Consumer Behavior Building Marketing Strategy 12th Edition Hawkins Solutions Manual

Consumer Behavior Building Marketing Strategy 12th Edition Hawkins Solutions Manual
Consumer Behavior Building Marketing Strategy 12th Edition Hawkins Solutions Manual
Consumer Behavior Building Marketing Strategy 12th Edition Hawkins Solutions Manual

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5. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Last printed 11/20/2023 12:43:00 PM
Instructor’s Manual



Instructor’s Manual by:
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6. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-1
Chapter 09
Learning, Memory,
and Product Positioning
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LO1: Describe the nature of learning and memory
LO2: Explain the types of memory and memory’s role in learning
LO3: Distinguish the different processes underlying high- and low-involvement learning
LO4: Summarize the factors affecting information retrieval from memory
LO5: Understand the application of learning to brand positioning, equity, and leverage
SUMMARY
LO1: Describe the nature of learning and memory
Learning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory or behavior and is the result
of information processing. Information processing as a series of activities by which stimuli are perceived,
transformed into information, and stored. The four activities in the series are exposure, attention,
interpretation, and memory. Thus memory is both an outcome of learning and a part of the process of
learning. For example, when interpreting the price of a brand, consumers may retrieve information about
competitor prices (prior learning) and once the comparison is made, store their price perception about the
new brand in memory (new learning).

LO2: Explain the types of memory and memory’s role in learning
Memory is the result of learning, which involves information processing. Most commonly, information
goes directly into short-term memory (STM) for processing, where two basic activities occur—
maintenance rehearsal and elaborative activities. Maintenance rehearsal is the continual repetition of a
piece of information in order to hold it in current memory. Elaborative activities are the use of stored
experiences, values, attitudes, and feelings to interpret and evaluate information in current memory.
Long-term memory (LTM) is information from previous information processing that has been stored for
future use. LTM undergoes continual restructuring as new information is acquired. Information is stored
in long-term memory in associative networks, or schemas. Consumers often organize information in long-
term memory around brands in the form of brand schemas. These schemas represent the brand’s image in
terms of key attributes, feelings, experiences, and so on.

LO3: Distinguish the different processes underlying high- and low-involvement learning
Consumers learn in various ways, which can be broadly classified into high-versus low-involvement
learning. High- involvement learning occurs when an individual is motivated to acquire the information.
Low-involvement learning occurs when an individual is paying only limited or indirect attention to an
advertisement or other message. Low-involvement learning tends to be limited as a result of a lack of
elaborative activities.

7. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-2

Learning can also be classified as either conditioned or cognitive. There are two forms of conditioned
learning—classical and operant. Classical conditioning attempts to create an association between a
stimulus (e.g., brand name) and some response (e.g., behavior or feeling) and is generally low
involvement in nature. Operant conditioning attempts to create an association between a response (e.g.,
buying a brand) and some outcome (e.g., satisfaction) that serves to reinforce the response and is
generally high involvement in nature.

The cognitive approach to learning encompasses the mental activities of humans as they work to solve
problems, cope with complex situations, or function effectively in their environment. Cognitive learning
includes iconic rote learning (generally low involvement), vicarious learning/modeling (low or high
involvement), and analytical reasoning (generally high involvement).

Stimulus generalization is one way of transferring learning by generalizing from one stimulus situation to
other, similar ones. Stimulus discrimination refers to the opposite process of learning—responding
differently to somewhat similar stimuli. The ability of consumers to differentiate and generalize is critical
for successful brand positioning and leverage.

LO4: Summarize the factors affecting information retrieval from memory
Once learned, information is retrieved from long-term memory for use in evaluations and decisions.
Retrieval failures or extinction of a learned response represents a reduction in marketing effectiveness.
Retrieval depends on strength of initial learning, memory interference, and the response environment.
Strength of learning depends on six basic factors: importance, message involvement, reinforcement,
mood, repetition, and dual coding. Importance refers to the value that the consumer places on the
information to be learned—greater importance increases learning and retrieval. Message involvement is
the degree to which the consumer is interested in the message itself—the greater the message
involvement, the greater the learning and retrieval. Reinforcement is anything that increases the likelihood
that a response will be repeated in the future—the greater the reinforcement, the greater the learning and
retrieval. Mood is the temporary mental state or feeling of the consumer. Learning and memory appear to
be greater in positive mood conditions. Repetition refers to the number of times that we are exposed to the
information or that we engage in a behavior. Repetition increases learning and memory, but can also lead
to wearout. Dual coding involves creating multiple complementary pathways to a concept in long-term
memory. Dual coding increases learning and retrieval.

Memory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of information
because other related information in memory gets in the way. A common form of memory interference is
due to competitive advertising. Competitive interference increases with increased advertising clutter. But
it can be reduced by avoiding competitive clutter, strengthening learning, reducing similarity to
competitor ads, and providing retrieval cues.

The response environment can also be critical to retrieval. Matching the response environment to the
learning environment, or matching the learning environment to the response environment can enhance the
ease and likelihood of retrieval.

8. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-3

LO5: Understand the application of learning to brand positioning, equity, and leverage
Brand image, a market segment or individual consumer’s schematic memory of a brand, is a major focus
of marketing activity. Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to attempt to attain a defined and
differentiated brand image, generally in relation to specific competitors. A brand image that matches a
target market’s needs and desires will be valued by that market segment. Such a brand is said to have
brand equity because consumers respond favorably toward it in the market. In addition, these consumers
may be willing to assume that other products with the same brand name will have some of the same
features which relates to how consumers learn to generalize from one stimulus to another. Introducing
new products under the same name as an existing product is referred to as brand leverage or brand
extension.
LECTURE TIPS AND AIDS
1) A good way to illustrate semantic memory is to provide a handout to the class such that one-third of
the class receives a piece of paper with a brand name at the top, one-third receives a product category,
and one-third receives a “need” such as hungry or lonesome. Give students three or four minutes to
write down all the words and phrases that come to mind when they see the key word. Have several
students with each type of word write their lists on the blackboard. Discussion can center on the
similarities and differences between individuals and between types of key words.
2) A good way to underscore the importance of understanding the learning process for the student is to
describe advertisements as “learning situations encapsulated.” In effect, many ads try to show the
viewer an entire learning process: what the problem is, cues as to how brand purchase can solve the
problem, appropriate reinforcement, and satisfaction evaluation. In other words, how consumers
“learn” to be satisfied by the purchase of a brand.
3) Before class, ascertain the price of several items students would commonly purchase at a nearby store
such as the course textbook, pen, soft drink, quart of milk, or notebook. In class, ask the students how
much these items cost. This can lead to a discussion of why some students have learned the prices of
some items while others have not.
4) The concept of imagery, one of the general characteristics of learning brought out in the chapter,
provides an interesting and useful application of learning to direct marketing practice. Brand names,
logos, brand symbols, package design, and ad copy and layout all use the concept of imagery heavily.
Pick a product such as automobiles and ask students which brand names have high imagery potential
and which do not.
5) Extinction can be illustrated by asking for the names of recent defeated vice presidential candidates,
losers of recent super bowls or World Series, and the name of the author of the textbook used in the
basic marketing class.
6) Assign and/or prepare one or more of the CB PRESS HIGHLIGHTS articles for class discussion.
The searchable CB Press Highlights Database can be found on the Instructor Online Learning Center
at www.mhhe.com/hawkins12e.
7) Build a recent news story or commercial into your PowerPoints. The searchable Video and
Commercial Links Database can be found on the Instructor Online Learning Center at
www.mhhe.com/hawkins12e.

9. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-4
INTERNET EXERCISES
BE SURE TO CHECK THESE SITES BEFORE ASSIGNING THESE PROBLEMS. WEBSITES CAN
AND DO CHANGE, SUCH THAT SOME SITES MAY NO LONGER EXIST OR CONTAIN THE
DATA NEEDED TO ANSWER THE QUESTION.
1) Visit one of the following websites. Evaluate the site in terms of its application of learning principles.
a) www.chipotle.com
b) www.motorola.com
c) www.dior.com
d) www.joltenergy.com
Students should look for various approaches including use of heavy amounts of information (high-
involvement learning), repetition, reinforcement, imagery, shaping, etc. Recently the Dior site played
Pat Benatar’s Life is a battlefield song (unconditioned stimulus) while showing runway video of the
current fashion collection (conditioned stimulus). The collection was consistent with the music in
that clothing was bold, mostly black color and conveyed a very powerful but feminine fashion image
(the desired conditioned response).
2) Visit several company websites until you find one that you feel makes particularly effective use of
one or more of the learning theories we have covered and one that makes very little use of these
principles. Describe each and justify your selections.
This is a useful exercise because it forces students to go beyond just looking at sites and into
evaluating them based on behavior principles.
3) Evaluate the following three websites in terms of their ability to create/support a good brand image
and product position.
a) www.minicooper.org
b) www.toyota.com/yaris/
c) www.bmw.com
This is a useful and fun exercise. Students should first discuss the appropriate or likely desired image
and then examine the sites for consistent and inconsistent elements. For example, the Mini Cooper
site fits its image as both a “green” and “fun” car. Its tag line is maximize your fun and minimize
your impact. It allows you to build your own car, but also has fun areas with games and downloads.

10. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-5

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1) What is learning?
Learning is any change in the content or organization of long-term memory and/or behavior.
2) What is memory?
Memory is the total accumulation of prior learning experiences.
3) Define short-term memory and long-term memory?
Short-term memory or working memory is that portion of total memory that is currently activated or
in use. Long-term memory is that portion of total memory devoted to permanent information storage.
4) Discuss the nature of short-term memory in terms of its endurance and capacity.
STM has a limited capacity to store information and sensations and is short lived in nature.
5) What is maintenance rehearsal?
This is the continual repetition of a piece of information in order to hold it in current memory for use
in problem solving or transferal to long-term memory.
6) What is meant by elaborative activities?
The use of previously stored experiences, values, attitudes, beliefs, and feelings to interpret and
evaluate information in working memory as well as to add relevant previously stored information.
7) What is meant by imagery in working memory?
This involves concrete sensory representations of ideas, feelings, and objects. Imagery processing
involves the recall and mental manipulation of sensory images, including sight, smell, taste, and
tactile sensations.
8) What is semantic memory?
It is the basic knowledge and feelings we have about and object or event.
9) How does a schema differ from a script?
Schema, often referred to as schematic memory or a knowledge structure, is a complex web of
associations linking a variety of concepts and episodes to a particular object or event. A script is a
memory of how an action sequence should occur.
10) What is episodic memory and how does it relate to flashbulb memory?
This is the memory of a sequence of events in which a person participated. These personal memories
of events such as a first date, graduation, or learning to drive, can be quite strong. Flashbulb
memories are vividly detailed and highly enduring over time; they contain specific situational detail;
they are held with a high degree of confidence, and are perceived as special and different from other
ordinary or mundane experiences. As such, they are a type of episodic memory.

11. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-6

11) Describe low-involvement learning. How does it differ from high-involvement learning?
A low-involvement learning situation is one in which the consumer has little or no motivation to learn
the material. High-involvement learning occurs in situations where the individual is highly motivated
to learn the material. Low-involvement learning can involve the same processes as high-involvement
learning, but classical conditioning, iconic rote learning, and modeling are most common. Repetition
appears to be particularly important in low-involvement situations (iconic rote learning). Operant
conditioning and analytical reasoning are common learning processes in high-involvement situations.
12) What do we mean by cognitive learning, and how does it differ from the conditioning theory
approach to learning?
Cognitive learning encompasses all the mental activities of humans as they work to solve problems or
cope with situations. It involves learning ideas, concepts, attitudes, and facts that contribute to our
ability to reason, solve problems, and learn relationships without direct experience or reinforcement.
Cognitive learning can range from very simple information acquisition (iconic rote learning) to
complex, creative problem solving (as in analytical reasoning). Unlike conditioning theory, it does not
require any form of conditioning (rewards or unconditioned stimuli).
13) Distinguish between learning via classical conditioning and learning that occurs via operant
conditioning.
Classical conditioning refers to the process of using an existing relationship between a stimulus and
response to bring about the “learning” of the same response to a different stimulus that consistently
appears with the original stimulus. Operant conditioning (or instrumental learning) differs in that the
learner must first engage in the desired behavior and then receive an appropriate reward.
14) What is iconic rote learning? How does it differ from classical conditioning? Operant conditioning?
It is the learning of an association between two concepts in the absence of conditioning. That is, the
association is formed without a direct reward (operant conditioning) or pairing the stimulus with an
unconditioned response (classical conditioning).
15) Define modeling.
Modeling (or vicarious learning) relates to how consumers do not need to experience rewards or
punishments directly to learn. Instead, they can observe the outcomes of others’ behaviors and adjust
their own accordingly. Similarly, they can use imagery to anticipate the outcome of various courses
of action.
16) What is meant by analytical reasoning?
Analytical reasoning is the most complex form of cognitive learning, involving individuals’ engaging
in creative thinking to restructure and recombine existing information as well as new information to
form new associations and concepts. Information from a credible source that contradicts or
challenges one’s existing beliefs will often trigger reasoning.
17) Describe analogical reasoning.
Analogical reasoning allows consumers to use an existing knowledge base to understand a new
situation or object. The use of analogy is a form of analytical reasoning.

12. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-7

18) What is meant by stimulus generalization? When do marketers use it?
Often referred to as the “rub-off-effect,” once we have learned a particular response that works for us,
we are able to capitalize on that learning by transferring it to similar learning situations or stimuli
(generalizing). This is particularly useful to marketers in branding, where the use of a family brand
allows consumers to learn product quality and performance via stimulus generalization.
19) Define stimulus discrimination. Why is it important?
Stimulus discrimination (or differentiation) refers to the process of learning to respond differently to
somewhat similar stimuli. Discrimination is important because it is the process by which buyers
strengthen their attachment to a particular brand and thus become brand loyal.
20) Explain extinction and retrieval failure and why marketing managers are interested in them.
Extinction (associated with conditioned learning) and retrieval failure (associated with cognitive
learning) is the process of forgetting that which has been learned and occurs for various reasons
including lack of reinforcement or memory interference. It is important to marketing managers
because they do not want consumers to forget their brand names or positive attributes but they
sometimes do want them to forget bad experiences with the brand or store.
21) What factors affect the strength of learning?
Strength of learning is enhanced by six factors: importance, message involvement, mood,
reinforcement, repetition, and dual coding. Generally, learning will come about more rapidly, and last
longer, the more important the material to be learned, the more motivation to learn, the more
favorable mood to learn, the more reinforcement received during the process, the greater the number
of stimulus repetitions (or practice) that occurs, and the more imagery the material contains.
22) How does self-referencing relate to strength of learning and retrieval?
Self-referencing is a message involvement strategy used to highlight a brand’s personal relevance to
the consumer. For example, ads using nostalgia appeals which encourage the consumer to remember
past personal experiences can be very powerful.
23) What is memory interference and what strategies can marketers use to deal with it?
Memory interference occurs when consumers have difficulty retrieving a specific piece of
information because other related information in memory gets in the way (e.g., competitive ads).
Marketers use a number of strategies to decrease competitive interference, including avoiding
competing advertising, strengthening initial learning, reducing similarity to competing ads, and
providing external retrieval cues.
24) Why is it useful to match the retrieval and learning environments?
Research indicates that individuals are better able to recall learned material if the situation in which
they need to recall it is similar to the situation in which they learned it.
25) What is a brand image? Why is it important?
Brand image refers to the schematic memory of a brand. It contains the target market’s interpretation
of the product’s attributes, benefits, usage situations, users, and manufacturer/marketer characteristics.
It is what we think of and feel when we hear or see a brand name. Company image and store image
are similar except they apply to companies and stores rather than brands. Consumers tend to prefer
brands and outlets with images that meet their needs and expectations.

13. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-8

26) What is product positioning? Repositioning?
Product positioning is a decision by a marketer to try to achieve a defined brand image relative to
competition within a market segment. That is, marketers decide that they want the members of a
market segment to think and feel in a certain way about a brand. This is generally expressed in
relation to a competitive brand or a usage situation. The term product positioning is most commonly
applied to decisions concerning brands but it is also used to describe the same decisions for stores,
companies, and product categories.
Product repositioning refers to a deliberate decision to significantly alter the way the market views a
product. This could involve its level of performance, the feelings it evokes, the situations in which it
should be used, or even who uses it. Repositioning can be very difficult and costly, requiring
consumers to unlearn old associations and replace them with new ones, taking years to accomplish.
27) What is perceptual mapping?
Perceptual mapping offers marketing managers a useful technique for measuring and developing a
product’s position. This involves mapping how consumers perceive the similarity and dissimilarity
between a set of competing brands or products. The closer two brands are in a perceptual map, the
more they are perceived to be similar. The farther away any two brands are in the map, the more
dissimilar they are perceived to be. The dimensions of the perceptual map are used to understand the
attributes consumers use to compare brands.
28) What is brand equity?
Brand equity is the value consumers assign to a brand above and beyond any specific functional
characteristics of the product. Thus, there is a halo effect associated with the reputation of the brand
such that it has added value or meaning to consumers.
29) What does leveraging brand equity mean?
Brand leverage refers to marketers capitalizing on brand equity. This can be achieved with family
branding, brand extensions, and umbrella branding, as well as licensing a brand name for other
marketing promotions. The degree to which leveraging brand equity works depends upon the degree
of stimulus generalization.
Discussion Questions
30) How would you determine the best product position for the following:
a) A brand of tablet computer
b) A cell phone targeting children
c) A local animal shelter
d) A line of power tools targeting women
e) A brand of toothpaste
The essential first step is a definition of the target market and its needs. Then, one needs to determine
if high- or low-involvement learning is most likely. Most image development occurs in a
low-involvement situation. Iconic rote learning and classical conditioning would be the main factors
in most low-involvement advertising campaigns. Reasoning would be a good approach if a
high-involvement approach were selected. All aspects of the marketing mix must be consistent with
the desired product image.

14. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-9

31) Is low-involvement learning really widespread? Which products are most affected by low-
involvement learning?
Low-involvement learning is probably very widespread, but this is difficult to document. Products
that are heavily advertised, and in which most people have little interest, are most likely to be affected
by low-involvement learning. One could argue that much supposedly low-involvement learning
actually occurred under fairly involving conditions. The learned material is retained and the situation
in which it was first learned is forgotten.
32) Almex and Company introduced a new coffee-flavored liqueur in direct competition with Hiram
Walker’s tremendously successful Kahlua brand. Almex named its new entry Kamora and packaged
it in a bottle similar to that of Kahlua, using a pre-Columbian label design. The ad copy for Kamora
reads: “If you like coffee—you’ll love Kamora.” Explain Almex’s marketing strategy in terms of
learning theory.
Basically, this is learning-via-stimulus generalization. They appear to want consumers to generalize
the positive aspects of Kahlua to their brand (one could argue that they want consumers to mistake
their brand for Kahlua). Make sure students point out how Almex is bringing about generalization
(signify name, bottle shape, etc.), and the ethical problems with such a strategy.
33) Describe the brand images the following “brands” have among students on your campus.
a) Blackberry Smart Phone
b) Your student government
c) Pepsi Max
d) Toyota Prius hybrid
e) The United Way
f) Chevy Volt
The discussion of brand images is always an interesting discussion among students. While there
will be agreement across most students on most brands, you may find discrepancies among your
class relative to the diversity of the students. For example, geographic differences in students
usually is a factor in differing images.
34) In what ways, if any, would the brand images you described in response to the previous question
differ with different groups, such as (a) middle-aged professionals, (b) young blue-collar workers,
(c) high school students, and (d) retired couples?
Assign students different brands from Question 33 and specific segments outlined above. Arrange
presentations by brand such that discussion can revolve around how different product positioning
could exist for different target segments. Obviously their will be sharp differences in how these
“products’ are viewed by different groups. Push for the causes of these differences and marketing
insights suggested by them. It is important to note that there will be differences in how the product
is perceived AND how the same perception is valued. That is, some may see their student
government as fair and open for idea discussion and others as closed-mined and dictatorial.
35) What role does dual coding play in the learning process?
Dual coding involves storing the same information in different ways resulting in more internal
pathways (associative links) for retrieving information. This, in turn can increase learning and
memory.
36) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 9-1.
A flashbulb memory occurs when a brand encounter creates a highly vivid and enduring episodic
memory. Students will have varying opinions and experiences. Get them to elaborate on brands
for which they have a flashbulb memory and then explain the type of brand and the purchase
occasion. By getting numerous students involved, you may be able to categorize additional

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16. Chapter 09 - Learning, Memory, and Product Positioning
Part V 9-10
drivers of flashbulb memories or confirm those discussed in the insight. It can be interesting to
see how students feel these influence brand purchases.
37) Evaluate the Illustrations 9-1 through 9-5 in light of their apparent objectives and target market.
Illustration 9-1: The SYNC ad uses an image-rich name that conveys much of the product’s
function. The visual in the ad clearly, symbolically, shows the product’s primary benefit. The text
expands on this theme with, “You talk, SYNC listens.” This ad should help trigger elaborative
activities that will allow consumers to define this as a new and useful product.
Illustration 9-2: The Nissan ad assumes high-involvement learning while the Campbell’s ad is
based on low-involvement learning. Although there is extensive text (Nissan), the ad has a catchy
headline. The fact that its topic is likely to be very high involvement for a key part of its target
audience means that the detail will likely work. The Campbell’s ad triggers positive emotions and
should be effective at inducing learning in a low-involvement situation.
Illustration 9-3: The Ciba-Vision Dailies ad is designed to induce trial, the first step in shaping.
Illustration 9-4: The iRobot ad challenges consume beliefs regarding the need to move furniture
when vacuuming a room.
Illustration 9-5: The KitchenAid ad uses reinforcement to strengthen learning by promising rich-
tasting coffee.
38) Respond to the questions in Consumer Insight 9-2.
The research suggests that visual art is associated with sophistication, culture, and so on which
then elicit perceptions of luxury and exclusivity. These associations are positive and boost brand
image.

The research also suggests that both creating and viewing art cues creativity in consumers which is
linked to more “openness” in terms of perceptions. This allows consumers to make connections
they would otherwise not make and thus makes lower-fitting extensions appear to offer higher fit.

Art infusion, since it is based in part on the transfer of luxury perceptions, might not work for
product categories that have limited luxury associations such as more function products like
garden tools, furnaces, and so on.

17. Other documents randomly have
different content

21. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Animal
Analogues: Verses and Illustrations

22. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.
Title: Animal Analogues: Verses and Illustrations
Author: Robert Williams Wood
Release date: June 22, 2013 [eBook #43013]
Most recently updated: October 23, 2024
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Melissa McDaniel and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ANIMAL
ANALOGUES: VERSES AND ILLUSTRATIONS ***

23. Animal——
——Analogues.
Verses and Illustrations
By Robert Williams Wood.
Author of "How To Tell The Birds From the Flowers."
Published by Paul Elder and Company.
San Francisco and New York.

24. Copyright 1908
By
Paul Elder and Company.

25. Contents.
Page.
The Bee—The Beet—The Beetle. 1.
The Ant—The Pheas-ant. 2.
The Bunny—The Tunny. 3.
The Eel—The Eelephant. 4.
The Puss—The Octo-pus. 5.
The Gnu—The Newt. 6.
The Hare—The Harrier. 8.
The Pipe-fish—The Sea-gar. 9.
The Cow—The Cowry. 10.
The Doe—The Dodo. 11.
The Ray—The Raven. 12.
The Coot—The Bandicoot. 14.
The Ape—The Grape. 16.
The Elk—The Whelk. 17.
The Cross-Bill—The Sweet-William. 18.
The Pitcher-Plant—The Fly-Catcher. 19.
The Antelope—The Cantelope. 20.
The P-Cock—The Q-Cumber. 22.
The Pen-guin—The Sword-fish. 23.

26. The Yellow-Hammer—The Saw-fish.24.
The Pansy—The Chim-pansy. 26.
Naught—Argonaut. 27.
Author's Add-end-'em. 28.

27. The Bee. The Beet. The Beetle.
Good Mr. Darwin once contended
That Beetles were from Bees descended;
And as my pictures show, I think,
The Beet must be the missing-link.
The Sugar-Beet and Honey-Bee
Supply the Beetle's pedigree:
The family is now complete,—
The Bee, the Beetle and the Beet.

28. The Ant. The Pheas-ant.
The Ant is known by his ant-ennae,
Where-as the pheas-ant hasn't any,
And that is why he wears, instead,
A small red cap upon his head:
Without his Fez, indeed the pheasant
Would be quite bald and quite un-Pleasant.

29. The Bunny. The Tunny.
The superficial naturalists have often been misled,
By failing to dis-crim-inate between the tail and head:
It really is unfortunate such carelessness prevails,
Because the Bunnies have their heads where Tunnies have their
tails.

30. The Eel. The Eelephant.
The marked aversion which we feel,
When in the presence of the Eel,
Makes many view with consternation,
The Elephant's front ele-vation.
Such folly must be clearly due
To their peculiar point of view.

31. The Puss. The Octo-pus.
The Octo-pus or Cuttle-fish!
I'm sure that none of us would wish
To have him scuttle 'round the house,
Like puss, when she espies a mouse:
When you secure your house-hold pet,
Be very sure you do not get
The Octo-pus, or there may be
Dom-es-tic in-felis-ity.

32. The Gnu. The Newt.

33. The Gnu conspicuously wears
His coat of gnumerous bristling hairs,
While, as we see, the modest Newt
Of such a coat is destitute.
(I'm only telling this to you,
And it is strictly "entre gnu".)
In point of fact the Newt is nude,
And therefore he does not obtrude,
But hides in some secluded gnook,
Beneath the surface of the brook:
It's almost more than he can bear,
To slyly take his breath of air,
His need of which is absolute,
Because, you see, he is a Pneu-t.
*
*
This stands for air, like aero-static,
Greek—"pneumos"—air—comp-air "pneu-matic".

34. The Hare. The Harrier.
The Harrier, harassed by the Hare,
Presents a picture of despair;
Altho' as far as I'm concerned,
I love to see the tables turned.
The Harrier flies with all his might,
It is a harum-scare'm flight:
I'm not surprised he does not care
To meet the fierce pursuing Hare!

35. The Pipe-fish. The Sea-gar.
To smoke a herring is to make
A most lamentable mistake,
Particularly since there are
The Pipe-fish and the long Sea-gar:
Bear this in mind when next you wish
To smoke your after-dinner fish.

36. The Cow. The Cowry.
The Cowry seems to be, somehow,
A sort of mouth-piece for the Cow:
A speaking likeness one might say,
Which I've endeavored to portray.

37. The Doe. The Dodo.
The Doe and her peculiar double
No longer are a source of trouble,
Because the Dodo, it appears,
Has been extinct for many years.
She was too proud to disembark
With total strangers in Noah's Ark,
And we rejoice because her pride
Our Nature book has simplified.

38. The Ray. The Raven.

39. The Raven is a kind of crow,
Immortalized by Mr. Poe,
And we are often led astray
By its resemblance to the Ray;
The one which I denominate,
Is termed by fisher-men the Skate;
I much prefer the latter phrase,
There are so many kinds of Rays:
There're Rays of hope, and Rays of light.
X Rays, and Rays more re-con-dite,
Which, though of interest to Science,
With Ravens have but small alliance.

40. The Coot. The Bandicoot.
I do not wish to at-tri-bute
Importance to the common Coot,
Or mud-hen, whom most persons scorn,
Because she chanced to be "Earth-born".
The small Australian Bandicoots
Are said to spring from Kanga-roots,
Which roots, as you of course foresee,
Are those of their ancestral tree,
The motto of which vegetable
Is just "O possum"
*
(I am able).

41. *
The Bandicoot and Kangaroo,
As well as the Opossum too,
Are relatives because all three
Belong to the same family.

42. The Ape. The Grape.
To see her shape
Invert the ape!

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