cours english bmp- université nouakchott

cours

1. Dr.TebraCheikhVall
Assistant Prof. At University of
Nouakchott and Lebanese
International University
English for S6

2. Introduction English for S6
This course is practical intensive grammar and vocabulary
course
It introduces students to various grammatical forms and
vocabulary in use. The emphasis is on meanings and how they
govern the choice of grammatical pattern.
The vocabulary section encompasses: Word Formation
(PrefixesNoun suffixes, Adjective suffixes, Zero
affixation, Compound nouns and adjectives;Phrase,
clauses and sentences building; CV writing;
Personal statement Writng; Application letters
Advanced grammar such as Verb tenses and aspects(
present perfect progressive; Types of sentences the
use of coordinating conjunctions, subordinating
conjunctions and sentence connectors;

3. Word Formation: Prefixes and Suffixes
Outline
Whatiswordformation?
How are wordsformed?
How do prefixesand suffixes differ?
Whyare prefixesused?
Whatare the diffrentuses of suffixes?

4. Word Formation: Prefixes& Suffixes
word formation: The process of forming words
throughout adding word beginnings( Prefixes) or and
word endings(Suffixes) to a word to change its
meaning or its word class.

5. Word formation in English:
PREFIXESandSUFFIXEScreate new words, usually by
modifying or changing the meaning of aROOT WORD.
If we take a root word like EMPLOY, RECOGNIZE (verb), or
HAPPY (adjective) we can see how their meaning changes.
PREFIX ROOTWORD SUFFIX
UN + employ + ED
= UNEMPLOYED(the verb becomes an adjective with a
negative meaning)
UN + recognize + ABLE
UNRECOGNIZABLE(cannot be recognized
 happy + NESS
=HAPPINESS(theadjective becomes a noun)
UNDER + estimate
UNDERESTIMATE: (something too little)

6. The Diffrencebetweenprefixesand
suffixes
Prefixes usually change the
meaning of a word
Examples: unpleasant
interactive
Suffixes usually change the
part of speech of the word
Examples: pleasantly
active

7. DifferentUses of prifixes
Aprefixis aletteror a group of letters attached to the beginning
of aword(or wordroot) that partly indicates itsmeaning. For
example, the wordprefixitself begins with the prefixpre-, which
generally means "before" or "in front of." (By contrast, a letter or
group of letters attaching tothe end of a word is called a suffix.)
Prefixes can be used to:
change the meaning of the rootwordnegatively or positively
aggregate the meaning of a stem with a size concept.
aggregate the meaning of a stem with a location concept
aggregate the meaning of a stem with a time or an order concept.
aggregate the meaning of a stem with a number or count concept
and for otherpurposes

8. Adjective Formation
We use the negative prefixes un-/ in-/im-/il-/ir-
/dis-to give the adjective the opposite meaning:

grateful –ungrateful
conclusive –inconclusive
personal –impersonal
liberal –illiberal
retrievable –irretrievable
contented –dislcontented
I had never seen such anirresponsible player before! And
he’s so dishonest!
Use and Form –Negative prefixes

9. Match the adjectives with the
right prefix to form opposites
1. happy
2. legal
3. Responsible
4.Connected
5. moral
6. regular
7. correct
8. legible
9. fair
10. Polite
a) im
-b) in
-c) il
-d) ir
-e) un
-f) dis

10. Answers
1. happy(e)
2. legal(c)
3.Responsible (d)
4.Connected(f)
5. moral(a)
6. regular(d)
7. correct(b)
8. legible (c)
9. fair(e)
10. Polite(a)

11. Negative&Positive Prefixes

12. Prefixes of size.

13. Prefixes: Location

14. Prefixes: Time/ Order

15. PrefixesofNumbers

16. OtherPrefixes

17. Practice
Fill in the gaps with the right prefix.
1. The rumoursabout their reconciliation were completely
unfounded.
2. He didn’t like Lisa’s boyfriend. It would be ____honest of
him to pretend otherwise.
3. It was ____possible for her to arrive on time to the
meeting.
4. The tickets are ___valid. You haven’t stamped them.
5. Many ____legal immigrants were arrested last night.
6. I am convinced now. His arguments were ____resistible.

18. Answers
1. The rumoursabout their reconciliation were completely
unfounded.
2. He didn’t like Lisa’s boyfriend. It would be dishonest of
him to pretend otherwise.
3. It was impossible for her to arrive on time to the meeting.
4. The tickets are invalid. You haven’t stamped them.
5. Many illegal immigrants were arrested last night.
6. I am convinced now. His arguments were irresistible.

19. Suffixes
Suffix: a letter or group of letters attached to the ending of a
word( or a root word)that mainly change its form (including
plural, tense, comparative, and part of speech).
Suffixes can be used for:
Noun formation
Verb formation.
Adverb formation
Adjective formation.

20. Suffixes: Noun formation

21. Suffixes: Noun formation
Form Suffix Meaning Example
Noun -ent one who superintendent,
resident, regent
-eur/ er/ or one who chauffeur, masseur,
Writer, speaker, actor,
visitor
-ism doctrine of capitalism, socialism,
patriotism
-wright one who works with playwright, shipwright

22. Suffixes: Verbformation
Form Suffix Meaning Example
Verb -ify to make terrify, falsify, vilify
-en made of strengthen, fasten,
frighten
-ble repeated action stumble, squabble,
mumble
-ed past tense wanted, hated, looted
-ize/-ise to make standardize, equalise,
computerize, pulverize
-ate to make automate, activate,
calculate

23. Suffixes: Adverbformation
Form Suffix Meaning Example
Adverb -ly resembling slowly, kindly,
seriously
-ward direction forward,
backward,
onward
-ways manner sideways,
crossways

24. Suffixes: Adjective formation

25. Suffixes: Adjective Formation
Form Suffix Meaning Example
Adjective-ic, -ical pertaining tomusical,
mythic
-ious, -ous characterized
by
nutritious,
portentous
-ive having the
nature of
Creative
-less without Endless,
helpless
-y characterized
by
Sleazy
-er comparativeHarder, bigger
-est superlativeTallest,
happiest

26. Practice
Make adjectives by using the suffixes : -OUS , -AL , -Y , -IVE , -
ABLE , -FUL , -LESS. Sometimes you may have to add or remove a
letter for the correct spelling.
1.Dangerous
2.comfort
3.fam
4.sun
5.pain
6.wind
7.enjoy
8.act
9.logic
10.use

27. Answers

Dangerous
2.comfortable
3.famous
4.sunny
5.painful
6.windy
7.enjoyable
8.active
9.logical
10.useless

28. Compound words
A compound wordis two or more words linked
together to produce a word with a new meaning:
tooth + brush = toothbrush eco + friendly = eco-
friendly animal + lover = animal lover

29. How canwemakecompounds
We make compounds in all word classes:
nouns:car park,soap opera
pronouns:anyone,everything,nobody
adjectives:environmentally-friendly,fat-free
numerals:twenty-seven,three-quarters
verbs:daydream,dry-clean
prepositions:into,onto
adverbs:nevertheless,nowadays
conjunctions:although,however

30. Compound nouns
We usually make compound nounswith a noun + noun, with a
verb (or a word made from a verb) +
noun, or with an adjective + noun:
noun+ noun:earphones
verb-ingform + noun:parking ticket
verb base form + noun:rescue team
adjective + noun:blackboard
The usual spoken stress pattern is with
stress on the first item
(earphones,blackboard).

31. Compound nouns
In a compound noun, we can combine different
elements. Theseinclude:
subject + verb:earache(an ear that
aches),rainfall(rain that falls)
verb + subject:cleaning products(products that
clean)
verb + object:know-all(person who thinks they
know everything)
object + verb:shoe-polish(polishes
shoes),dishwasher(washes dishes)

32. Compound adjectives
A compound adjective(Phrasal adjective) is
asingleexpression made up of more than one
word andactingas asingleadjective sometimes
called a hyphenated adjective is an adjective that
contains two or more words.
In general we put a hyphen between two or more
words (before a noun) when we want them to act
as a single idea (adjective) that describes
something.
I live in an English-speaking country.
English-speaking is an adjective (used to describe
the country). We use a hyphen to connect the
wordEnglishwithspeakingto show that it is one
adjective (or one idea).
.

33. Compound Adjectives
This adjective with two words joined by the
hyphen is called a compound adjective
Some more examples of compound adjectives
are:
Our office is in atwenty-storeybuilding.
I have just finished reading a300-pagebook.
He is awell-knownwriter.

34. Compound Adjectives

35. Periods of Time
When we have compound adjectives using a number
+ a time period, that word referring to a time
period is in singular form and is joined to the
number with a hyphen.
I work eight hours every day --> I work aneight-
hourday
I'm going on vacation for three weeks --> I have
athree-weekvacation
There was a delay of 5 seconds --> There was afive-
seconddelay
Notice how we normally write the number as a
word, not in numerical form.

36. Adverbs and Compound Adjectives
Adverbs modify a verb.
Shewalksslowly.
How does she walk? Slowly. Slowly is an adverb that
modifies (or describes) the verb.
Adverbs can also be used to modify an adjective.
It isveryhot today. (Veryisan adverb)
She isextremelyintelligent. (Extremelyis an adverb)
Notice how we do not put a hyphen between an
adverb and an adjective (not even before a noun).
It is averyhot day.
She is anextremelyintelligent girl.

37. Adverb + Past Participle
However when we have an Adverb + past
participle, we put a hyphen between the
two words to make it a compound
adjective.
This is abrightly-litroom.
She is awell-knownactress.
We live in adensely-populatedcity.

38. Noun + Past Participle/Present Partici
When we have a noun + past participle, we put a
hyphen between the two words to make it a
compound adjective.
We should start usingwind-poweredgenerators
to cut costs.
I love eatingsun-driedraisins.
Noun + Present Participle
When we have a noun + present participle, we put a
hyphen between the two words to make it a
compound adjective.
I bought somemouth-wateringstrawberries.
That was arecord-breakingjump.

39. Noun + Adjective
When we have a noun + adjective, we put a hyphen
between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.
She is aworld-famoussinger.
This is asmoke-freerestaurant.
Adjective + Noun
When we have an adjective + noun, we put a hyphen
between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.
It was alast-minutedecision.
We watched thefull-lengthversion of the movie.

40. Adjective + Past Participle
When we have an adjective + past participle, we put a
hyphen between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.
That is anold-fashioneddress
Reptiles arecold-bloodedcreatures.
Adjective + Present Participle
When we have an adjective + present participle, we put a
hyphen between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.
She is agood-lookinggirl.
It left along-lastingtaste in my mouth.

41. Compound Adjectives with Proper Nouns
A proper noun is the name of something or someone (e.g.
John, Susan Sanders).
Compound Adjectives made from Proper nouns don't need a
hyphen though must have capital letters.
I bought the James Jackson tickets for us.
James Jackson is a compound adjective describing the tickets
(What type of tickets? James Jackson tickets). Since the
adjective is a Proper noun, we don't need a hyphen between
the two names.

42. Hyphens inCompoundAdjectives
To begin, acompound adjectiveis asingleexpression made up
of more than one word andactingas asingleadjective. Look
at thefollowingcompound adjectives:publicly
tradedstock,well-knownactress,
andbookkeepingsystem.Noticethat each isspelledin
adifferentway:
1. open (publicly traded) 2.hyphenated(well-known)
3.closed(bookkeeping) And that’s theissueyou’ll
face:whethertospellthemultiwordexpression as two or
morewords(open), as ahyphenatedexpression
(hyphenated), or as asingleword (closed).


43. How do we know when to put a
hyphen?

Mosthyphenationincompoundadjectivesoccurswhen
thecompoundadjectivecomesbefore the noun, that is, in
theattributiveposition. As abroadrule, when
acompoundadjectiveappearsafter the noun it modifies, that
is, in thepredicativeposition, it will not be hyphenated.
Thus:
thewell-knownactress
But:
Theactressiswell known.

44. Hyphens inCompoundAdjectives,GeneralRule
Thebroadandgeneralrule, then, is this: When
amultiwordadjectivecomesbefore the word it
modifies,hyphenateit. When itcomesafter the word it
modifies, don’thyphenateit.
Only some of thecompoundadjectives will have
thisabilitytomigratefrom theattributiveto
thepredicativeposition. Youcouldnot, for
example,converttheday-triptradetothetradeisday trip. But
you canconverttheill-conceivedplantothe plan isill conceived.

45. Exceptions to thegeneralrule
-lyAdverbs
One of the mostimportantexceptions to
thisgeneralruleappliesto
thecompoundadjectiveformedwith an-lyadverb(widely)
and aparticiple(used) orotheradjective.Theseexpressions
areneverhyphenated. Thus:
internationally recognizedauthor(past participle)
rapidly increasingrevenues(present participle)
newly freecountry(adjective)

46. Theaboveruleappliesto-lyadverbs. But when you form
acompoundadjective withadverbsnotendingin-ly, such
aswellorill, theexpressionishyphenatedwhen
itcomesbefore themodifiednoun. If
thecompoundadjectiveisfurthermodified by an adverb,
nohyphenappears.Studythese two examples:
thewell-knownactresstheverywell knownactresstheill-
conceivedplan
If theexpressioncomesafterthemodifiednoun, however,
nohyphenappears.
Theactressiswell known.

47. How do we know when to put a hyphen?
If you can use the word “and” between the two adjectives or
words, then a hyphen isn't necessary.
She has a big blue book.
(Big and Blue are adjectives)
Can we say: She has a big and blue book. (Yes, itispossible)
He is a world famous singer. (Is thiscorrect?)
Can we say: He is a world and famous singer. No, it doesn't
sound correct so we need a hyphen to join the
wordsworldandfamous:
He is a world-famous singer. (Correct)

48. How do we know when to put a hyphen?
It's an old coal-miningtown
Notice how we didn't put a hyphen between the word
old and coal. If we had have done that, we would have
been referring to old coal, as in coal that is old. We want
to emphasis that the town is old and not the coal.
Here we can say it isoldand acoal-miningone.

49. Practice
Match the wordstogetherto form10 compound adjectives
1. English a. minded
2. Old b. star
3. Narrow c. aged
4. Five d. fashioned
5. Home e. made
6. Far f. time
7. Last g. known
8. Middle h. speaking
9. Well i. minute
10. Part j. reaching

50. Answers
1 h. English-speaking
2d. Old-fashioned
3a. Narrow-minded
4b. Five-star
5e. Home-made
6j. Far-reaching
7i. Last-minute
8c. Middle-aged
9g. Well-known
10f. Part-time

51. Practice suffixes
Use the words in brackets to form a new word that fits into the gap
1. I have a very good __________________ with both my parents
(RELATION)
2. Pulling my front tooth didn’t hurt. –It was completely
__________________ (PAIN).
3. I can tell from your __________________ that you’re not really happy
(EXPRESS)
4. We offer free __________________ for purchases over € 100 (DELIVER).
5. James hasn’t had a lot of __________________ lately, so I hope he’ll do
well with his new company (SUCCEED)
6. It is __________________ colder today that it was yesterday (CERTAIN).
7. What __________________ is he ? Spanish or Portuguese ? (NATION)
8. You have the __________________ . –You can either go by bus or walk
(CHOOSE).
9. My best friend has a great __________________ . (PERSON).
10. You need a lot of __________________ to write a good story
(IMAGINE)

52. Answers
1. I have a very good RELATIONSHIP with both my parents (RELATION)
2. Pulling my front tooth didn’t hurt. –It was completely PAINLESS (PAIN).
3. I can tell from your EXPRESSION that you’re not really happy (EXPRESS)
4. We offer free DELIVERY for purchases over € 100 (DELIVER).
5. James hasn’t had a lot of SUCCESS lately, so I hope he’ll do well with his
new company (SUCCEED)
6. It is CERTAINLY colder today that it was yesterday (CERTAIN).
7. What NATIONALITY is he ? Spanish or Portuguese ? (NATION)
8. You have the CHOICE . –You can either go by bus or walk (CHOOSE).
9. My best friend has a great PERSONALITY . (PERSON).
10. You need a lot of IMAGINATION to write a good story (IMAGINE)
)

53. Practice compound
Match each word in first column with one in the second
column to make a compound word
a. water ball ……………………………….
b. dish room …………………………………
c. egg plane ……………………………….
d. head melon …………………………………..
e. dish cup …………………………………
f. tooth get ………………………………………
g. bed washer ………………………………
i. foot mother …………………………….
J. air ache …………………………………
k. grand For ………………………….
L.For get …………....................

54. Answers
a. water ballwatermelon
b. dishroom dishwasher
c. eggplane eggcup
d. headmelon headache
e. dishcupdishwasher
f. toothgettoothache
g. bedwasherbedroom
i. foot motherfootball
J. air ache airplane
k. grand For grandmother
L.Forget forget

55. WritingA curriculum vitae
Outline
Whatisacurriculumvitae?
Why is it important to write curriculum vitae ?
How isitFormulated?

56. What is a Curriculum Vitae
A Curriculum Vitae, commonly referred to as CV, includes a
summary of your educational and academic backgrounds as
well as teaching and research experience, publications,
presentations, awards, honors, and affiliations.
It is used for so many reasons. The most commonly new is
to secure a new employment.
International employers often expect to read the type of
personal information on a curriculum vitae that would not be
included on a resume

57. Sample Curriculum Vitae

58. Presentperfectcontinuous
The Outline
Whatisthe presentperfectcontinuous?
Whyand Whendo weuse the presentperfect
continous?
How do weformthe presentperfectcontinuous?

59. The PresentPerfectContinuousTense
The present perfect continuous (also called
present perfect progressive)is averb tensewhich
is used to show that an action started in the past
and has continued up to the present moment. The
present perfect continuous usually emphasizes
duration, or the amount of time that an action has
been taking place.
This tense is used to talk about an action or
actions that started in the past and continued
until recently or that continue into the future:

60. The Use of the Presentperfect
continuous
We can use the present perfect continuous to
refer to an action that has finished but you can
still see evidence.
Oh, the kitchen is a mess. Who has been
cooking?
You look tired. Have you been sleeping properly?
I've got a stiff neck. I've been working too long
on computer.

61. Present Perfect Continuous Uses
It can refer to an action that has not finished.
• I've been learning Spanish for 20 years and I still don't
know very much.
I've been waiting for him for 30 minutes and he still hasn't
arrived.
He's been telling me about it for days. I wish he would stop.
It can refer to a series of actions.
She's been writing to her regularly for a couple of years.
He's been phoning me all week for an answer.
The university has been sending students here for over
twenty years to do work experience

62. The Use of the Presentperfect
continuous
The present perfect continuous is often used with 'since',
'for', 'all week', 'for days', 'lately', 'recently', 'over the last few
months'.
I've been wanting to do that for ten years.
You haven't been getting good results over the last few
months.
They haven't been working all week. They're on strike
He hasn't been talking to me for weeks.
We've been working hard on it for ages.
I've been looking at other options recently.
He's been working here since 2001.

63. Present Perfect Continuous Forms
Present Perfect Continuous Forms
The present perfect continuous is formed
usinghas/have + been+ present participle.
Questions are indicated by inverting the subject
andhas/have. Negativesare made withnot.
Statement:Youhave been waitinghere for two
hours.
Question:Haveyoubeen waitinghere for two
hours?
Negative:Youhave not been waitinghere for
two hours.

64. IMPORTANT things to Remember
Remember that the present perfect continuous
has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you
use the present perfect continuous in a question
such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can
suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A
question such as "Have you been smoking?" can
suggest that you smell the smoke on the person.
Using this tense in a question suggests you can
see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It
is possible to insult someone by using this tense
incorrectly

65. Practice presentPerfectcontinuous
Fill in the gaps with the correct present perfect continuous form
using the verb in brackets
1. We _______ to hear from him for days.(wait)
2. How long _______ you _______ English? You speak it very well!
(learn)
3. I _______ this program for several months and I’m very pleased
with it.(use)
4. Who _______ dirty plates all over the kitchen? (leave)
5. William _______ in bed all morning. It’s time he got up!(lie)
6. We _______ for hours –when will we be there? (drive)
7. Charlotte _______ in a small school in Nigeria since
February.(teach)
8. House prices _______ steadily over the last ten years. (rise)
9. Hannah _______ a lot of time with Stan recently. (spend)
10. I _______ to call Holly for days but I never get round to it.(look
forward)

66. Answers
1. We have been waiting to hear from him for days.(wait)
2. How long have you been leaning_______ English? You speak it very
well! (learn)
3. I have been using this program for several months and I’m very
pleased with it.(use)
4. Who has been leaving dirty plates all over the kitchen? (leave)
5. William has been lying in bed all morning. It’s time he got up!
6. We have been driving for hours –when will we be there? (drive)
7. Charlotte has been teaching in a small school in Nigeria since
February.(teach)
8. House prices have been rising steadily over the last ten years. (rise)
9. Hannah has been spending a lot of time with Stan recently. (spend)
10. I have been looking forward to call Holly for days but I never get
round to it.(look forward)

67. PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES
Aphraseis a group of two or more grammatically linked
words without asubjectandpredicate--a group of
grammatically-linked wordswitha subject and predicate
is called aclause.
Independent clauses express a complete thought and
can stand alone as a sentence but subordinate clauses
depend on other parts of the sentence to express a complete
thought.
A sentenceexpresses a complete thought and contains
a subject, a noun or pronoun, and a predicate, a verb or
verb phrase. The four basic types of sentences—simple,
compound, complex, and compound

68. Building Phrases
A phraseis any group of related words that, unlike a
sentence, has no subject-predicate combination.
The words in a phrase act together so that the phrase itself
functionsas a single part of speech.
For example, some phrases act as nouns, some asverbs,
some asadjectives or adverbs. Remember that phrases
can’t stand alone as sentences.
Therefour basic types of phrases: a prepositional
phrase a participial phrase; a gerund phrase and an
infinitive phrase.

69. Types of phrases:
The prepositional phrase is the most commonly used
phrase.
Each prepositional phrase beginswith a preposition
(in, of, by, from, for, etc.; and includes anoun or
pronounthat is the object of the preposition.
in the room
of the people
by the river
from the teacher
for the party

70. The objectof a preposition can have its own modifiers,
which also are part of the prepositional phrase.
in the smoky, crowded room
of the remaining few people
by the rushing river
from the tired and frustrated teacher
for the midnight victory party

71. Prepositionalphrases
Prepositional phrases function as either adjectives or adverbs.
The woman in the trench coat pulled out her cellular phone.
The prepositional phrase here acts as an adjective
describing the noun woman.
Most of the audience snoozed during the tedious
performance. The prepositional phrase here acts as an adverb
modifying the verb snoozed.

72. The participial phrase
A participial phrase begins with a past or present
participle and is followed by its objects and
modifiers.
Like participles alone, participial phrases are used as
adjectives.
Sniffing the fresh air, Jim realized he had found paradise.
In the preceding sentence, the present participle
sniffing introducesthe participial phrase, which includes
the participle’s object (air) and its modifiers (the,
fresh).
This participial phrase acts as an adjective modifying the
subjectof the sentence (Jim).

73. The participial phrase
The soldiers, trapped by the enemy, threw down their guns.
Here, the past participle trapped introduces the
participial phrase trapped by the enemy.
The entire phrase acts as anadjective modifyingthe
subjectof the sentence (soldiers).
Notice the phrase-within-a-phrase here. By the enemy is a
prepositional phrase modifying the participle trapped.
Remember that phrases can act as modifiers in other phrases.

74. The gerund phrase
At first, a gerund phrase may look like a participial phrase
because gerund phrases begin with the -ingform of a verb
(riding, seeing, talking, etc.) and have objects and modifiers.
But a gerund phrase always acts as a noun in a sentence,
not as an adjective.
Like other nouns, a gerund phrase can serve as the
subject of a sentence, the object of a verb or
preposition, or the complement of a linking verb.

75. The gerund phrase
In the following example, the gerund phrase Riding the black
stallion acts as a nounand is the subjectof the verb terrified.
Riding the black stallion terrified Hugh.
In the next sentence, the gerund phrase seeing the suspectis the
direct object of the verb reported.
Notice that the entire phrase, not just the word suspect, is the
direct object. The police officer reported seeing the suspect.
Here, the gerund phrase talking often and loudly is the objectof
the preposition by.
The senator made his reputation by talking often and loudly.
In the final example, Calling Uncle Roberto is a gerund phrase
acting as the subject of the sentence.
Asking for trouble is a gerund phrase acting as a complement of
the linking verb is.
Calling Uncle Roberto is asking for trouble.

76. The infinitive phrase
An infinitive phrase contains an infinitive (for
example, to sleep, to have slept, to consider, to
throw) and its objects and modifiers.
Infinitive phrases usually function as nouns,though
they can be used as adjectives and adverbs.
In this sentence, To sleep all night is an infinitive phrase
actingas a noun.
It is the subject of this sentence.
To sleep all night was his only wish.

77. The infinitive phrase
Here, To take an unpopular stand is an infinitive phrase
acting as a noun.
It is the direct object of the predicate didn’t want.
The representatives didn’t want to take an unpopular
stand.
Next, the infinitive phrase to spend foolishly acts as an
adjective modifying the noun money.
He had plenty of money to spend foolishly.
In the following sentence, the infinitive phrase to clear her
mind acts as an adverb modifying drove.
It answers the question “Why did she drive?”
After the confrontation, she drove miles to clear her
mind.

78. Practice
1. Identify the following underlined phrases as prepositional
phrase, participial phrase, gerund phrase, or infinitive phrase.
a. Dreaming about mice is my cat Mocha’s favorite hobby.
b. Kevin wants to make the world a better place.
c. Lying on his bed, Richard felt better.
d.Tedsneezed in church.
e. Dr. Tucker planned to have read that book.

79. Answers:
a. gerund
b. infinitive
c. participial
d. prepositional
e. infinitive.

80. Types of Clauses
Like a phrase, a clauseis a group of related words, but
unlike a phrase, a clause has a subject and predicate.
An independent clause, along with having a subject and
predicate, expresses a complete thought and can
stand alone as a sentence.
On the contrary, a subordinate or dependent clause
does not express a complete thought and therefore is
not a sentence. A subordinate clause standing alone is the
most common type of sentence fragment.

81. Independent clauses
He saw her; The Washingtonshurried home, Free
speech has a price.
Grammatically complete statements like these are
sentencesand can stand alone.
When they are part of longer sentences, they are
referred to as independent(or main) clauses.
Two or more independent clauses can be joined by using
coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet)
or by using semicolons.
The most important thing to remember is that an
independent clause canstandalone as a complete sentence.

82. Independent clauses
In the following example the independent clause is a simple
sentence.
Erica brushed her long, raven hair. Here, the coordinating
conjunction and joins two Here, a semicolon joins two
independent clauses: Fernando left; Erica brushed her long,
raven hair.
All sentences mustinclude at least one independent
clause.
After she told Fernando to leave, Erica brushed her long,
raven hair.
The independent clause is preceded by a clause that can’t
stand alone.
Erica brushed her long, raven hair while she waited for
Fernando to leave.
The independent clause is followed by a clause that can’t
stand alone.

83. Beginning sentences with coordinating
conjunctions
Any of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor,
for, so, yet) can be used to join an independent
clause to another independent clause. But can you begin
a sentencewith one of these conjunctions? No one knew
what to do. But everyone agreed that something should be
done.

84. Subordinate clauses
A subordinate clause has a subject and predicate but,
unlike an independent clause, cannot stand by itself.
It depends on something else to express a complete
thought, which is why it is also called a dependent clause.
Somesubordinate clauses are introduced by relative
pronouns(who, whom, that, which, what, whose)
and some by subordinating conjunctions (although,
because, if, unless, when, etc.)
Subordinate clausesfunction in sentences as adjectives,
nouns, and adverb

85. Types of Subordinateclauses
Relative clauses
Noun clauses
Adverbial clauses
A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun and
functions as an adjective.
The novel that won the Pulitzer Prize didn’t sell well
when it was first published.
The relative pronounthat is the subject of its clause and
wonis the predicate. This clause couldn’t stand by
itself. Its role in the complete sentence is to modify novel,
the subject of the independent clause.
The ceremony, which several celebrities attended,
received intense coverage.

86. Noun clauses/Adverbial clauses
A noun clause serves as a noun in a sentence.
What I want for dinner is a hamburger. (subject of the
predicate is)
The host told us how he escaped. (object of the predicate told)
The vacation is what I need most. (complement of the linking
verb is)
Give it to whoever arrives first. (object of the preposition to
Adverbial clauses are clauses which begin with
subordinating conjunctions such as: because, unless, if,
when, and although.
The clauses act as adverbs, answering questions like how, when,
where, why, to what extent, and under what conditions

87. Adverbial clauses
The group of tourists decided to have lunch in the village
because the van needed repairs.
In this sentence, becauseintroduces the adverbial clause
in which van is the subjectand neededthe predicate.
This clause is an incomplete thought. What happened
because the van needed repairs? The independent
clause The group of tourists decided to have lunch in
the village is necessary to complete the thought.
Again, the subordinate clause as a whole acts as an
adverb, telling whythe tourists decided to have lunch in
the village.

88. Practice
True or False: All of the following are independent clauses.
a. Sherry smiled.
b. The Russian impressionist collection, with all their
dramatic colors and themes.
c.Tohave been loved is to have known joy and pai

89. Answers
a. True
b. False
c. True.

90. Sentences
The Sentence The standard definition of a sentence is that it is
a group of words containing a subject and a predicate and
expressing a complete thought.
A sentence has a subject(what or whom the sentence is
about) and a predicate. The predicate tells what the subject
does or is or what is done to the subject (for example, The
books were left outside). The simple subject is a noun or
pronoun. The complete subject is this noun or pronoun and
the words that modify it. The simple predicate is a verb or
verb phrase (for example, has walked, will have walked). The
complete predicate is the verb or verb phrase and the words
that modify or complete it.
Fred shot Guido
The angry old man in pajamas stood on the porch

91. Sentence Types:
Simple; Compound
Complex; compound-complex
A simple sentence has one independent clause and no
subordinate clauses.
Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing.
Citizens must act.
A compound sentence has two or more independent
clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions, and no
subordinate clauses.
Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing, and
citizens must act. (two independent clauses joined by and)

92. Complex/compound-complex Sentence
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and
one or more subordinate clauses.
Because old growth forests in the United States are fast
disappearing, citizens must act now.(Because old growth forests in
the United States are fast disappearing= subordinate clause
beginning with subordinating conjunction; citizens must act now
= independent clause)
Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger.(that
have existed for thousands of years= subordinate clause beginning
with relative pronoun; Forests . . . are in danger = independent
clause
A compound-complex sentence joins two or more
independent clauses with one or more subordinate
clauses. Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in
danger, and citizens must take action. (Forests are in danger and
citizens must take action = independent clauses; that have existed
for thousands of years = subordinate clause)

93. Practice
4. Underline the complete subject in the following sentences.
a. My cousin Andy, a shy man, was married last summer.
b.Theoffice will be closed on Thursday.
c. His teaching method is very effective
D. Get ready!

94. Answers
. a. My cousin Andy, a shy man, was married last summer.
b. The office will be closed on Thursday.
c. His teaching method is very effective

95. Practice
Identifythe followingsentences as simple sentence;
compound sentence or complexsentence
Khadiiswritingherlesson
Khadiiswritingherlesson, and I shouldpreparethe dinner.
WhileI waspreparingdinner, Khadiwaswritingherlesson
Khadiwhohas a test todayismysister, and I must help her.