Contemporary Entrepreneurship Global Perspectives And Cases Basel Hammoda Susanne Durst

Contemporary Entrepreneurship Global Perspectives And Cases Basel Hammoda Susanne Durst
Contemporary Entrepreneurship Global Perspectives And Cases Basel Hammoda Susanne Durst
Contemporary Entrepreneurship Global Perspectives And Cases Basel Hammoda Susanne Durst

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6. “A great way to learn about entrepreneurship is to take a deep dive into the real-
life stories of the entrepreneurs through the struggles and triumphs of their daily
journeys as they build their businesses. This book provides a wealth of case stud-
ies from around the world, providing inspiration and insights.”
Ayman Ismail, Abdul Latif Jameel Endowed Chair of Entrepreneurship,
associate professor at The American University in Cairo (AUC) School of
Business and the founding director of the AUC Venture Lab
“Cases in Contemporary Entrepreneurship is a much-needed and timely contri-
bution to the field of entrepreneurship that bridges theory and practice through
insightful stories and examples of entrepreneurs and contexts in which entrepre-
neurship happens.”
Christoph Winkler, endowed professor and founding
program director of the Hynes Institute of
Entrepreneurship & Innovation at Iona University
“Entrepreneurship and the real-life stories and case studies in this book share
a common thread of resilience as evidenced by the entrepreneurs themselves.
The network of stories explores entrepreneurial innovations at various intersec-
tions and offers a more practice-oriented approach to entrepreneurship theory
and research.”
Oscar Edwards, CEO, Higher Growth Strategies, LLC;
Diversity Equity Inclusion Group, LLC, USA

8. Contemporary Entrepreneurship
This book dives deep into everyday entrepreneurial stories with an engaging
narrative, based on theory, while providing practical implications by highlighting
diverse entrepreneurial examples in emerging themes. It provides a collection of
concise authentic entrepreneurship case studies, organized into three main themes:
digital entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial learning innovations, and challenging
entrepreneurship. The featured case studies are based mainly on primary data
gathered from entrepreneurs and active members within the entrepreneurship
ecosystem all over the globe, at different stages of the entrepreneurial process.
Thus, it moves away from the typical unicorns and flagship startup stories, which
are abundant in management literature, to dive deep into realistic everyday
entrepreneurial narratives. This edited collection will be of interest to researchers,
academics, practitioners, and students in the fields of entrepreneurship and small
business management, international business, and management education.
Basel Hammoda is a PhD candidate and lecturer of entrepreneurship in the
Department of Business Administration at Tallinn University of Technology,
Estonia. He is a startup mentor and advisor with more than 10 years of
experience, working with different ecosystem programs across the world. He
focuses his research on innovative approaches to entrepreneurial learning and its
intersections with other entrepreneurship subdomains.
Susanne Durst is a full professor of management at Reykjavik University,
Iceland, an adjunct professor in the Department of Business Administration
at Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia, and a full professor of business
administration at the University of Sk?vde, Sweden. She also serves on the
editorial board of several academic journals.

9. Routledge Studies in Entrepreneurship and Small Business
Edited by Robert Blackburn
University of Liverpool, UK
Corporate Volunteering, Responsibility and Employee Entrepreneurship
Aldona Glińska-Neweś and Beata Glinka
Entrepreneurial Communities and Ecosystems
Theories in Culture, Empowerment, and Leadership
Edited by Morgan R. Clevenger and Michael W-P Fortunato
Empowering Entrepreneurial Communities and Ecosystems
Case Study Insights
Edited by Michael W-P Fortunato and Morgan R. Clevenger
Entrepreneurship, Innovation, and Crisis
SME Responses to the COVID-19 Pandemic
Edited by Joanna Duda and Rafał Kusa
The Future of Entrepreneurship in Africa
Challenges and Opportunities Post-Pandemic
Edited by Anthony Abiodun Eniola, Chux Gervase Iwu,
and Abdullah Promise Opute
Entrepreneurial Finance, Crowdfunding, and Language
From Social to Financial Support
Francesca Capo and Francesca Di Pietro
Contemporary Entrepreneurship
Global Perspectives and Cases
Edited by Basel Hammoda and Susanne Durst
For more information about this series, please visit: www.routledge.com

10. Contemporary
Entrepreneurship
Global Perspectives and Cases
Edited by Basel Hammoda
and Susanne Durst

11. First published 2024
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Basel Hammoda and Susanne
Durst; individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Basel Hammoda and Susanne Durst to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual
chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
ISBN: 978-1-032-44280-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-44283-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-37140-3 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003371403
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

12. List of contributors x
 1 Introduction—Contemporary issues in entrepreneurship
research: the diversity, practicality, and contemporariness
predicaments 1
BASEL HAMMODA AND SUSANNE DURST
PART I
Digital entrepreneurship 7
 2 From books to blogs: the digitalization journey of a
contentpreneur 9
HEND MOSTAFA, MARINA APAYDIN, SHAUN GOLD,
AND BASEL HAMMODA
 3 Business model innovation in FinTech:
a Chilean WealthTech industry perspective 19
FELIPE IGNACIO RIFO RIVERA, JULIÁN ANDRÉS DÍAZ TAUTIVA,
SEBASTIAN ANDRÉS BARROS CELUME, SERGIO ANDRÉS RIFO
RIVERA, AND ERICA SALVAJ CARRERA
 4 A born-global entrepreneur in the PayTech industry:
finding opportunities and capturing value in
international markets 28
JULIÁN ANDRÉS DÍAZ TAUTIVA, SERGIO ANDRÉS RIFO RIVERA, SEBASTIAN ANDRÉS BARROS CELUME, FELIPE IGNACIO RIFO RIVERA, AND ANTONIO LECUNA
Contents

13. viii Contents




























PART II
Entrepreneurial learning 39
5 Digital skills platform from Silicon Valley: training new
generations using experiential learning principles
M. WINTER AND BASEL HAMMODA
41
6 Design thinking: a teaching and learning pedagogy
for building an entrepreneurial mindset
FADY MICHEL, RHEA SINGHLA, MORITZ GRIPP,
AND AMINA EL SHAZLY
51
7 Students creating value for microenterprises in live
casework: cases from the Scandinavian Growth
Creators project
MICHAEL BREUM RAMSGAARD AND METTE LINDAHL THOMASSEN
61
8 What we don’t talk about in entrepreneurship: moving
the spotlight from the “hero entrepreneur” to the
“unremarkable” everyday lives of student entrepreneurs
BIRGITTE WRAAE AND NICOLAI NYBYE
71
PART III
Entrepreneurial challenges 81
9 Doing well by doing good: identity conflict in an
indigenous entrepreneur
SEBASTIAN ANDRÉS BARROS CELUME, FELIPE IGNACIO RIFO
RIVERA, JULIÁN ANDRÉS DÍAZ TAUTIVA, SERGIO ANDRÉS RIFO
RIVERA, AND ANTONIO LECUNA
83
10 Entrepreneurial resilience amid the COVID-19 pandemic:
echoes of a British catering and hospitality startup
BASEL HAMMODA AND MERIAM RAZGALLAH
92
11 A healthtech startup internationalization dilemma:
challenges expanding into the established U.S. market
BASEL HAMMODA AND PABLO PEREIRA BALESTRA
101

14. Contents ix
12 Circular economy business model challenges in
entrepreneurial realties: navigating the value chain of a
recycling startup
RADHA VYAS AND BASEL HAMMODA
110
13 Conclusion—contemporary entrepreneurship:
global perspectives and cases
BASEL HAMMODA AND SUSANNE DURST
119
Index 125

15. Marina Apaydin is associate professor at the American University in Cairo with
over a decade of teaching experience and over two decades of prior profes-
sional experience in finance and business consulting in Europe, the Middle
East, and the United States. She published academic articles on strategic and
cross-cultural management, innovation, and international business.
Pablo Pereira Balestra is the director of Initium Entrepreneurial Center at Uni -
versidad de Montevideo, with a research interest in entrepreneurship. He is a
telematics engineer and holds a master’s in entrepreneurship and technology
management and an MBA. He has profound industry expertise in technology
and entrepreneurship management across several countries.
Sebastian Andrés Barros Celume is a PhD candidate in business economics at
Universidad del Desarrollo, Chile. His primary research focus lies in minority
entrepreneurship, sustainability, and community-based venturing.
Erica Salvaj Carrera, PhD, is a full professor and research director at Universi-
dad del Desarrollo. Her research focuses on business networks, corporate gov-
ernance, social responsibility, power, influence, and grand challenges. She has
published academic work in journals including Business History, Global Strat-
egy Journal, the Journal of Business Research, and Harvard Business Review.
Julián Andrés Díaz Tautiva is a PhD candidate in business economics at Uni -
versidad Del Desarrollo. His research explores the dynamic relationship
between environmental challenges, institutional influences, corporate govern-
ance, and organizational performance. He has published scholarly research
in journals such as Management Review Quarterly, Management Research,
Oeconomia Copernicana, and the Journal of Open Innovation.
Amina El Shazly is an interdisciplinary learning design manager at the Ameri-
can University in Cairo. She crafts transformative learning experiences
focusing on cultivating complex problem-solving skills, design innovation,
and creativity. Her expertise converges at the crossroads of design, strategic
insight, and innovative thinking, propelling user-centric experiences.
Contributors

16. Contributors xi
Shaun Gold is a serial entrepreneur, keynote speaker, and Amazon bestselling
book author. He is the founder of YouTopian Journey, a weekly animated blog
focused on mental health and empowerment of individuals. He serves as an
advisor and mentor for startups and corporation boards.
Moritz Gripp is the COO and co-founder of Futurize, a venture builder that
inspires purpose-driven startups through a global platform of universities,
corporates, and investors. He is a startup advisor at the Founders Institute,
working with early-stage ventures across Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle
East and North Africa (MENA) region.
Antonio Lecuna holds a PhD in management science, an MBA, and a BS in eco-
nomics. He is an assistant professor at Fort Lewis College, School of Business
Administration in Durango, Colorado. Formerly a financial analyst, he later ven-
tured into entrepreneurship with Margaritaville Restaurant and Bongo Beach Bar.
Antonio’s teaching and research focus on minority entrepreneurship, inequality,
and entrepreneurial imagination, with publications in global journals.
Fady Michel is the assistant provost for innovative learning experiences at the
American University in Cairo. His work fosters interdisciplinary collabora-
tion between students, faculty, industry, and societal partners to develop solu-
tions to complex, real-life challenges. He works at the intersection of design,
technology, and human behavior to conceive disruptive, human-centered
solutions.
Hend Mostafa is a lead research and data analyst at Prompta Inc. She has more
than ten years of experience in research and analysis for academic institutions,
corporations, and non-profit organizations. She is a case writer and a research
project manager with several authored business and management cases.
Nicolai Nybye, MA, PhD, the Department of Applied Research in Business and Tech-
nology, UCL University College, Denmark, is researching the meaning-making
and more paradoxical sides of entrepreneurship in entrepreneurial learning pro-
cesses. His research challenges one-size-fits-all tendencies in entrepreneurship
education. Nicolai has wide professional experience from companies, own firm,
voluntary work, and the academic field as educator and researcher.
Michael Breum Ramsgaard, MA (education), is an associate professor at the
Research Centre for Innovation & Entrepreneurship, VIA University Col-
lege, Aarhus, Denmark. His research interests are entrepreneurship educa-
tion, entrepreneurial universities, pedagogy, and context. He has previously
published in Education + Training, Industry and Higher Education, and the
Journal of Small Business and Enterprise Development.
Meriam Razgallah is an associate professor of entrepreneurship at the Paris
School of Business in France, where she teaches entrepreneurship, strategy,
and international business. Her research focuses on social entrepreneurship,

17. xii Contributors
the entrepreneurial processes and intention, gender, and minority entrepre-
neurship. She authored several publications in highly ranked academic jour-
nals, books, and professional outlets.
Felipe Ignacio Rifo Rivera is a PhD candidate in business economics at Universi-
dad del Desarrollo. His research centers on exploring the diverse manifestations
of entrepreneurship in individuals’ lives, encompassing both entrepreneurial
identity and the interplay with faith. Additionally, he imparts knowledge on
entrepreneurship at the bachelor’s level in Universidad del Desarrollo.
Sergio Andrés Rifo Rivera is an assistant professor in the Department of Busi-
ness Management at the Universidad de Concepci?n, Chile. His research
explores relationships between entrepreneurship, the passage of time, and
the role of place and their respective implications in the process of decision-
making and identification of opportunities.
Rhea Singhla is the CEO and co-founder of Futurize, a venture builder that
inspires purpose-driven startups through a global platform of universities, cor-
porates, and investors. Her experience as an investor, startup advisor, and non-
profit director for STEM and entrepreneurial education dovetails her passion to
foster thriving ecosystems for young adults in emerging countries.
Mette Lindahl Thomassen, MSc (marketing management), is an associate pro-
fessor at the Department of Engineering at VIA University College, Horsens,
Denmark. She conducts research within the field of entrepreneurship educa-
tion, where context, sustainability, and intrapreneurship are currently in focus.
She has published in the International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour
and Research, the Journal of Workplace Learning, and Industry and Higher
Education.
Radha Vyas is an assistant professor at D. R. Patel & R. B. Patel Commerce Col-
lege and Navnirman Institute of Management, Surat, Gujarat, India, affiliated
to Veer Narmad South Gujarat University. She has written 30 research papers
in reputed journals in entrepreneurship, finance, and marketing disciplines.
M. Winter is a post-doctoral researcher in the Department of Business Adminis-
tration at Tallinn University of Technology in Estonia. She is also a research fel-
low at the Institute for the Future of Work in London, UK. Her research interests
include gender, technology, and labor, as well as interdisciplinary pedagogies.
Birgitte Wraae, MA, PhD, is an associate professor of entrepreneurship in the
Department of Applied Research in Business and Technology at UCL Uni-
versity College, Denmark. Her research interests are in entrepreneurship,
especially entrepreneurship education: identity formation, emancipation, and
educator roles. She excels in doing research in connection with the entrepre-
neurial learning space. She has recently published a book on the entrepre-
neurial learning journey.

18. 1 Introduction—Contemporary
issues in entrepreneurship
research
The diversity, practicality, and
contemporariness predicaments
Basel Hammoda and Susanne Durst
This book provides an interesting account of disparate emergent entrepreneurial
cases from different parts of the world through close observations and direct
engagements with startups and entrepreneurs. It takes the reader on a journey of
discovery and insightful contemplation on the possible theoretical avenues and
interrelationships that can help interpret and advance our understanding of the
practicalities of some modern-day entrepreneurial exemplars, beyond the uni-
corns and flagship startup stories prevalent in mainstream literature.
In particular, this book aims to enrich the heterogenicity and relevance of
entrepreneurship research. This is done through its 11 discrete chapters, each of
which examines a case of contemporary entrepreneurial activity at the frontiers
of research and practice. The diversity of the included cases extends beyond
their contextual molds, as in their varying geographical, sectorial, and cultural
dimensions, to applying distinctively relevant theoretical lenses to illuminate the
intricacies of those novel entrepreneurial instances and deduce impactful con-
tributions to both literature and practice. The chapters are authored by a mix of
senior and more junior researchers, who engaged closely with the designated
entrepreneurs and startups to provide a firsthand account of the exquisite prac-
tices within the studied cases.
The hybrid orientation of the cases included in this book, building bridges
between practice and theory, is crucial at this juncture in entrepreneurship
research when there is a need to shift the scholarly effort and output from one
that prioritizes theoretical and methodological excellence to one that is driven by
impact and shaped by practical relevance. Despite establishing itself as a legiti-
mate discrete field, with established research domains and publication streams,
our current epistemological and ontological developments in entrepreneurship
research are at early stages and still rely on other management disciplines (Rat-
ten, 2023; Wiklund et al., 2019). While this allowed our field to grow and branch
more fluidly, it has also led to a theoretical stalemate and a lack of sufficient
knowledge accumulation and aggregation that can form the basis for future
research (Shepherd, 2015; Wiklund et al., 2019).
DOI: 10.4324/9781003371403-1

19. 2 Basel Hammoda and Susanne Durst
There are several challenges that stand in the way of the entrepreneurship field
“catching up” with the changing business landscape and other fields of manage-
ment research. The current literature continues to have a rather narrow focus.
While entrepreneurial activities are framed by and impact various economic,
social, policy, and even formative elements, these are insufficiently represented
in extant research (Davidsson, 2003; Ratten, 2023; Welter et al., 2017; Zahra
& Wright, 2011, 2016). The limited breadth of our research can be attributed
to researchers not looking “wide” enough, not taking notice of emerging topics
when they should, or making misjudged decisions on what is appealing enough
to study (Welter et al., 2017). This restricted our abilities as scholars to devise
our own theoretical and methodological tools and improve the axiological valid-
ity of our research output. Also, perhaps researchers are more intrigued to inves-
tigate standardized models of entrepreneurship on which ample information is
available to achieve the required theoretical and methodological rigor for pure
publication purposes, while intentionally qualifying out less “visible” or “risky”
forms of entrepreneurship.
Additionally, when trying to explore a discrete or emerging entrepreneurial
phenomena, researchers might not always be able to relate their phenomena to an
established theoretical framework or analyze their data through rigorous meth-
odological approaches (Thompson et al., 2020). Furthermore, there seems to be
a divergence between what we preach in entrepreneurship classrooms and accel-
erators and existent narratives in literature. While we teach our entrepreneurship
students and nascent entrepreneurs to base their ideas upon contemporary needs
and emerging trends, which are essential in devising innovative solutions that
address local community needs and global sustainability challenges (Sharma et
al., 2022), current research in entrepreneurship appears to be more interested
in applying a historical lens to studying entrepreneurial phenomena. Many
researchers tend to rely on available and archival datasets that seldom reflect the
concurrent dynamism of entrepreneurship, rather than interacting vividly with
entrepreneurial examples in their surrounding environments. This can void their
output of its contextual and timely relevance.
Another challenge facing entrepreneurship research is the growing percep-
tion among scholars and practitioners alike that it has lost its touch with reality.
The overcomplexity of the theoretical and methodological representation of our
arguments, which are shaped by highly ranked journals expectations, renders
our publications arcane and difficult to digest by the same population that our
research stems from and should support, that is, entrepreneurs, managers, and
policymakers (Wiklund et al., 2019). Research published in academic journals
rarely reaches or benefits businesses and policymakers (Hernandez & Haack,
2023).A significant amount of it hones in on theoretical arguments, and most
journals are closed off to “outsiders” of the academic field. Even if practition-
ers get access to academic databases, finding a relevant article is like searching
for a needle in a haystack, not to mention the conundrum of deciphering an

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24. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Monist,
Vol. 1, 1890-1891

25. This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no
restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
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ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the
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you are located before using this eBook.
Title: The Monist, Vol. 1, 1890-1891
Author: Various
Editor: Paul Carus
Edward C Hegeler
Release date: February 24, 2018 [eBook #56634]
Language: English
Credits: Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries)
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MONIST,
VOL. 1, 1890-1891 ***

26. Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
produced from images generously made available by The Internet
Archive/Canadian Libraries)
TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE:
Italics have been transcribed using underscores, bold with =equal
signs=, small capitals as ALL CAPITALS. Sidenotes are placed
between #hashtags# and are placed either above the paragraph
they refer to or inline. Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation
have not been corrected. Minor punctuation errors and typographical
discrepancies have been silently corrected. A list of other corrections
can be found at the end of the document.

27. THE MONIST
A
QUARTERLY MAGAZINE
VOL. I.
CHICAGO: THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO 1890-1891

28. COPYRIGHT BY
THE OPEN COURT PUBLISHING CO.
1890-1891

29. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.
ARTICLES.
PAGE.
Anarchists, The Physiognomy of the. By Cesare Lombroso 336
Anarchist's Reply to Professor Lombroso, A Convicted. By Michael
  Schwab 520
Architecture of Theories, The. By Charles S. Peirce 161
Criminal Anthropology, Illustrative Studies in. (1) "La Bête
Humaine" and Criminal Anthropology. (2) Criminal Anthropology and
Psychiatry. By Cesare Lombroso 177
Ethics, The Criterion of——an Objective Reality. Editor 552
Evolution, The Factors of. By Joseph Le Conte 321
Evolution, The Right of. By Moncure D. Conway 506
Feelings and the Elements of Feelings. Editor 401

30. Five Souls with but a Single Thought. By Carus Sterne 245
Höffding on the Relation of the Mind to the Body. By W. M. Salter
118
Immortality. By George M. Gould 372
Infusoria, The Immortality of. By Alfred Binet 21
Innovation and Inertia in the World of Psychology. By Cesare
  Lombroso 344
Magic Mirror, The. By Max Dessoir 87
Mind, The Origin of. By Paul Carus 69
Mind, The Question of Duality of. By R. Meade Bache 362
Philosophy in American Colleges and Universities 148-156
Psycho-Physics, Some Questions of. A Discussion. (1) Sensations
   and the Elements of Reality. By Ernst Mach 393
  (2) Feelings and the Elements of Feelings. Editor 401
Psychology of Conception. By J. Sully 481
Sensations, The Analysis of the. By Ernst Mach 48
Sensations and the Elements of Reality. By Ernst Mach 393
Sex, On the Material Relations of—in Human Society. By E. D.
Cope 38
Squaring of the Circle, The. By Hermann Schubert 197

31. Thought and Language, On. F. Max Müller 572
Truth, The Criterion of. Editor 229
Wallace on Physiological Selection, A. R. George J. Romanes 1
Welfare, The Principle of. By Harald Höffding 525
LITERARY CORRESPONDENCE.
France. By Lucien Arréat 124, 278, 421, 590
German Philosophy in the XIX Century. By F. Jodl 263
The Modern Literature of Italy since 1870. By C. Lombroso 428
The Science of Pedagogy in Germany. Chr. Ufer 597
BOOK REVIEWS.
Abbott, Francis Ellingwood. The Way Out of Agnosticism 129
Bois-Reymond, Paul Du. Ueber die Grundlagen der Erkenntnis
in den exacten Wissenschaften 608
Booth, General. In Darkest England and the Way Out 451
Bray, Charles. The Philosophy of Necessity 136
Brinton, Daniel G. Races and Peoples 131
Büchner, Ludwig. Fremdes und Eigenes aus dem geistigen
Leben der Gegenwart 303

32. Carneri, B. Der Moderne Mensch 607
Carus, Paul. The Soul of Man 620
Clarke, James Freeman. Deacon Herbert's Bible Class 305
Coit, Stanton. Die ethische Bewegung in der Religion 301
Cox, Charles F. Protoplasm and Life 297
Dewey, John. Outlines of a Critical Theory of Ethics 600
Dillmann, C. Die Mathematik die Fackelträgerin einer neuen Zeit
617
  Edinger, Ludwig. Twelve Lectures on the Structure of the Central
    Nervous System 604
Everett, Charles Carroll. The Science of Thought 287
Forel, August. Der Hypnotismus 605
Fullerton, George Stuart. On Sameness and Identity 291
Geddes, Patrick, and J. Arthur Thomson. The Evolution of Sex 439
Haeckel, Ernst. Plankton-Studien 455
Harris, William T. Introduction to the Study of Philosophy 438
Höffding, Harald. Ethik 139
James, William. The Principles of Psychology 284
Jastrow, Joseph. The Time-Relations of Mental Phenomena 290

33. Jodl, Friedrich. Geschichte der Ethik in der neueren Philosophie
137
  Krause, Ernst. Tuisko-Land der arischen Stämme und
    Götter-Urheimat 612
Kroman, K. Kurzgefasste Logik und Psychologie 142
  Lehmann, Alfred. Die Hypnose und die damit verwandten
normalen
    Zustände 298
Loeb, Jacques. Der Heliotropismus der Thiere 300
Loeb, Jacques. Untersuchungen zur physiologischen
Morphologie der Thiere 300
Lombroso, Cesare. Der geniale Mensch 146
Mackenzie, John S. An Introduction to Social Philosophy 601
Mantegazza, Paolo. Physiognomy and Expression 447
Moll, Albert. Hypnotism 604
Morgan, C. Lloyd. Animal Life and Intelligence 443
Naden, Constance C. W. Induction and Deduction 292
  Natorp, Paul. Einleitung in die Psychologie nach kritischer
    Methode 143
Peet, Stephen D. Emblematic Mounds and Animal Effigies 295

34.   Post, Albert Hermann. Ueber die Aufgaben einer allgemeinen
    Rechtswissenschaft 457
  Royer, Madame Clémence. Nouveaux aperçus sur la Phylogenie
    de l'Homme 297
Savage, M. J. Life 296
  Schopenhauer, Arthur. Le Monde comme Volonté et comme
    Representation 298
Sterrett, J. Macbride. Studies in Hegel's Philosophy of Religion 133
Sterne, Carus. Die allgemeine Weltanschauung 456
Taylor, Isaac. The Origin of the Aryans 435
Ufer, Christian. Geistesstörungen in der Schule 619
Wolff, Joh. Das Bewusstsein und sein Object 147
PERIODICALS 157-160; 307-320; 459-480; 621-640

35. VOL. I. OCTOBER, 1890. NO. 1.

36. THE MONIST.

37. MR. A. R. WALLACE ON
PHYSIOLOGICAL SELECTION.[1]
[1] In a private letter to the editor of this magazine Professor
Geo. J. Romanes writes: "The article refers to a completely new
departure in the theory of evolution, striking in the principle of
homogamy, the root-principle of the whole, and in physiological
selection, one of the main branches. Yet neither principle has so
far been perceived except by Mr. Gulick…. The theory of
physiological selection has been better understood in America
than in this country; and I should like the naturalists there, who
have taken such a warm and appreciative interest in it, to see my
reply to Mr. Wallace published in an American periodical."
In 1886 I published a paper entitled "Physiological Selection: an
additional suggestion on the origin of species," (Zoölogical Journal of
the Linnean Society, Vol. XIX, p. 337). The view there expressed is,
briefly, as follows.
Given the facts of heredity and variability, the whole theory of
organic evolution becomes neither more nor less than a theory of
the causes which determine the breeding of like with like, to the

38. exclusion of unlike. For the more firmly that we believe in heredity
with variability as the fundamental principle of organic evolution, the
stronger must become our persuasion that segregate breeding (or
exclusive mating of like with like) must lead to divergence, while
indiscriminate breeding (or free intercrossing of all varieties) must
lead to uniformity. So long as there is free intercrossing, heredity
makes in favor of fixity of type—or, at most, can permit change only
in a single line, where successive generations undergo a continuous
improvement, which may give rise to a ladder-like series of species
in time. But in order that there should be a tree-like multiplication of
species in space, or a simultaneous divergence of type, it is essential
that free intercrossing be prevented at the origin, and throughout
the development, of each branch. In other words, it is only when
assisted by some form of segregation—which determines exclusive
breeding of like with like—that heredity can effect arborescent or
polytypic, as distinguished from catenated or monotypic, evolution.
For the sake of greater clearness, I will call segregation in this sense
homogamy, or the exclusive mating of individuals which belong to
the same variety.
Now homogamy may be secured in a very great number of
different ways. Of these the most important, from every point of
view, is natural selection. Here the exclusive breeding of like with
like is determined by general fitness, and is effected by
extermination of the unlike—i. e., the comparatively unfit. Moreover,
this process leads to a continuous improvement in the way of
adaptation, and in this important respect it stands alone among all
the forms of homogamy. Nevertheless, we must note that, unless
assisted by some other form of homogamy, natural selection can
only produce monotypic evolution; never polytypic. Successive
generations may thus continuously mount to higher stages of

39. adaptation on the steps supplied by their own dead selves; but
although they may thus give rise to a linear series of species in time,
they can never thus give rise to a multiplication of species in space.
In order to effect such multiplication, or divergence of types, natural
selection must be supplemented by some other form of homogamy,
which can prevent intercrossing between the equally fit at the origin,
and throughout the development, of every separate branch.
Well, as I have said, these other forms of homogamy are very
numerous. First we may notice geographical isolation. When a
comparatively small portion of a species is thus separated from the
rest of its kind, intercrossing is effectually prevented between the
two sections; and inasmuch as the general average of specific
characters in the isolated section will be somewhat different from
that of the other section, heredity will determine that the two
sections shall not run parallel in their subsequent lines of
evolutionary history: there will arise an increasing divergence
between them, as was first pointed out by the mathematician
Delbœuf, subsequently by the naturalist Weismann, and more
recently, with greater emphasis, by Mr. Gulick as well as myself.
Again, there is homogamy that arises as a result of sexual
preference, or, as I have called it, "psychological selection." It is a
matter of observation that the breeding of like with like is often
determined among the higher vertebrata by individuals of each
variety preferring to mate with other individuals of their own variety;
and this is homogamy.
Not to occupy space with any attempt at enumerating all the
many forms of homogamy[2] I will at once pass on to the form
which constitutes the subject-matter of the present paper—and the

40. form which, in my opinion, is probably of more importance than any
other in the multiplication of species. This is the form of homogamy
which I have termed Physiological Selection, or Segregation of the
Fit, and Mr. Gulick—who independently perceived the principle—has
called Segregate Fecundity.
[2] This has been done in a most careful and exhaustive
manner by Mr. Gulick in his papers which have succeeded mine in
the publications of the Linnean Society.
As my object on the present occasion is to answer criticisms which
have been passed on my enunciation of this principle, I do not
propose to go into further detail by way of explanation than is
necessary in order to render intelligible both the criticisms and my
reply thereto. Moreover, this reply is only an abstract of a fuller one
which has been prepared for publication in a forthcoming book.
Therefore it deals only with the main points. Lastly, I may remark
that the criticisms which have hitherto appeared have all been
derived from the same source, viz., from Mr. A. R. Wallace; for,
although many other naturalists have expressed themselves as more
or less opposed to the new theory, or "additional suggestion on the
origin of species," they have all done so on the grounds, or for the
reasons supplied by Mr. Wallace. Therefore, in dealing with Mr.
Wallace's objections, I shall be dealing with the only objections
which have thus far been advanced.
In order at once to restate the theory of physiological selection,
and to do so in a form which cannot be suspected of being in any
way influenced by Mr. Wallace's more recent criticisms, I will begin
by reproducing the main features of the theory in the words which
were employed for this purpose more than three years ago, when I

41. supplied an article to the Nineteenth Century in answer to one by
him in the Fortnightly Review. Moreover, for the most part this
restatement of the theory is quoted verbatim from my original paper
—the differences being due only to the conditions imposed by limits
of an article.
The following, then, is quoted from the Nineteenth Century for
January, 1887:
"According to the Darwinian theory [which, as elsewhere fully
explained, the present theory is in no way capable of supplanting,
but only of supplementing, and this among other ways, by
explaining why it is that some degree of mutual infertility is so
general a phenomenon as between allied species—a phenomenon
which Darwin expressly regarded as not explicable by the theory
of natural selection], it is for the most part only those variations
which happen to have been useful that have been preserved: yet,
even as thus limited, the principle of variability is held able to
furnish sufficient material out of which to construct the whole
adaptive morphology of nature. How immense, therefore, must be
the number of unuseful variations. Yet these are all, for the most
part, still-born, or allowed to die out immediately by intercrossing.
Should such intercrossing be prevented, however, there is no
reason why unuseful variations should not be perpetuated by
heredity quite as well as useful ones when under the nursing
influence of natural selection—as, indeed, we see to be the case
in our domesticated productions. Consequently, if from any
reason a section of a species is prevented from intercrossing with
the rest of its species, new varieties of a trivial or unuseful kind
might be expected to arise within that section. And this is just
what we find. Oceanic islands, for example, are well known to be

42. extraordinarily rich in peculiar species; and this can best be
explained by considering that a complete separation of the fauna
and flora on such an island permits them to develop varietal
histories of their own, without interference by intercrossing with
their originally parent forms. We see the same principle
exemplified by the influence of geographical barriers of any kind,
and also by the consequences of migration. Therefore, given an
absence of overwhelming intercrossing, and the principle of what
I term independent variability may be trusted to evoke new
species, without the aid of natural selection. [Homogamy.]
"Were it not for the very general occurrence of some degree of
sterility between even closely allied species and were it not also
for the fact, that closely allied species are not always—or even
generally—separated from one another by geographical barriers,
we might reasonably attribute all cases of species-formation by
independent variability to the prevention of intercrossing by
geographical barriers or by migration. But it is evident that these
two facts can no more be explained by the influence of
geographical barriers, or by migration, than they can be by the
influence of natural selection.
"Now, of all parts of those variable objects which we call
organisms, the most variable is the reproductive system; and the
variations may be either in the direction of increased or
diminished fertility. Consequently, variations in the way of greater
or less sterility frequently take place both in plants and animals;
and probably, if we had adequate means of observing this point,
we should find that there is no one variation more common. But,
of course, whenever it arises—whether as a result of changed
conditions of life, or, as we say, spontaneously—it immediately

43. becomes extinguished, seeing that the individuals which it affects
are less able (if able at all) to propagate the variation. If, however,
the variation should be such that, while showing some degree of
sterility with the parent form, it continues to be as fertile as
before within the limits of the varietal form, it would neither be
swamped by intercrossing nor die out on account of sterility.
"For example, suppose the variation in the reproductive system
is such that the season of flowering, or of pairing, becomes either
advanced or retarded. Whether this variation be "spontaneous,"
or due to change of food, climate, habitat, etc., does not signify.
The only point we need attend to is that some individuals, living
on the same geographical area as the rest of their species, have
demonstrably varied in their reproductive systems, so that they
are perfectly fertile inter se, while absolutely sterile with the rest
of their species. By inheritance there would thus arise a variety
living on the same geographical area as its parent form, and yet
prevented from intercrossing with that form by a barrier quite as
effectual as a thousand miles of ocean; the only difference would
be that the barrier, instead of being geographical, is physiological.
And now, of course, the two sections of the physiologically
divided species would be able to develop independent histories of
their own without intercrossing; even though they are living
together on the same geographical area, their physiological
isolation would lead to their taking on distinct specific characters
by independent variations, [or homogamy,] just as is the case
with sections of a species when separated from each other by
geographical isolation.
"To state this suggestion in another form, it enables us to
regard many, if not most, species as the records of variations in

44. the reproductive systems of ancestors. When variations of a non-
useful kind occur in any of the other systems or parts of
organisms, they are, as a rule, immediately extinguished by
intercrossing. But whenever they happen to arise in the
reproductive system in the way here suggested, they must tend
to be preserved as new natural varieties, or incipient species. At
first the difference would only be in respect of the reproductive
systems; but eventually, on account of independent variation,
other differences would supervene, and the new variety would
take rank as a true species.
"The principle thus briefly sketched in some respects resembles,
and in other respects differs from, the principle of natural
selection, or survival of the fittest. For the sake of convenience,
therefore, and in order to preserve analogies with already existing
terms, I have called this principle Physiological Selection, or
Segregation of the Fit.
"Let it be noted that we are not concerned either with the
causes or the degrees of the particular kind of variation on which
this principle depends. Not with the causes, because in this
respect the theory of physiological selection is in just the same
position as that of natural selection: it is enough for both that the
needful variations are provided, without its being incumbent on
either to explain the causes which in all cases underlie them.
Neither are we concerned with the degrees of sterility which the
variation in question may in any particular case supply. For
whether the degree of sterility with the parent form be originally
great or small, the result of it will be in the long run the same:
the only difference will be that in the latter case a greater number
of generations would be required in order to separate the varietal

45. from the parent form. [In other words, homogamy due to such
physiological isolation is cumulative.]
"The object of this paper being that of furnishing a general
answer to criticisms on the hypothesis of physiological selection, I
will not occupy space by detailing evidence of that hypothesis,
further than is needful for the object just mentioned.[3] This
evidence abundantly proves that the particular kind of variation
which the theory of physiological selection requires does take
place, (a) in individuals, (b) in races, and (c) in species. Next, the
evidence goes on to show that the facts of organic nature are
such as they ought to be, supposing it true that this variation has
played any considerable part in the differentiation of specific
types. In particular, it is shown that the general association
between the one primary, or relatively constant, specific
distinction (mutual sterility), and the innumerable secondary, or
relatively variable, distinctions (slight morphological changes
which may effect any parts of any organisms), of itself indicates
that the former has been the original condition to the occurrence
of the latter, in all cases where free intercrossing has not been
otherwise prevented. For even in cases where the secondary
distinctions may be supposed to have induced the primary,—or
where morphological changes taking place in other parts of an
organic type have exercised a reflex influence on the reproductive
system, such that the changed organism is no longer fertile with
its unchanged parent form,—even in such cases the theory of
physiological selection is available to explain the association in
question. For even in these cases, notwithstanding that the
secondary changes are historically the prior changes, they still
depend for their preservation on the principles of physiological
selection. These principles have, in all such cases, selected the

46. particular kinds of secondary distinction which have proved
themselves capable of so reacting on the reproductive system as
to bring about the primary distinction, and thus to protect
themselves against the destructive power of free intercrossing."
[3] The evidence, so far as yet published, may be read by
any one who cares to purchase the original paper, which can
be obtained from the Linnean Society in a separate form.
Now for Mr. Wallace's criticism of this theory, as presented in his
recently published work on "Darwinism."
Briefly put, he furnishes a numerical calculation, showing that
when "the physiological peculiarity is not correlated with any
external differences of form or color, or with inherent peculiarities of
likes or dislikes leading to any choice as to pairing," even when so
large a proportion as ten per cent. of the exceptional variety arises
every year in the midst of the species, "it is unable to increase its
numbers much above its starting-point, and remains wholly
dependent on the continued renewal of the variety for its existence
beyond a few years."
This, it must be observed, is a reproduction of the criticism which
I answered in 1888; but, as Mr. Wallace ignores that answer, I must
now repeat it.
The criticism does not dispute the fact that the required variation
in the way of "selective sterility" occurs. Indeed, Mr. Wallace allows
that it certainly must be of very general occurrence as between
incipient species (or pronounced varieties in a state of nature),
seeing that it is of such general occurrence as between allied species
when fully differentiated as such. In other words, this variation in

47. the way of selective sterility must be recognised as a very general
fact, even if it be not regarded as a condition, or a cause, of specific
differentiation. Which is merely another way of saying that the
particular variation which is required by the theory in question is
admittedly a variation which does occur; and occurs, moreover, in
very frequent association with the origin of a new species. But Mr.
Wallace's objection to regarding this variation as itself a cause of (or
condition to) the origin of a new species is, as we have seen, that
the changes must always be greatly against the similar variations of
the opposite sexes meeting—i. e., of the "physiological
complements" happening to pair. Now, I have already shown, in the
Nineteenth Century of three years ago, that this criticism can only
apply to species the sexes of which unite for every birth; but as Mr.
Wallace continues to ignore this important consideration, I will now
present it in somewhat more detail.
In considering any "supplementary theory" of the origin of
species, it is obviously absurd to disregard the realm of organic
nature as a whole, and to fasten attention exclusively upon the part
of it where a particular difficulty against the theory may be supposed
to lie. As will presently be shown, Mr. Wallace is entirely mistaken in
supposing that his particular difficulty does lie against the theory in
any part of organic nature; but, even if this could not have been
shown, it would not have followed that the theory of physiological
selection is inapplicable to all the classes of the animal and
vegetable kingdoms, because it is taken to be inapplicable to some.
One might just as well argue against Mr. Darwin's theory of sexual
selection on the ground that it cannot be held to apply to the
coloration and the sculpture of shells. If either sexual selection or
physiological selection were put forward as an exclusive theory of
the origin of all species, this kind of argument would, of course,

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