Conservation of Biodiversity nature.pptx

conservation of biodiversity.

1. Conservation of Biodiversity

2. Biodiversity

3. Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation All the varieties of food, timber plants, livestock, microbes and agricultural animals should be conserved. All the economically important organisms should be identified and conserved. Unique ecosystems should be preserved first. The resources should be utilized efficiently. Poaching and hunting of wild animals should be prevented. The reserves and protected areas should be developed carefully. The levels of pollutants should be reduced in the environment. Deforestation should be strictly prohibited. Environmental laws should be followed strictly. The useful and endangered species of plants and animals should be conserved in their nature as well as artificial habitats. Public awareness should be created regarding biodiversity conservation and its importance .

4. Biodiversity Conservation “Biodiversity conservation refers to the protection, upliftment , and management of biodiversity in order to derive sustainable benefits for present and future generations .” Biodiversity conservation has three main objectives: To preserve the diversity of species. Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem. To maintain life-supporting systems and essential ecological processes

5. There are two approaches of biodiversity conservation

6. In-situ conservation methods In-situ conservation of biodiversity is the conservation of species within their natural habitat. In this method, the natural ecosystem is maintained and protected . Certain protected areas where in-situ conservation takes place include:- National parks,  W ildlife sanctuaries and B iosphere reserves.

7. Advantages of In-situ conservation A large number of living organisms (Plants and animals) conserved in their natural environment Since the organisms are in a natural ecosystem, they can evolve better and can easily adjust to different environmental conditions. It is a cost-effective and convenient method of conserving biodiversity. Biodiversity permanently protected Representative examples of ecosystems also permenantly protected Natural and cultural heritage protected permenantly Ecological integrity is maintained and managed Opportunities may arise for ecologically sustainable land uses (which come with associated economic benefits) Facilitates scientific research of the site

8. Disadvantages of In-situ conservation Endangered habitats may be fragmented so the area may not be large enough to ensure the survival of these species Genetic diversity may have already been dramatically decreased Conditions that threatened the organisms in the area may still be present, e.g. disease or interspecific competition. Poachers and ecotourists may see the thriving area as an opportunity and may cause damage

9. Applications of in-situ conservation Protecting endangered species In-situ conservation can help save species that are on the brink of extinction.  Conserving genetic resources In-situ conservation can help preserve the genetic diversity of plant and animal species.  Conserving agricultural biodiversity In-situ conservation can help farmers preserve the genetic resources of crops.  Protecting habitats In-situ conservation can help protect the natural habitats of wild species.  Protecting ecosystems In-situ conservation can help protect the ecosystems that support wild species.

10. In-situ conservation methods National Parks National park represents an area that is set aside by the national government in order to preserve the natural environment. A national park can also be set aside mainly for the purpose of public recreation and enjoyment or due to its historical or scientific interest. Majority of the landscapes and their plants and animals in a national park are kept in their natural state . Its boundaries are well demarcated (Defined)and human activities such as grazing, forestry, habitat and cultivation are prohibited. For ex., Kaziranga National Park, and Bandipur National Park.

11. Examples of national park 1936 Corbett National Park Uttarakhand 1955 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh 1955 Tadoba National Park Maharashtra 1959 Madhav National Park Madhya Pradesh 1968 Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh 1974 Kaziranga National Park Assam 1974 Bandipur National Park Karnataka 1974 Bannerghatta National Park Karnataka 1975 Gir National Park Gujarat 1975 Gugamal National Park Maharashtra 1975 Navegaon National Park Maharashtra 1975 Pench National Park Madhya Pradesh

12. Wildlife Sanctuaries A wildlife sanctuary mainly refers to an area in which animal habitats and their surroundings are protected from any sort of disturbances. The capturing, killing and poaching of animals is strictly restricted in these areas. The main objective of a sanctuary is to provide a comfortable living habitat to the animals. India possesses beautiful wildlife sanctuaries, including dense forests, large rivers, high and beautiful mountains.   Boundaries are not defined Human activities such as timber harvesting, cultivation, collection of woods and other forest products are allowed here as long as they do not interfere with the conservation project . Also, tourists visit these places for recreation .

13. Biosphere Reserves Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal or marine ecosystems or its amalgamation . Biosphere reserves are the protected areas meant for the conservation of plants and animals . It also restores the traditional life of the tribals living in that vicinity. They conserve the biodiversity of that area. There are 18 Biosphere Reserves in India established by the government that protect large areas of natural habitats. These areas are provided with the buffer zones that are open for some economic uses. Not only the flora and fauna but also the humans inhabiting these areas are protected. The Biosphere Reserves are identified by the Man and Biosphere Reserve Program to promote sustainable development. This program was initiated by UNESCO in 1971 .

14. Biosphere Reserve Functions of a Biosphere Reserve Each biosphere reserve is supposed to fulfill three harmonizing functions: Conservation function:  to conserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems, and landscapes Development function:  to promote sustainable human and economic development. Logistic support function:  to provide support for research and analysing the issues of conservation and sustainable development.

15. Biosphere reserves are multi-purpose protected areas where the wildlife, traditional lifestyle of the inhabitants and domesticated plants and animals are protected. Tourist and research activities are permitted here.

16. Biosphere Reserves Core Zone:  This zone is the innermost region that is categorized as an undisturbed ecosystem and human interventions are strictly restricted. Buffer Zone:  This zone surrounds the core zone and involves educational and research activities. These activities should not interfere with the objective of the core zone. Transition zone:   The outermost zone, where the public and forest management work together Activities include tourism, recreation, education, research, timber collection, medicine collection, and cattle grazing Various conservation agencies, researchers and local communities use the zone in a sustainable manner to support human welfare in the region.

17. Biosphere reserves

18. Ex-situ Conservation Ex-situ conservation of biodiversity involves the breeding and maintenance of endangered species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos, nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc. There is less competition for food, water and space among the organisms. The animals are provided with a longer time and breeding activity. Genetic techniques can be used for the preservation of endangered species.

19. Advantages of Ex-situ conservation Organisms are completely protected from predation and poaching Health of individuals can be monitored and medical assistance given as required Populations can be more effectively managed and divided if disaster strikes Genetic diversity of the population can be measured Selective breeding programmes can be put into place Modern reproductive technology can increase the chances of repoductive success

20. Advantages of Ex-situ conservation Animals and plants can be bred to increase their numbers if endangered research into reproductive physiology, lifestyle and ecology of an endangered species is made easier conservation sites can be used as attractions to raise funds for further conservation efforts Conservation sites can be used for education

21. Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation Captive population have limited genetic diversity Animals can be exposed to a wide range of different diseases the organisms are living outside their natural habitat Nutritional issues may arise Animals may not behave as normal, making reproduction difficult Correct survival environmental conditions may be difficult to achieve Expensive to maintain animals may not survive reintroduction into the wild There can be difficulties with acceptance by the existing wild members of the species

22. Applications of Ex-situ conservation Breeding endangered species Ex-situ conservation allows for the breeding of endangered species in captivity for reintroduction into the wild.  Raising public awareness Ex-situ conservation sites educate the public about endangered species and the factors that threaten them.  Preserving genetic diversity Ex-situ conservation techniques like seed banks and cryopreservation help preserve genetic diversity.  Conserving plant species Botanical gardens and seed banks help conserve plant species and their genetic diversity.  Conserving livestock Cryopreservation can be used to preserve livestock germplasm for genetic conservation. 

23. Seed gene bank The storage of seeds in a temperature and moisture controlled environment. These are cold storages where seed are kept under controlled temperature and humidity for storage and this is easiest way to store the germ plasma of plants at low temperature. Seed preserved under controlled conditions (minus temperature) remain viable for long durations of time. This technique is used for taxa with orthodox seeds that tolerate desiccation. Seed bank facilities vary from sealed boxes to climate controlled walk-in freezers or vaults. Taxa with recalcitrant seeds that do not tolerate desiccation freezing and drying are typically not held in seed banks for extended periods of time . Many taxa produce recalcitrant seeds, including trees For Example : Walnut, Rubber ,Cacao : ( Theobroma ),Coffee: , Avocado,Mango and Aquatic plants  Nymphaea caerulea . 

24. Gene bank A  gene bank  is a type of  biorepository that serves to preserve the genetic information of organisms. Gene banks are often used for storing the genetic material of species that are endangered or close to extinction. They are also used for the preservation of major crop species and cultivars, in order to preserve crop diversity . Generic variability also be preserved by gene bank under normal growing conditions. These are cold storages where germ plasm are kept under controlled temperature and humidity for storage, this is important way of preserving the genetic resources.

25. Gene bank Preservation is done via the collection and storage of reproductive material from an organism. For example, seeds and cuttings may be collected from plants,  spores may be collected from fungi and sperm and egg cells may be collected from animals. The collected material is oftentimes stored at a temperature below 0°C (32 °F ). It may also be stored in cryogenic conditions using liquid nitrogen. Certain gene banks are based around the continuous cultivation of living organisms, such as certain species of plants being raised in a controlled nutrient medium, or artificially created habitats that then harbor certain species. Gene banks are present all over the world, with differing objectives and resources. One of the largest is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault.

26. Cryopreservation This is the newest applications of technology for preservation of biotic parts . Plant cryopreservation consist of the storage of seeds, pollen, tissue, or embryos in liquid nitrogen. This type of conservation is done at very low temperature (-196 o C) in liquid nitrogen. The metabolic activities of organisms are suspended under low temperature,which are later used for research purpose This method can be used for virtually indefinite storage of material without deterioration over a much greater time-period relative to all other methods of  ex situ  conservation. Cryopreservation is also used for the conservation of livestock genetics through  cryoconservation of animal genetic resources. Technical limitations prevent the cryopreservation of many species, but cryobiology is a field of active research, and many studies concerning plants are underway.

27. Zoological Gardens: In Zoos wild animals are maintained in captivity and conservation of wild animals ( rare,endagered species). Zoological gardens,commonly known as Zoos,are facilities wgere animals are housed within enclosures,cared of,displayed to the public and often bred. These establishment serve multiple purposes, including recreation,education,conservation and research. Visitors to zoo can observe a variety of animal species from different habitats around the world,gaining insights into wildlife and their natural behaviour

28. Zoological Gardens: Conservation efforts; Species survival plans (SSPs) Habitat restoration Wildlife reintroduction programs Conservation research public awareness and education Financial support for conservation

29. Famous zoos around the world

30. Botanical gardens A botanical garden is a place where flowers, fruits and vegetables are grown . the botanical gardens provide beauty and calm environment . Most of them have started keeping exotic plants for educational and research purposes. Botanic Gardens Conservation International estimates that there are about 1600 botanic gardens in the world. Rhododendrons  in Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh,  Botanical Garden, USA and Botanical Garden, Kyoto ,  Tulips  in Leiden University, The Netherlands,

31. Rhododendrons   in Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh , Tulips   in Leiden University US Botanical Garden, Botanical Garden, Kyoto ,

32. Botanical gardens Botanical gardens fulfill an important role in preserving the world’s plant diversity by:- Growing large collections of endangered plants and holding them safely in cultivation or seed banks in case wild populations are destroyed Promoting environmental awareness among the public through their education work Providing expertise and training to grow plants Helping to conserve natural vegetation by maintaining nature reserves and working with others to study, monitor and conserve plants and their ecology in the wild.

33. Threats to biodiversity

34. Threats to Biodiversity Biodiversity loss  refers to the reduction of biodiversity due to displacement or extinction of species. According to a 2019 United Nations report, 1 million species at risk of extinction. Considering there are estimated to be 8-11 million species total, that means up to 12.5% of species could go extinct, and many of them within our lifetimes. This will have dramatic effects on human welfare through the loss of ecosystem services . The core threat to biodiversity on the planet is the combination of human population growth and the resources used by that population. 

35. Habitat Loss Habitat loss includes habitat destruction and habitat fragmentation.  Habitat destruction  occurs when the physical environment required by a species is altered so that the species can no longer live there . Human destruction of habitats accelerated in the latter half of the twentieth century. For example, half of Sumatra's forests, a biodiversity hotspot, is now gone. The forests are removed for timber and to plant palm oil plantations . Palm oil is used in many products including food products, cosmetics, and biodiesel in Europe. Habitat fragmentation  occurs as the living space of a species is divided into discontinuous patches. For example, a mountain highway could divide a forest habitat into separate patches.  Wildlife corridors  mitigate the damage of habitat fragmentation by connecting patches with suitable habitat 

36. This overpass on the Trans-Canada Highway between Banff and Lake Louise, Alberta, serves as a wildlife corridor. the island of Sumatra, Indonesia

37. Habitat fragmentation Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred  environment(habitat) causing  population fragmentation and  ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation includes-   Geological  processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment, and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the extinction of many species.

38. Climate change Global  climate change  is also a consequence of human population needs for energy, and the use of fossil fuels to meet those needs. Essentially, burning  fossil fuels , including as oil, natural gas, and coal, increases carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere Carbon dioxide, methane, and other  greenhouse gases  trap heat energy from the sun, resulting not only in an average increase in global temperature but also in changing precipitation patterns and increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes . Climate change is recognized as a major extinction threat, particularly when combined with other threats such as habitat loss. Warming temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are altering the ranges of species 

39. Climate change For example: melting ice is cutting off polar bear access to critical food sources and warming waters contribute to the disappearance of coral reefs. By altering regional climates, it makes habitats less hospitable to the species living in them. While increased carbon dioxide levels can help plants conduct photosynthesis more efficiently, they are threatened by harsh temperatures and extreme weather events. Additionally , with warmer conditions, moisture from snow melt arrives earlier in the season, lengthening the fire season.

40. Overexploitation Overexploitation  (overharvesting) involves hunting, fishing, or otherwise collecting organisms at a faster rate than they can be replenished. While overfishing and poaching are common examples of overexploitation, some fungi and slow-growing plant species are also overexploited. For example , stocks of wild ginseng, which is valued for its health benefits, are dwindling. Peyote cactus, which causes hallucinations and is used in sacred ceremonies, is also declining. Yarsagumba , dead moth larvae that were infected by fungal parasites (caterpillar fungus,  Ophiocordyceps sinensis ), is overexploited because it is highly valued in traditional medicine and used as an aphrodisiac

41. Overexploitation Activities such as logging, farming, and fishing can be done sustainably, but they are often done in ways that overexploit a resource and reduce biodiversity. When too many species, or even just a few important species, are taken out of an ecosystem, the whole network of life in that area can collapse. Overall , people have been taking far more from nature than it can afford. For example, 70% of fish stocks in the ocean are currently being overfished. A 2016 study suggested that the oceans could be empty of fish by 2050 . [

42. Pollution Pollution of air, soil, and water poses a serious problem to biodiversity in many ecosystems.  Pollution   occurs when chemicals, particles, or other materials are released into the environment, harming the organisms there. Pollution has contributed to the decline of many threatened species. Power plants, factories, and vehicles are common sources of air pollution. In some cases, the pollutants are directly toxic (for example, lead), but in other cases the pollutants indirectly cause ecological harm when they are present in unnaturally large quantities .

43. Pollution Not only can air pollutants directly harm animals by causing respiratory issues and cancer as well as damage vegetation, but some interact with the atmosphere to form  acid deposition  (commonly called acid rain). Acid deposition which disrupts aquatic ecosystems as well as soil communities and plant growth Heavy metals, plastics, pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and sediments are examples of water pollution. Heavy metals (including copper, lead, mercury, and zinc) can leach into soil and water from mines. Nutrients , such as nitrate and phosphates, are healthy in bodies of water to an extent, but when fertilizer pollution adds too many of these nutrients at one time, algal blooms can result. This has cascading effects that can ultimately shade and kill aquatic plants and deplete oxygen needed by fish and other animals ( eutrophication )

44.  Eutrophication in Dianchi Lake, China. Increase in nutrients from fertilizer pollution led to an algal bloom, and oxygen was depleted from the water as the algae decomposed, killing fish.

45. Invasive species Invasive species  are  non-native  organisms that, when introduced to an area out of its native range, disrupt the community they invade.  Non-native  (exotic) refers to species occurring outside of their historic distribution. Invasive species are have been intentionally or unintentionally introduced by humans into an ecosystem in which they did not evolve. Human transportation of people and goods, including the intentional transport of organisms for trade, has dramatically increased the introduction of species into new ecosystems. These new introductions are sometimes at distances that are well beyond the capacity of the species to ever travel itself and outside the range of the species’ natural predators .

46. Invasive species Invasive species can cause ecological and economic damage. Invasive plants like the purple loosestrife ( Lythrum salicaria ) and kudzu ( Pueraria montana ) threaten native plants through competition for resources, Indirectly harms the animals that depend on native plants to be primary producers and to provide habitat. Some invasive plants, like yellow flag iris ( Iris pseudacorus ) are toxic, directly poisoning the livestock and wildlife that eat them . Since the 17th century, invasive alien species have contributed to nearly 40% of all animal extinctions for which the cause is known.

47. Introduced species can often out-compete native species for space and resources, depleting native species populations and reducing biodiversity. Invasive alien species exacerbate poverty and threaten development through their impact on agriculture, forestry, fisheries and natural systems, which are an important basis of peoples’ livelihoods in developing countries. The warming climate also fuels the threat of invasive species. For example, dangerous species such as disease-carrying mosquitoes are able to thrive in new latitudes as a result of warmer temperatures.

48. Hybridization Hybridization can be a threat to biodiversity by reducing genetic diversity and causing the extinction of species. However, hybridization can also be beneficial in some cases, such as by increasing evolutionary potential and helping species adapt to climate change.  Threats Genetic swamping Hybrids can replace rare species, reducing genetic diversity and increasing the risk of extinction  Demographic swamping Hybrids can be maladapted or infertile, which can reduce population growth rates  Outbreeding depression Hybrids can be less fit than their parents, which can increase the risk of extinction  Genetic pollution Uncontrolled crossbreeding can lead to the loss of genetic diversity and the collapse of gene pools 

49. Extinction Extinction of a particular animal or plant species occurs when there are no more individuals of that species alive anywhere in the world.the species has died out This is a natural part of evolution Examples of extinct animals 1. A siatic cheetah 2.Pink head duck 3.Golden toad Examples of extinct plant Saint helena oliva Wood cycad Franklina

50. Extinct animals and plants

51. Extinctions Human activities are causing a rapid increase in the extinction rate of species, which threatens biodiversity. This is happening at a rate that's hundreds of times faster than the average rate over the past 10 million years.  Threats Loss of species : The extinction of one species can trigger a chain reaction of extinctions  Loss of ecosystem services : Ecosystems provide clean water, food, fuel, fiber, medicines, and shelter  Loss of opportunities for medical research : Rare plants and animals are a source of chemicals used in mainstream and traditional medicines  Threat to food security : A lack of biodiversity among crops makes them vulnerable to disease, pests, and climate change 

52. Causes of Extinction Major cause Overhunting and over harvesting Habitat loss Pollution Introduction of exotic species Climate change Minor cause Low reproductive rate Loss of gene flow Limited distribution rate Species specialization Collection for zoo and research

53. Vulnerability of species to extinction Not all species have same species of extinction Features make species more vulnerable and increase their extinction risk: Narrow geographic range One or few populations Small and/or declining population size Island endemic Hunted or harvested by humans

54. Addition features that make species more vulnerable to extinction Large home range Large body size Slow reproduction Limited dispersal ability Seasonal migration Low genetic variation Specialized niche Low tolerance to disturbance Aggregation No prior contact with humans

55. Institutions and their role in conservation Zoological survey of india ( kolkata ) Botanical survey of india (Kolkata) Forest research institute(Dehradun)

56. The Zoological Survey of India ( ZSI) The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was launched in 1916 to promote survey, exploration, and research to enhance the knowledge regarding the flora and fauna of the British Indian Empire. It is India’s apex organization on animal taxonomy.  It originated as a Zoological Section of the Indian Museum in Kolkata. Initially, the ZSI had eight regional centers across India. Currently, there are 16 regional centers spread across the country. The headquarters is in Kolkata. It has been declared as a designated repository for the National Zoological Collection as per  Section 39 of the National Biodiversity Act, 2002 .

57. Objectives The ZSI has contributed significantly to knowledge and research on the fauna of the country. The primary objectives of the ZSI are: To promote the survey, exploration, research, and documentation on various aspects of animal taxonomy in the Indian subcontinent. It also seeks the advancement of knowledge on animal taxonomy. Make a status survey of the threatened and endemic species. Preparation of Red Data Book, Fauna of India, and Fauna of States. Bio-ecological studies on important communities/species. Preparation of database for the recorded species of the country. Maintenance and Development of National Zoological Collections.

58. The activities of the ZSI are coordinated by the Conservation and Survey Division under the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change. F unctions of ZSI ZSI publishes the Red Data Book on Indian Animals. It was first published in 1983 and is similar to the Red Data Book published by IUCN. Publication of results including Fauna of India, Fauna of States, and Fauna of Conservation Areas. Training, Capacity Building, and Human Resource Development of the people involved .

59. Functions of ZSI Geographic Information System (GIS) and Remote Sensing studies on recorded animal diversity as well as on threatened species . It works for the development of Environmental Information System (ENVIS) and Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) Centers. CITES is a multilateral treaty to protect endangered plants and animals. Conducts collaborative research programs on “Biodiversity” with other organizations in India and abroad.

60. Botanical survey of india Abbreviation BSI Formation 13 February 1890; 134 years ago Type Central Government Office Headquarters Kolkata ,  West Bengal , India Location Kolkata, West Bengal Region served India Parent organization Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change,Government of India

61. Botanical Survey of India  ( BSI ) Botanical Survey of India  ( BSI ) located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. It was founded on 13 February 1890, is Government of India Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change's organization for  survey, research and conservation of plant wealth of India,  flora and endangered species of India, including by collecting and maintaining  germplasm  and gene bank of  endangered,  patent and vulnerable plant species.

62. Objectives or roles of BSI Conducting surveys to identify and document the full range of plant species present in India, including their distribution, ecology, and economic potential.  Preparing comprehensive botanical records of plant species at the national, state, and district levels.  Managing and curating a central national herbarium along with regional herbaria to store plant specimens for research and reference.  Assessing the conservation status of endangered plant species and proposing measures for their protection. 

63. Objectives or roles of BSI Research on plant utilization: Exploring the potential uses of plants, particularly those utilized by local communities, for economic and medicinal purposes.  Ex-situ conservation: Maintaining botanical gardens and experimental gardens to cultivate and preserve threatened plant species.  Public awareness: Disseminating information about India's plant diversity and promoting environmental education. 

64. Forest Research Institute The  Forest Research Institute   is a Natural Resource Service training institute of the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education and is an institution in the field of  forestry research in India for Indian Forest Servic  cadres and all  State Forest Service  cadres. It is located at Dehradun in  Uttarakhand , and is among the oldest institutions of its kind. In 1991, it was declared a deemed university  by the University Grants Commission .

65. Forest Research Institute The Forest Research Institute campus hosts the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy (IGNFA), the staff college that trains officers selected for the Indian Forest Service (IFS). It was founded in 1878 as "Forest School of Dehradun", after that its name changed to "Imperial Forest School" in 1884. In 1906, it was reestablished as the Imperial Forest Research Institute, under the British Imperial Forestry Service

66. Objectives or Roles of FRI To impart education in such branches of forestry and environment as it may deem fit. To provide for research and for the advancement of and dissemination of knowledge in the forestry and environment. The disciplines pursued in the Institute are Silviculture , Resource Survey and Management, Social forestry, Minor forest produce, Ecology and conversation, Genetics and tree propagation, Forest protection, Forest Botany, Forest products and Forest Operations.

67. Objectives or Roles of FRI The thrust areas are bio-diversity, tree improvement & quality seed production, non-wood forest products, social forestry & wasteland afforestation, design development of modern forestry tools, etc. To create consciousness about forest and environment among the people through extension programs. To do all such other acts and things as may be necessary or  desirable to further the safeguarding of environment and protection of forest & wildlife.