a company. ‘Foot’ of a body and of a mountain and of the bed or chair. 5/13/2014 9

10. Hyponym Words whose meanings are specific instances of a more general word. When the meaning of one form is included in the meaning of another, the relationship is described as hyponym. For example : Flower: daffodil Animal: dog Dog: poodle Vegetable: carrot Tree: banyan : … : The concept of “inclusion’ involved here. Dog is a hyponym of animal. Animal is the superordinate of dog. Dog is the specific lexical item (word), but Animal is the general one. When we say that dog is a hyponym of animal, we mean that dog is a type of animal. 5/13/2014 Animal dog , cat , cow , camel , lion , giraffe , Superordinate Hyponyms (Co-hyponyms) 10

11. Look a t the Meaning of Words in Some Type of Hierarchical Relationship 5/13/2014 11

12. Incompatibility It is containing at least one feature contrasting with a feature in the other . e.g. Woman: child She is a woman. [ entails that she is not a child.] the meaning of woman is incompatible with child because of the clash between + ADULT and - ADULT 5/13/2014 12

13. Componential Analysis Justifying a componential analysis means showing that the contrasts and combinations of meaning one has recognized are necessary and sufficient to explain relevant data . Entailment : it is a relation between sentence meanings, or propositions. e.g. 'The secretary is a woman' entails 'The secretary is an adult .‘ 'I met two boys' entails 'I met two children .‘ 5/13/2014 13

14. I nconsistency : It is a situation in which two statements are different and cannot be true. X is inconsistent with Y If X is true, Y is false; also, if Y is true X is false . 'The secretary is a woman' is inconsistent with 'The secretary is a man .‘ 'Her best pupil is a boy' is inconsistent with 'Her best pupil is an adult.' 5/13/2014 14

15. T autology and Contradiction Some types of tautology and contradiction, too, can be defined in terms of hyponymy and incompatibility, as may be gathered from these examples : Tautology is a way to express something by repeating or saying it in a different way. 'That man is an adult' is a tautology . Contradiction is a difference between two statements, ideas, beliefs or opinions about something that cannot be true. 'That boy is a woman' is a contradiction. 5/13/2014 15

16. Taxonomy Taxonomy is the relationship between the general term and the instance. It is often be described using hierarchical diagram. There are two types of taxonomy: BINARY TAXONOMY MULTIPLE TAXONOMY 5/13/2014 16

17. Taxonomy BINARY TAXONOMY: The absoluteness of the boundary needs explanation. It might be pointed out that in objective, physical terms, there is no clear-cut opposition between life and death ; 'John is alive' is inconsistent with 'John is dead‘ 'John is dead' entails 'John is not alive‘ 'John is alive' entails 'John is not dead'. 5/13/2014 17

18. Taxonomy MULTIPLE TAXONOMY Examples of this type are semantic classes dealing with types of metal, species of animal, or tree, or fruit, etc., primary colours , noises ('bang', 'crash1, 'clatter', etc.) and types of vessel ('vase', 'mug', etc .). the absoluteness of boundaries may be justified in logical terms, for example by the contradictoriness of a statement like 'This copper jug is made of silver '. 'This red book is brown' 5/13/2014 18

19. Relative Oppositions Relative oppositions imply that there are several semantic features on which the opposition rests. The verb to leave means ‘to go away from’ and its opposite, the verb to arrive denotes ‘to reach a place, esp. at the end of a journey’. It is a relation which involves contrast of directions, for example: own/belong to , parent/child, teacher/pupil 5/13/2014 19

20. The contrast between two relative features consists in the fact that the two arguments ( a and b in the diagram) may be related either in one order or in another . John is the parent of James, James is the parent of John . a b Parent of Child of 5/13/2014 20

21. My uncle owns this car is synonymous with This car belongs to my uncle . 'John s married to Susan' entails 'Susan is married to John '. 'Clive is taller than Bill' is inconsistent with 'Bill is taller than Clive.' 'Clive is taller. 'The king is in his counting house and his counting house is in his castle ' entails 'The king is in his castle.' [transitivity ] John is the parent of George, and George is the parent of T om ' is inconsistent with * John is the parent of Tom '. [ intransitivity ] 5/13/2014 21

22. Comments and Questions Thanks far Y our Attending 5/13/2014 22