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1. Muscular System: The muscular system, in conjunction with the skeletal system, allows the movement of internal structures, limbs, and the body as a whole. Muscles: Muscles can be categorized by their: • Function (skeletal, visceral, or cardiac) • Activation method (voluntary or involuntary) • Physiology (smooth, striated or unstrained)

2. Muscle function of animals

3. Skeletal Muscle Function : Enables voluntary movements of the body by contracting and relaxing in response to nerve signals. Example : In dogs, skeletal muscles allow for running, jumping, and other movements.

4. Cardiac Muscle Function : Responsible for the involuntary contractions of the heart, pumping blood throughout the body. Example : In all mammals, including cows, cardiac muscle cells work continuously without tiring.

5. Smooth Muscle Function : Controls involuntary movements in internal organs, such as digestion and blood flow regulation. Example : In pigs, smooth muscles are found in the walls of the intestines and blood vessels, facilitating peristalsis and constriction.

6. Locomotion Different animals have specialized muscle functions adapted to their environments: Dogs : Strong leg muscles for running and agility. Cows : Powerful muscles for heavy lifting and endurance in walking. Pigs : Muscular structure supports rooting and foraging activities.

7. Posture and Stability Muscles work to maintain posture and balance, helping animals to stand, walk, or remain stationary.

8. Facial Muscles Enable expressions and communication through contraction and relaxation, important for social interaction.

9. Respiration Muscles in the diaphragm and intercostal regions aid in breathing by changing the volume of the thoracic cavity.

10. Specialized Functions Some animals have unique muscle adaptations, such as: Fish : Swim bladders and muscle arrangements for efficient swimming. Birds : Flight muscles (pectoralis major) for wing movement.

11. COMPOSITION OF MUSCLES

12. Structure of Skeletal Muscle

13. Contraction • Muscle contraction occurs as a result of a process known as sliding-filament action. • Each individual sarcomere contracts as a result of the actin and myosin filaments sliding over each other.

14. Muscle Contraction • Energy utilized for muscle contraction comes primarily from non-protein sources such as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), glycogen and body fats.

15. - Water: Muscles are primarily composed of water, typically around 75%. - Protein: Proteins make up the bulk of the dry weight of muscle, including the contractile proteins actin and myosin, as well as structural proteins like collagen and elastin. - Glycogen: A complex sugar stored in muscles as an energy source. - Minerals: Muscles contain various minerals essential for function, including calcium, potassium, and magnesium. - Lipids: Muscle tissue also contains a small amount of lipids, which can serve as an energy source.

16. Variations Among Animals: - Muscle Fiber Types: Different animals have varying proportions of different muscle fiber types, such as slow-twitch fibers for endurance and fast-twitch fibers for power and speed. For example, a marathon runner would have more slow-twitch fibers, while a sprinter would have more fast-twitch fibers. - Muscle Mass: The total muscle mass of an animal is influenced by factors like genetics, age, diet, and activity level. For example, a highly active animal like a cheetah would have a higher proportion of muscle mass compared to a sedentary animal like a sloth.

17. Importance of Muscle: Muscle is essential for: - Movement: Muscles allow animals to move, walk, run, swim, and fly. - Maintaining Posture: Muscles help to maintain posture and balance. - Internal Functions: Smooth and cardiac muscles play vital roles in digestion, blood circulation, and other internal processes. - Thermoregulation: Muscle contraction generates heat, which is important for maintaining body temperature.

18. STRUCTURE AND CONTRACTILE PROCESS

19. The structure and contractile process of muscle tissue are fundamental to understanding how muscles work. The structure and contractile process of animal muscles are essential for locomotion, respiration, and various bodily functions.

20. Structure of Animal Muscle 1. Muscle Types: o Skeletal Muscle: Appearance: Striated and multi-nucleated. Control : Voluntary. Location: Attached to bones, facilitating movement

21. Cardiac Muscle: Appearance : Striated and branched with intercalated discs. Control : Involuntary . Location : Heart, responsible for pumping blood.

22. Smooth Muscle: Appearance : Non-striated and spindle-shaped. Control : Involuntary. Location : Walls of hollow organs (e.g., intestines, blood vessels).

23. Muscle Fiber Composition : Muscle Fibers (Myocytes): The basic cellular unit of muscle tissue. Myofibrils : Cylindrical structures within fibers that contain the contractile elements. Sarcomeres : The functional units of myofibrils, consisting of: Actin (Thin Filaments): Composed of the protein actin, involved in contraction. Myosin (Thick Filaments): Composed of the protein myosin, responsible for pulling action during contraction.

24. Connective Tissue: Epimysium : Connective tissue surrounding the entire muscle. Perimysium : Connective tissue surrounding bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles). Endomysium : Connective tissue surrounding individual muscle fibers.

25. Contractile Process of Animal Muscle 1. Excitation-Contraction Coupling: o A motor neuron releases acetylcholine ( ACh ) at the neuromuscular junction. o ACh binds to receptors on the muscle fiber membrane, generating an action potential. 2. Calcium Ion Release: o The action potential travels along the sarcolemma and into the T-tubules. o This causes the sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium ions (Ca²+) into the cytoplasm. 3. Cross-Bridge Cycle: o Calcium binds to troponin, causing a change that moves tropomyosin away from the actin binding sites. o Myosin heads bind to actin, forming cross-bridges. o The myosin heads pivot (power stroke), pulling actin filaments towards the center of the sarcomere. o ATP binds to myosin, causing it to detach from actin, and the cycle can repeat as long as calcium and ATP are available. 4. Relaxation: o When stimulation ceases, calcium is actively pumped back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum. o Calcium dissociates from troponin, allowing tropomyosin to cover the binding sites on actin, leading to muscle relaxation.

26. The structure of animal muscle, composed of specialized fibers and connective tissues, allows for efficient contraction and movement. The contractile process involves a series of electrical and biochemical events that enable muscles to generate force and produce movement.

27. FACTORS AFFECTING MEAT QUALITY

28. Meat quality is a complex concept encompassing several aspects, including tenderness, juiciness, flavor, color, and overall appearance.Many factors influence these characteristics, both before and after the animal is slaughtered. Here's a breakdown of the key factors affecting meat quality:

29. Animal Genetics: Breed : Different breeds of animals have inherent differences in muscle composition, fat deposition, and growth rates, all of which influence meat quality. Genetics : Individual animals within a breed can vary in their genetic makeup, affecting muscle fiber type, marbling, and overall meat quality.

30. Animal Management: - Diet: The animal's diet plays a crucial role in meat quality. A balanced diet with adequate protein, carbohydrates, and fats contributes to muscle development and fat marbling. - Stress: Stressful conditions during the animal's life, such as overcrowding, transportation, or handling, can negatively impact meat quality by affecting muscle structure and causing changes in meat color and tenderness. - Age: The age of the animal at slaughter significantly affects meat quality. Younger animals tend to have more tender meat, while older animals have more flavor and marbling. - Sex: Male animals often have more muscle mass and may have stronger flavor than females, but they can also have tougher meat.

31. Slaughter and Processing: Pre-slaughter Handling: Stress levels before slaughter can negatively impact meat quality. Calm and stress-free conditions are crucial. Slaughter Method: The method used for stunning and bleeding the animal can affect meat quality. Proper techniques minimize stress and muscle damage. Chilling : Rapid and even chilling after slaughter helps maintain meat quality by preventing bacterial growth and preserving tenderness. Aging : Dry aging, where meat is hung in a controlled environment for several weeks, can improve tenderness and flavor by enzymatic breakdown of muscle proteins. Cutting and Packaging: Proper cutting and packaging techniques are crucial for preserving meat quality and maximizing shelf life.

32. Post-Slaughter Factors: Storage : Temperature and humidity control are essential for maintaining meat quality during storage. Transportation : Proper handling and temperature control during transportation are vital for preventing spoilage and preserving quality. Retail Display: The way meat is displayed in the retail environment can affect its quality. Proper lighting, temperature, and humidity control are crucial.

33. Consumer Handling: Cooking : Cooking methods and temperatures significantly impact meat quality. Overcooking can lead to dryness and toughness. Preparation : Marinades and tenderizing techniques can enhance meat quality by breaking down muscle fibers and adding flavor.