Data_Collection_Methods_ in researchppt.pdf
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Feb 25, 2025
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About This Presentation
good informative ppt
Slide Content
Methods of Data Collection
There are essentially two types:
1.Primary data – are those which are
collected for the first time and are
original in character
2.Secondary data – are those which
have already been collected by
someone else and which have been
subjected to some statistical analysis
There are essentially two types:
1.Primary data – are those which are
collected for the first time and are
original in character
2.Secondary data – are those which
have already been collected by
someone else and which have been
subjected to some statistical analysis
Collection of Primary Data…
Primary data may be collected thru:
1.Observation Method
2.Survey Method
3.Thru Questionnaires/Schedules
4.Personal Interview
Primary data may be collected thru:
1.Observation Method
2.Survey Method
3.Thru Questionnaires/Schedules
4.Personal Interview
Primary Sources
of Data:
Observation
of Data:
Observation
Overview
Introduction
Meaning
Definition
Why to observe ?
Characteristics
Types of observation
Advantages and disadvantages
Observation Tools And Recording Devices
Introduction
Meaning
Definition
Why to observe ?
Characteristics
Types of observation
Advantages and disadvantages
Observation Tools And Recording Devices
Introduction
The observation method is the most commonly used method
specially in studies relating to behavioural science. In a way we all
observe thing around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method
of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. It is also
a process of recording the behavior patterns of people, objects, and
occurrences, on a real time basis and in a 'natural setting‟.
The observation method is the most commonly used method
specially in studies relating to behavioural science. In a way we all
observe thing around us, but this sort of observation is not scientific
observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method
of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated
research purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is
subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. It is also
a process of recording the behavior patterns of people, objects, and
occurrences, on a real time basis and in a 'natural setting‟.
Meaning
•Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing
some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such
observations are just casual and have no specific purpose.
•But observation as a method of data collection is different from
such casual viewing.
•Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing
some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such
observations are just casual and have no specific purpose.
•But observation as a method of data collection is different from
such casual viewing.
Definition
•Langley, P OBSERVATION involves looking and listening very
carefully. We all watch other people sometimes, but we don't usually
watch them in order to discover particular information about their
behavior. This is what observation in social science involves
•Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as those that
“involve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or
behaviour in a natural setting”
•Langley, P OBSERVATION involves looking and listening very
carefully. We all watch other people sometimes, but we don't usually
watch them in order to discover particular information about their
behavior. This is what observation in social science involves
•Gorman and Clayton define observation studies as those that
“involve the systematic recording of observable phenomena or
behaviour in a natural setting”
Why to observe ?
•Observation allows the researcher to study people in their 'natural setting'
without their behaviour being influenced by the presence of a researcher.
•Observational data usually consists of detailed information about
particular groups or situations. This kind of data can 'fill out' and provide
a deeper, richer, understanding than survey work which tends to produce
less detailed information about a larger number of people.
•Some methods only allow for the study of one individual at a time.
Observation enables the research to study groups of people together, that
is, it allows for the study of interaction between the members of a group.
•Observation allows the researcher to study people in their 'natural setting'
without their behaviour being influenced by the presence of a researcher.
•Observational data usually consists of detailed information about
particular groups or situations. This kind of data can 'fill out' and provide
a deeper, richer, understanding than survey work which tends to produce
less detailed information about a larger number of people.
•Some methods only allow for the study of one individual at a time.
Observation enables the research to study groups of people together, that
is, it allows for the study of interaction between the members of a group.
Characteristics of observation research
Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.
1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observation eye
„catches‟ many things which are sighted, but attention is focussed on data
that are pertinent to the given study.
2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything
and everything, but select the range of things to be observed on the basis of
the nature, scope and objectives of his study.
3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the
specific purpose of nothing things relevant to the study.
4. It captures the natural social context in which persons‟ behaviour
occurs.
Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.
1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observation eye
„catches‟ many things which are sighted, but attention is focussed on data
that are pertinent to the given study.
2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything
and everything, but select the range of things to be observed on the basis of
the nature, scope and objectives of his study.
3. Observation is purposive and not casual. It is made for the
specific purpose of nothing things relevant to the study.
4. It captures the natural social context in which persons‟ behaviour
occurs.
Types of observation
Participant Observation
Non-participant Observation
Direct Observation
Indirect Observation
Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled Observation
Participant Observation
Non-participant Observation
Direct Observation
Indirect Observation
Controlled Observation
Uncontrolled Observation
•Participant Observation : In this observation, the observer is a
part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an
observer and a participant.
•Example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in
tribal activities like folk dance. The persons who are observed should not
be aware of the researcher‟s purpose. Only then their behaviour will be
„natural.‟
part of the phenomenon or group which is observed and he acts as both an
observer and a participant.
•Example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in
tribal activities like folk dance. The persons who are observed should not
be aware of the researcher‟s purpose. Only then their behaviour will be
„natural.‟
•Non - Participant Observation : In this method, the observer
stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed.
Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer.
This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed
manner.
•It may involve use of recording devices to capture the details of how people
talk, behave and interact.
stands apart and does not participate in the phenomenon observed.
Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the part of the observer.
This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed
manner.
•It may involve use of recording devices to capture the details of how people
talk, behave and interact.
•Direct Observation : This means observation of an event personally
by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the
observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they
occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation.
Example: Observer is physically present to monitor
•Indirect Observation : This does not involve the physical presence
of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or
electronic devices.
Example : Recording customer and employee movements by a special
motion picture camera mounted in a department of large store.
by the observer when it takes place. This method is flexible and allows the
observer to see and record subtle aspects of events and behaviour as they
occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus of the observation.
Example: Observer is physically present to monitor
•Indirect Observation : This does not involve the physical presence
of the observer, and the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or
electronic devices.
Example : Recording customer and employee movements by a special
motion picture camera mounted in a department of large store.
•Controlled Observation : Controlled observation is carried out
either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit
decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for
inferring causality, and testing casual hypothesis.
•Uncontrolled Observation : This does not involve structured
observation. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant
observation is a typically uncontrolled one.
either in the laboratory or in the field. It is typified by clear and explicit
decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily used for
inferring causality, and testing casual hypothesis.
•Uncontrolled Observation : This does not involve structured
observation. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant
observation is a typically uncontrolled one.
Planning observation
The use of observation method require proper planning.
The researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation
method to the data need of selected study.
He must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use
of observation method. These determine the data to be collected.
He must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions,
events and activities that have to be observed for the required data.
For each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.
cont ….
The use of observation method require proper planning.
The researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation
method to the data need of selected study.
He must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use
of observation method. These determine the data to be collected.
He must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions,
events and activities that have to be observed for the required data.
For each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.
cont ….
cont….
The observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and
mode of observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be
used, and other details of the task should be determined.
Observation should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected
must have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and
unobtrusive nature. Selected persons should be imparted both
theoretical and practical training
The observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and
mode of observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be
used, and other details of the task should be determined.
Observation should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected
must have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and
unobtrusive nature. Selected persons should be imparted both
theoretical and practical training
Advantages of observation method
•They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of
intended or preferred behavior.
•There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and
the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
•Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
•If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
•They permit measurement of actual behavior rather than reports of
intended or preferred behavior.
•There is no reporting bias, and potential bias caused by the interviewer and
the interviewing process is eliminated or reduced.
•Certain types of data can be collected only by observation.
•If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or is of short duration,
observational methods may be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Disadvantages of observation method
•The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is
known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
•Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
•In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in
observing people without their knowledge or consent.
•The reasons for the observed behavior may not be determined since little is
known about the underlying motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
•Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception) can bias the data.
•In some cases, the use of observational methods may be unethical, as in
observing people without their knowledge or consent.
Observation tools and recording devices
Observation guides
Recording sheets or checklist
Schedule
Field observation log
Mechanical devices
Observation guides
Recording sheets or checklist
Schedule
Field observation log
Mechanical devices
•Observation guides : These are printed forms that provide space
for recording observations. They are particularly useful when
several observers are involved or when you wish to obtain
comparable information from several sites/ observation points or
observations of many people. The more structured the guide, the
easier it will be to tally the results.
•Recording sheets or checklist : These forms are used to record
observations as in YES/NO option (present – not present) or on a
rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something. Checklists are
used when there are specific, observable items, actions or attributes
to be observed.
for recording observations. They are particularly useful when
several observers are involved or when you wish to obtain
comparable information from several sites/ observation points or
observations of many people. The more structured the guide, the
easier it will be to tally the results.
•Recording sheets or checklist : These forms are used to record
observations as in YES/NO option (present – not present) or on a
rating scale to indicate extent or quality of something. Checklists are
used when there are specific, observable items, actions or attributes
to be observed.
•Schedule : The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the
problem, the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and
the operational definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of
data to be collected through observation are identified. A schedule is then
constructed, covering those items of data.
•Field observation log : This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of
observation is recorded under appropriate subheading.
At the time of observation , rough noting may be made, and at the end of the
day, fully log may be made. The card system is flexible and facilitates
arrangement and re-arrangement of items in any desired order.
problem, the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and
the operational definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of
data to be collected through observation are identified. A schedule is then
constructed, covering those items of data.
•Field observation log : This may take the form of a diary or cards. Each item of
observation is recorded under appropriate subheading.
At the time of observation , rough noting may be made, and at the end of the
day, fully log may be made. The card system is flexible and facilitates
arrangement and re-arrangement of items in any desired order.
•Mechanical devices : These may include cameras, tape recorders,
videotape and electronic devices. Still, motion , sound, colour and
time lapse cameras give a permanent record of events. Microscopic
and telescopic lens may be used in cameras. Eye cameras are
common in advertising and package research. The camera makes a
record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your
evaluation report.
videotape and electronic devices. Still, motion , sound, colour and
time lapse cameras give a permanent record of events. Microscopic
and telescopic lens may be used in cameras. Eye cameras are
common in advertising and package research. The camera makes a
record that can be analyzed later and may be used to illustrate your
evaluation report.
Conclusion
Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator„s
own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study
relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist
watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage
of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the
case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly
suitable in studies (i.e. respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of
their feelings for one reason or the other.
Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator„s
own direct observation without asking from the respondent. For instance, in a study
relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand of wrist
watch used by the respondent, may himself look at the watch. The main advantage
of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be the
case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly
suitable in studies (i.e. respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal reports of
their feelings for one reason or the other.
SURVEY
Information Obtained
by Questioning Respondents
Information Obtained
by Questioning Respondents
Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
E-Mail
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
The Survey Method
•The survey method of obtaining information
is based on questioning respondents.
•Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face is
how to motivate respondents to candidly
answer their questions.
•Questions regarding behavior, intentions,
attitudes, awareness, motivations, and
demographic and lifestyle characteristics all
lend themselves to survey research.
•The survey method of obtaining information
is based on questioning respondents.
•Perhaps the biggest issue researchers face is
how to motivate respondents to candidly
answer their questions.
•Questions regarding behavior, intentions,
attitudes, awareness, motivations, and
demographic and lifestyle characteristics all
lend themselves to survey research.
Advantages of Survey Research
•Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to
administer.
•Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice)
questions reduces variability in the results that
may be caused by differences in interviewers and
enhances reliability of the responses.
•Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
•Ease: Questionnaires are relatively easy to
administer.
•Reliability: Using fixed-response (multiple-choice)
questions reduces variability in the results that
may be caused by differences in interviewers and
enhances reliability of the responses.
•Simplicity: It also simplifies coding, analysis, and
interpretation of data.
Disadvantages of Survey Research
•Respondents may be unable or unwilling to
provide the desired information.
•Structured data collection involving a
questionnaire with fixed-response choices
may result in loss of validity for certain
types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.
•Properly wording questions is not easy.
•Respondents may be unable or unwilling to
provide the desired information.
•Structured data collection involving a
questionnaire with fixed-response choices
may result in loss of validity for certain
types of data, such as beliefs and feelings.
•Properly wording questions is not easy.
Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
E-Mail
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Traditional Telephone Interviews
•Involve phoning a sample of respondents and
asking them a series of questions.
•The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire
and records the responses with a pencil.
•Telephone interviews are generally conducted
from centrally located research facilities.
•Involve phoning a sample of respondents and
asking them a series of questions.
•The interviewer uses a paper questionnaire
and records the responses with a pencil.
•Telephone interviews are generally conducted
from centrally located research facilities.
•Field service supervisors can closely monitor the
telephone conversations.
•Data quality is also enhanced with on-the-spot
review of completed questionnaires.
telephone conversations.
•Data quality is also enhanced with on-the-spot
review of completed questionnaires.
Computer-Assisted Telephone
Interviewing
•Uses a computerized questionnaire administered
to respondents over the telephone.
•The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen
and wears a mini-headset.
•Upon command, the computer dials the telephone
number to be called.
•When contact is made, the interviewer reads the
questions posed on the CRT screen and records
the respondent's answers directly into the
computer.
Interviewing
•Uses a computerized questionnaire administered
to respondents over the telephone.
•The interviewer sits in front of a computer screen
and wears a mini-headset.
•Upon command, the computer dials the telephone
number to be called.
•When contact is made, the interviewer reads the
questions posed on the CRT screen and records
the respondent's answers directly into the
computer.
•Interim and update reports can be compiled
instantaneously, as the data are being collected.
•CATI software has built-in logic, which also
enhances data accuracy.
•The program will personalize questions and
control for logically incorrect answers, such as
percentage answers that do not add up to 100
percent.
•The software has built-in branching logic, which
will skip questions that are not applicable or will
probe for more detail when warranted.
instantaneously, as the data are being collected.
•CATI software has built-in logic, which also
enhances data accuracy.
•The program will personalize questions and
control for logically incorrect answers, such as
percentage answers that do not add up to 100
percent.
•The software has built-in branching logic, which
will skip questions that are not applicable or will
probe for more detail when warranted.
Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
E-Mail
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Personal In-Home Interviews
•Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in
their homes.
•The interviewer's task is to contact the
respondents, ask the questions, and record
the responses.
•In recent years, the use of personal in-home
interviews has declined.
•Respondents are interviewed face-to-face in
their homes.
•The interviewer's task is to contact the
respondents, ask the questions, and record
the responses.
•In recent years, the use of personal in-home
interviews has declined.
Mall-Intercept Personal Interviews
•Respondents are intercepted in shopping in
malls.
•The process involves stopping the shoppers,
screening them for appropriateness, and either
administering the survey on the spot or inviting
them to a research facility located in the mall to
complete the interview.
•While not representative of the population in
general, shopping mall customers do constitute
a major share of the market for many products.
•Respondents are intercepted in shopping in
malls.
•The process involves stopping the shoppers,
screening them for appropriateness, and either
administering the survey on the spot or inviting
them to a research facility located in the mall to
complete the interview.
•While not representative of the population in
general, shopping mall customers do constitute
a major share of the market for many products.
Computer-Assisted Personal
Interviewing (CAPI)
•The respondent sits in front of a computer
terminal and answers a questionnaire on the
screen by using the keyboard or a mouse.
•Help screens and courteous error messages
are provided.
•The colorful screens and on- and off-screen
stimuli add to the respondent's interest and
involvement in the task.
Interviewing (CAPI)
•The respondent sits in front of a computer
terminal and answers a questionnaire on the
screen by using the keyboard or a mouse.
•Help screens and courteous error messages
are provided.
•The colorful screens and on- and off-screen
stimuli add to the respondent's interest and
involvement in the task.
•This method has been classified as a personal
interview technique since an interviewer is
usually present to serve as a host and to guide
the respondent as needed.
•This approach is used in shopping malls,
preceded by the intercept and screening process
described earlier.
•It is also used to conduct business-to-business
research at trade shows or conventions.
interview technique since an interviewer is
usually present to serve as a host and to guide
the respondent as needed.
•This approach is used in shopping malls,
preceded by the intercept and screening process
described earlier.
•It is also used to conduct business-to-business
research at trade shows or conventions.
Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
E-Mail
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Figure 7.4 Classification of Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Figure 7.4 Classification of Survey Methods
Mail Interviews
•A typical mail interview package consists of
the outgoing envelope, cover letter,
questionnaire, postage-paid return envelope,
and possibly an incentive.
•Those individuals motivated to do so complete
and return the questionnaire through the mail.
•There is no verbal interaction between the
researcher and the respondent.
•A typical mail interview package consists of
the outgoing envelope, cover letter,
questionnaire, postage-paid return envelope,
and possibly an incentive.
•Those individuals motivated to do so complete
and return the questionnaire through the mail.
•There is no verbal interaction between the
researcher and the respondent.
•Individuals are selected for cold surveys through
mailing lists the client maintains internally or has
purchased commercially.
•The type of envelope, the cover letter, the length
of the questionnaire, and the incentive (if one is
offered) all affect response rates.
mailing lists the client maintains internally or has
purchased commercially.
•The type of envelope, the cover letter, the length
of the questionnaire, and the incentive (if one is
offered) all affect response rates.
TABLE 7.2
Some Decisions Related to the
Mail Interview Package
__________________________________________________
Outgoing Envelope
Outgoing Envelope: size, color, return address
Postage
Method of Addressing
Cover Letter
Sponsorship Signature
Personalization Postscript
Type of appeal
Quetionnaire
Length Layout
Content Color
Size Format
Reproduction Respondent anonymity
Return Envelope
Type of envelope
Postage
Incentives
Monetary vs. nonmonetary
Prepaid vs. promised amount
Some Decisions Related to the
Mail Interview Package
__________________________________________________
Outgoing Envelope
Outgoing Envelope: size, color, return address
Postage
Method of Addressing
Cover Letter
Sponsorship Signature
Personalization Postscript
Type of appeal
Quetionnaire
Length Layout
Content Color
Size Format
Reproduction Respondent anonymity
Return Envelope
Type of envelope
Postage
Incentives
Monetary vs. nonmonetary
Prepaid vs. promised amount
Mail Panels
•Mail panels consist of a large and nationally
representative sample of individuals who have
agreed to participate in periodic survey
research.
•Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are often
offered to the individuals who agree to
participate.
•Mail panels consist of a large and nationally
representative sample of individuals who have
agreed to participate in periodic survey
research.
•Incentives in the form of cash or gifts are often
offered to the individuals who agree to
participate.
•Once the individuals have been admitted to the
panel, detailed demographic and lifestyle data are
collected on each household.
•The researcher uses this information to select
targeted mailing lists within the panel based on
client needs.
panel, detailed demographic and lifestyle data are
collected on each household.
•The researcher uses this information to select
targeted mailing lists within the panel based on
client needs.
Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
E-Mail
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Telephone Personal Electronic
Traditional
Telephone
Computer-Assisted
Telephone Interviewing
Mall Intercept
In-Home
Internet
Computer-Assisted
Personal Interviewing
Mail Panel
Mail/Fax
Interview
Classification of Survey Methods
Email Surveys
•If the addresses are known, the survey can
simply be mailed electronically to respondents
included in the sample.
•Respondents key in their answers and send an e-
mail reply.
•Typically, a computer program is used to prepare
the questionnaire and email address list, and to
prepare the data for analysis.
•If the addresses are known, the survey can
simply be mailed electronically to respondents
included in the sample.
•Respondents key in their answers and send an e-
mail reply.
•Typically, a computer program is used to prepare
the questionnaire and email address list, and to
prepare the data for analysis.
•Respondent anonymity is difficult to maintain
because a reply to an email message includes the
sender’s address.
•Email surveys are especially suited to projects
where the email lists are readily available, such
as surveys of employees, institutional buyers,
and consumers who frequently contact the
organization via email (e.g., frequent fliers of an
airline).
because a reply to an email message includes the
sender’s address.
•Email surveys are especially suited to projects
where the email lists are readily available, such
as surveys of employees, institutional buyers,
and consumers who frequently contact the
organization via email (e.g., frequent fliers of an
airline).
Internet Surveys
•An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted
on a Web site that is self administered by the
respondent.
•The questions are displayed on the screen and
the respondents provide answers by clicking
an icon, keying in an answer, or highlighting a
phrase.
•Web survey systems are available for
constructing and posting Internet surveys.
•An Internet survey is a questionnaire posted
on a Web site that is self administered by the
respondent.
•The questions are displayed on the screen and
the respondents provide answers by clicking
an icon, keying in an answer, or highlighting a
phrase.
•Web survey systems are available for
constructing and posting Internet surveys.
•The researcher can obtain at any time survey
completion statistics, descriptive statistics of the
responses, and graphical display of the data.
•As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys
offer more flexibility, greater interactivity,
personalization, automatic skip patterns and
visual appeal.
•Several Web sites, such as WebSurveyor
(www.websurveyor.com), allow users to design
surveys online without downloading the software.
completion statistics, descriptive statistics of the
responses, and graphical display of the data.
•As compared to email surveys, Internet surveys
offer more flexibility, greater interactivity,
personalization, automatic skip patterns and
visual appeal.
•Several Web sites, such as WebSurveyor
(www.websurveyor.com), allow users to design
surveys online without downloading the software.
TABLE 7.1
Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Telephone Fast No use of physical stimuli
High sample control Limited to simple questions
Good control of field force Quantity of data is low
Good response rate
Moderate cost
In-Home Complex questions can be asked Low control of field force
Good for physical stimuli High social desirability
Very good sample control Potential for interviewer bias
High quantity of data Most expensive
Very good response rate
Mall-Intercept Complex questions can be asked High social desirabili ty
Very good for physical stimuli Potential for interviewer bias
Very good control of environment Quantity of data is moderate
Very good response rate High cost
________________________________________________________________________________
Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Telephone Fast No use of physical stimuli
High sample control Limited to simple questions
Good control of field force Quantity of data is low
Good response rate
Moderate cost
In-Home Complex questions can be asked Low control of field force
Good for physical stimuli High social desirability
Very good sample control Potential for interviewer bias
High quantity of data Most expensive
Very good response rate
Mall-Intercept Complex questions can be asked High social desirabili ty
Very good for physical stimuli Potential for interviewer bias
Very good control of environment Quantity of data is moderate
Very good response rate High cost
________________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 7.1 (Cont.)
Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods
________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES
CAPI Complex questions can be asked High social desirability
Very good for physical stimuli Quantity of data is moderate
Very good control of environment High cost
Very good response rate
Low potential for interviewer bias
Mail No field force problems Limited to simple questions
No interviewer bias Low sample control for cold mail
Moderate/High quantity of data No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate for cold mail
Low/moderate cost Low speed
Electronic No field force problems Limited to simple questions
No interviewer bias Low sample control
Low cost No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate
High speed Moderate quantity of data
________________________________________________________________________________
Relative Advantages of Different Survey Methods
________________________________________________________________________________
METHOD ADVANATAGES DISADVANTAGES
CAPI Complex questions can be asked High social desirability
Very good for physical stimuli Quantity of data is moderate
Very good control of environment High cost
Very good response rate
Low potential for interviewer bias
Mail No field force problems Limited to simple questions
No interviewer bias Low sample control for cold mail
Moderate/High quantity of data No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate for cold mail
Low/moderate cost Low speed
Electronic No field force problems Limited to simple questions
No interviewer bias Low sample control
Low cost No control of environment
Social desirability is low Low response rate
High speed Moderate quantity of data
________________________________________________________________________________
Lecture plan
Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods:
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Classification of survey methods
• Criteria for selecting a survey method
• Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods
• Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods:
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Classification of survey methods
• Criteria for selecting a survey method
• Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods
• Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Criteria for Selecting a Survey
Method
•When evaluating the various survey methods within
the context of a specific research project, one has to
consider the salient factors relevant to data
collection.
•Often, certain factors dominate, leading to a particular
survey method as the natural choice.
•If no method is clearly superior, the choice must be
based on an overall consideration of the advantages
and disadvantages of the various methods.
•Often, in large projects these methods are combined
to enhance the quality of data in a cost-effective
manner.
Method
•When evaluating the various survey methods within
the context of a specific research project, one has to
consider the salient factors relevant to data
collection.
•Often, certain factors dominate, leading to a particular
survey method as the natural choice.
•If no method is clearly superior, the choice must be
based on an overall consideration of the advantages
and disadvantages of the various methods.
•Often, in large projects these methods are combined
to enhance the quality of data in a cost-effective
manner.
Lecture plan
Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods:
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Classification of survey methods
• Criteria for selecting a survey method
• Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods
• Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods:
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Classification of survey methods
• Criteria for selecting a survey method
• Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods
• Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Methods of Improving Response Rates
Prior
Notification
Incentives Follow-up
Other
Facilitators
Monetary Nonmonetary
Promised Prepaid
Improving Response Rates
Prior
Notification
Incentives Follow-up
Other
Facilitators
Monetary Nonmonetary
Promised Prepaid
Improving Response Rates
Improving Survey Response Rates
•Prior notification consists of sending a letter or e-
mail, or making a telephone call to potential
respondents, thereby notifying them of the
imminent mail, telephone, personal, or electronic
survey.
•Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary
incentives to potential respondents can increase
response rates. The prepaid incentive is included
with the survey or questionnaire. The promised
incentive is sent to only those respondents who
complete the survey. Prepaid incentives have
been shown to increase response rates to a
greater extent than promised incentives.
•Prior notification consists of sending a letter or e-
mail, or making a telephone call to potential
respondents, thereby notifying them of the
imminent mail, telephone, personal, or electronic
survey.
•Offering monetary as well as nonmonetary
incentives to potential respondents can increase
response rates. The prepaid incentive is included
with the survey or questionnaire. The promised
incentive is sent to only those respondents who
complete the survey. Prepaid incentives have
been shown to increase response rates to a
greater extent than promised incentives.
•Follow-up, or contacting the nonrespondents
periodically after the initial contact, is particularly
effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys.
Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail,
or personal contact.
•Personalization, or sending letters addressed to
specific individuals, is effective in increasing
response rates.
periodically after the initial contact, is particularly
effective in decreasing refusals in mail surveys.
Follow-up can also be done by telephone, e-mail,
or personal contact.
•Personalization, or sending letters addressed to
specific individuals, is effective in increasing
response rates.
Lecture plan
Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods:
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Classification of survey methods
• Criteria for selecting a survey method
• Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods (Personal and Mechanical)
• Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Methods of Obtaining Quantitative Data in Descriptive Research
Survey Methods:
• Advantages and Disadvantages
• Classification of survey methods
• Criteria for selecting a survey method
• Improving survey response rate
Observation Methods:
• Classification of Observation Methods (Personal and Mechanical)
• Advantages and Disadvantages
A comparison between Survey and Observation Methods
Observation Methods
Personal Observation
•A researcher observes actual behavior as it
occurs.
•The observer does not attempt to manipulate
the phenomenon being observed but merely
records what takes place.
•For example, a researcher might record
traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a
department store.
Personal Observation
•A researcher observes actual behavior as it
occurs.
•The observer does not attempt to manipulate
the phenomenon being observed but merely
records what takes place.
•For example, a researcher might record
traffic counts and observe traffic flows in a
department store.
Observation Methods
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
–the AC Nielsen audimeter
–turnstiles that record the number of people
entering or leaving a building.
–On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
–Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement.
–eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers
–psychogalvanometers
–voice pitch analyzers
–devices measuring response latency
Mechanical Observation
Do not require respondents' direct participation.
–the AC Nielsen audimeter
–turnstiles that record the number of people
entering or leaving a building.
–On-site cameras (still, motion picture, or video)
–Optical scanners in supermarkets
Do require respondent involvement.
–eye-tracking monitors, pupilometers
–psychogalvanometers
–voice pitch analyzers
–devices measuring response latency
Relative Advantages of Observation
•They permit measurement of actual behavior
rather than reports of intended or preferred
behavior.
•There is no reporting bias, and potential bias
caused by the interviewer and the interviewing
process is eliminated or reduced.
•Certain types of data can be collected only by
observation.
•If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or
is of short duration, observational methods may
be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
•They permit measurement of actual behavior
rather than reports of intended or preferred
behavior.
•There is no reporting bias, and potential bias
caused by the interviewer and the interviewing
process is eliminated or reduced.
•Certain types of data can be collected only by
observation.
•If the observed phenomenon occurs frequently or
is of short duration, observational methods may
be cheaper and faster than survey methods.
Relative Disadvantages of
Observation
•The reasons for the observed behavior may not be
determined, since little is known about the underlying
motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
•Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception)
can bias the data.
•Observational data are often time-consuming and
expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of
behavior.
•In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge
or consent.
•It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
Observation
•The reasons for the observed behavior may not be
determined, since little is known about the underlying
motives, beliefs, attitudes, and preferences.
•Selective perception (bias in the researcher's perception)
can bias the data.
•Observational data are often time-consuming and
expensive, and it is difficult to observe certain forms of
behavior.
•In some cases, the use of observational methods may be
unethical, as in observing people without their knowledge
or consent.
•It is best to view observation as a complement to survey
methods, rather than as being in competition with them.
TABLE 7.3
Relative Advantages of Observation Methods
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Personal Observation Most flexible High observation bias
Highly suitable in natural settings High analysis bias
Mechanical observation Low observation bias Can be intrusive
Low to medium analysis bias Not always suitable in natural
settings
Relative Advantages of Observation Methods
METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Personal Observation Most flexible High observation bias
Highly suitable in natural settings High analysis bias
Mechanical observation Low observation bias Can be intrusive
Low to medium analysis bias Not always suitable in natural
settings
Interview Method
The Interview Method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral –
verbal responses
The Interview Method of collecting data
involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral –
verbal responses
Personal Interview
PI Method requires the interviewer asking
questions in a face-to-face contact with
the person
Collecting information thru PI is structured
– the use of a set of predetermined
questions and highly standardized
techniques of recording
PI Method requires the interviewer asking
questions in a face-to-face contact with
the person
Collecting information thru PI is structured
– the use of a set of predetermined
questions and highly standardized
techniques of recording
Personal Interview…
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed
In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility of
approach to questioning
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of
pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information
Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview
follows a rigid procedure, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed
In unstructured interviews – there is a flexibility of
approach to questioning
Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of
pre-determined questions and standardized
techniques of recording information
Other Interview Techniques
Focused Interview – to focus attention
on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to
decide the manner and sequence of
questions to elicit/explore reasons and
motives. The main task is to confine the
respondent to a discussion of issues
Focused Interview – to focus attention
on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects
The Interviewer has the freedom to
decide the manner and sequence of
questions to elicit/explore reasons and
motives. The main task is to confine the
respondent to a discussion of issues
Other Interview Techniques…
Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting
information is left to the interviewer’s discretion
Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's
function is simply to encourage the respondent to
talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning. The interviewer often acts as a
catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the
respondent’s feelings and beliefs
Clinical Interview – is concerned with broad
underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of an individual’s life experience. Eliciting
information is left to the interviewer’s discretion
Non-Directive Interview – the interviewer's
function is simply to encourage the respondent to
talk about the topic with a bare minimum of direct
questioning. The interviewer often acts as a
catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the
respondent’s feelings and beliefs
Advantages
1.More information and in greater depth can be
obtained
2.Resistance may be overcome by a skilled
interviewer
3.Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure
questions
4.Observation method can also be applied to
recording verbal answers
5.Personal information can be obtained
6.Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus
more honest responses
1.More information and in greater depth can be
obtained
2.Resistance may be overcome by a skilled
interviewer
3.Greater flexibility – an opportunity to restructure
questions
4.Observation method can also be applied to
recording verbal answers
5.Personal information can be obtained
6.Possibility of spontaneous responses and thus
more honest responses
Disadvantages
1.Expensive method
2.Interviewer bias
3.Respondent bias
4.Time consuming
5.Under the interview method the organization
required for selecting, training, and supervising
the field staff is complex with formidable
problems
6.Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank
responses is very difficult
1.Expensive method
2.Interviewer bias
3.Respondent bias
4.Time consuming
5.Under the interview method the organization
required for selecting, training, and supervising
the field staff is complex with formidable
problems
6.Establishing rapport to facilitate free and frank
responses is very difficult
Survey using questionnaires
(Data Collection Thru Questionnaires)
Popular in major studies
Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the Questionnaire
A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed in a definite order on a form
The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space
provided
(Data Collection Thru Questionnaires)
Popular in major studies
Briefly – a Questionnaire is sent (by post) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the
questions and return the Questionnaire
A Questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed in a definite order on a form
The Questionnaire is mailed to respondents who
are expected to read and understand the
questions and write down the reply in the space
provided
Merits of Questionnaire
Method
1.Low cost – even when the universe is
large and is widespread
2.Free from interviewer bias
3.Respondents have adequate time to
think thru their answers
4.Respondents who are not easily
approachable, can also be reached
conveniently
5.Large samples can be used
Method
1.Low cost – even when the universe is
large and is widespread
2.Free from interviewer bias
3.Respondents have adequate time to
think thru their answers
4.Respondents who are not easily
approachable, can also be reached
conveniently
5.Large samples can be used
Demerits
1.Low rate of return
2.Respondents need to be educated and
cooperative
3.Inbuilt inflexibility
4.Possibility of ambiguous replies or
omission of items
5.This method is slow
1.Low rate of return
2.Respondents need to be educated and
cooperative
3.Inbuilt inflexibility
4.Possibility of ambiguous replies or
omission of items
5.This method is slow
Features of a Questionnaire
Questionnaire is the heart of a survey –
needs to be carefully constructed
Need to understand the features of the
Questionnaire – its general form,
question sequence and question
formulation and the wording of the
questions
Questionnaire is the heart of a survey –
needs to be carefully constructed
Need to understand the features of the
Questionnaire – its general form,
question sequence and question
formulation and the wording of the
questions
1. General Form
•May be either structured or unstructured
•Structured Questionnaires – are those in which
there are definite, concrete, predetermined
questions
•The questions are presented with exactly the
same wording and in the same order to all
respondents
•The form of the questions may be either closed
(yes or no) or open (inviting free responses
•May be either structured or unstructured
•Structured Questionnaires – are those in which
there are definite, concrete, predetermined
questions
•The questions are presented with exactly the
same wording and in the same order to all
respondents
•The form of the questions may be either closed
(yes or no) or open (inviting free responses
General Form…
•Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed
alternative questions in which responses are limited to
the stated alternatives
•Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which
all the questions and answers are specified and
comments in the respondents’ own words are held to
the minimum
•Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above
characteristics are absent, it is known as a
unstructured Questionnaire
•The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on
the type of information to be obtained
•Structured Questionnaires may also have fixed
alternative questions in which responses are limited to
the stated alternatives
•Thus, a highly structured Questionnaire is one in which
all the questions and answers are specified and
comments in the respondents’ own words are held to
the minimum
•Unstructured Questionnaire – when the above
characteristics are absent, it is known as a
unstructured Questionnaire
•The Interviewer is provided with a general guideline on
the type of information to be obtained
2. Question Sequence
•Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid
responses
•Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of
one question to the next
•To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from
the respondent – difficult questions, personal
questions etc should preferably come at the
appropriate time rather than at the begining
•Proper sequence is needed to elicit valid
responses
•Sequence must be clear – that is, the relation of
one question to the next
•To establish rapport and to gain cooperation from
the respondent – difficult questions, personal
questions etc should preferably come at the
appropriate time rather than at the begining
3. Question Formulation & Wording
•Phrasing the questions must be clear
and unambiguous
•Questions should be impartial and
unbiased
•Should be easily understood
•Should be simple (one idea at a time)
•Should be concrete
•Form of questions may be multiple
choice or open-ended
•Phrasing the questions must be clear
and unambiguous
•Questions should be impartial and
unbiased
•Should be easily understood
•Should be simple (one idea at a time)
•Should be concrete
•Form of questions may be multiple
choice or open-ended
Very similar to the Questionnaire method
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the
enumerator who is specially appointed for the
purpose
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the
questions from the Performa in the order listed, and
records the responses in the space provided
Enumerators must be trained in administering the
schedule
Survey using Schedules
(Data Collection Thru Schedules)
The main difference is that a schedule is filled by the
enumerator who is specially appointed for the
purpose
Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the
questions from the Performa in the order listed, and
records the responses in the space provided
Enumerators must be trained in administering the
schedule
Survey using Schedules
(Data Collection Thru Schedules)
Collection of Secondary Data
Published data are available in:
1.Publications of State/Central govts
2.Publications of International Bodies
3.Technical and Trade Journals
4.Books, Magazines and Newspapers
5.Reports/Publications of various organizations
(banks, stock exchanges, business houses,
etc)
6.Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc
7.Public records, Historical Documents, etc
Published data are available in:
1.Publications of State/Central govts
2.Publications of International Bodies
3.Technical and Trade Journals
4.Books, Magazines and Newspapers
5.Reports/Publications of various organizations
(banks, stock exchanges, business houses,
etc)
6.Reports – by scholars, Universities, etc
7.Public records, Historical Documents, etc
Secondary Data must possess the
following characteristics:
Reliability of data – may be tested by checking:
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of the data?
Was the data collected properly?
Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be
necessarily suitable in another enquiry
Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various
terms and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature
of the original enquiry must be studied
Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they are
related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the
area of the present enquiry
following characteristics:
Reliability of data – may be tested by checking:
Who collected the data?
What were the sources of the data?
Was the data collected properly?
Suitability of data – data that are suitable for one enquiry may not be
necessarily suitable in another enquiry
Therefore, the researcher must scrutinize the definition of various
terms and units of collection. Also, the objectives, scope and nature
of the original enquiry must be studied
Adequacy of data – the data will be considered inadequate, if they are
related to an area which may be either narrower or wider than the
area of the present enquiry
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