Disaster Management introdyction - 1.pptx

ppt

1. Disaster Management By : Prof. Payal Zaveri

2. Contents: Disaster Impacts : Environmental Physical Social Ecological Economic Political

3. https :// www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/quizshow.php?title=mjcynde2nwskvy&q=2

4. Impact on human Life. No activity of loss and damage can be termed as disaster unless it has a direct impact on humans. The most fragile community on earth is mankind which is susceptible to all kinds of danger and hazards. to offset and reduce the impact of these hazards, humans are evolving themselves . Any loss whether it is of human life or of livestock, its loss of property it has direct bearing on humans . Man is a social animal and cannot live alone. Small groups joined together to form communities and communities grew to form cosmopolitan cities. Some of the impacts on human life can further be listed as follow: -

5. a. Loss of Human Life. The worst damage of a disaster is the loss of human life . All the property and households can be recouped with passage of time or with assistance of other communities / donors but life is such a precious thing that its replacement cannot be done. The loosing of a family member has far more lasting bad memories and impacts as compare to any other loss. This leads to social and psychological issues that affect the recovery phase and lengthens the rehabilitation phase.

6. b. Loss of Livelihood including Households and Property One of the immediate impact indicators that define the severity of a disaster is the loss of livelihoods of the inhabitants. The earnings of whole life are just washed away in few moments and it affects badly on recovery phase too.

7. c. Displacement Result of a disaster could be the temporary or permanent displacement from the affected area to a new location where environment (socially and economically) are not so favorable.

8. d. Education Disaster means the complete destruction of not only personal life routine but it also effects on the education badly . Either schools are destructed or if not, these are used to house displaced people. in any case, continuity of education is not there.

9. Environmental Impacts Collapsed Building Fire Property damage/destruction Loss of power Loss of habitate Deforestation Pollution Contamination Destruction Erosion Tornadoes Toxic Gases release CO emission

10. Top 10 Ecological Disasters (1912-2020) https:// www.cfr.org/timeline/ecological-disasters 2. Top 10 World worst man made Environmental Disasters https:// youtu.be/PcLrH2eIOWI?si=7EAc7eqn6dSe_Aui

11. Earthquake Impact collapsing buildings property damage mud slides fires floods

12. Surface Rupture: The movement along fault lines during an earthquake can cause the ground to rupture at the surface. This can alter the landscape, affecting vegetation, soil, and watercourses. Landslides: Earthquakes can trigger landslides, which can result in the displacement of soil, rocks, and debris. Landslides can damage ecosystems, block rivers, and pose additional hazards to human settlements. Ground Shaking: The shaking of the ground during an earthquake can lead to the destruction of vegetation, toppling of trees, and damage to wildlife habitats. This can disrupt ecosystems and alter the natural balance in affected areas . Soil Liquefaction: In certain conditions, seismic activity can cause saturated soil to behave like a liquid, a phenomenon known as soil liquefaction. This can lead to the sinking or tilting of structures, affecting both human infrastructure and natural landscapes.

13. 5. Aftershocks : The aftershocks that follow a major earthquake can further impact the environment by causing additional ground shaking, landslides, and surface ruptures. 6. Tsunamis : Underwater earthquakes can generate tsunamis, massive ocean waves that can inundate coastal areas. Tsunamis can cause significant damage to coastal ecosystems, including coral reefs, mangroves, and coastal wetlands. 7. Changes in Water Tables: Earthquakes can alter the flow and level of groundwater, affecting water tables and potentially leading to changes in natural water systems. 8. Infrastructure Impact: While not directly environmental, the destruction of human infrastructure (such as dams, pipelines, and industrial facilities) can have severe environmental consequences, including the release of pollutants into the environment.

14. 9. Fires : Earthquakes can trigger fires, either through the rupture of gas lines or by other means. These fires can result in the destruction of vegetation and habitats . 10. Human Activities: The response to earthquakes, including rescue and recovery efforts, construction of temporary shelters, and disposal of debris, can also have environmental impacts. For example, improper disposal of debris can lead to pollution and habitat disruption . It's important to note that the severity of these environmental impacts can vary depending on factors such as the magnitude of the earthquake, the depth of the focus, the distance from epicenter, and the local geological and environmental conditions. Additionally, human activities and land-use practices can influence the extent of the environmental effects.

15. Hurricanes Impact the Environment Erosion houses, buildings, and other structures destroyed heavy flooding of inland areas Tornadoes loss of power contaminated water supply

16. Storm Surges: Cyclones generate powerful winds that can push large volumes of water toward the coast, resulting in storm surges. These surges can lead to coastal flooding, causing erosion, salinization of freshwater sources, and damage to coastal ecosystems . Coastal Erosion: The combination of strong winds and storm surges during a cyclone can lead to coastal erosion. This can result in the loss of land, damage to infrastructure, and changes in the structure of coastal ecosystems . Flooding : Intense rainfall associated with cyclones can lead to widespread flooding, affecting both coastal and inland areas. Floodwaters can submerge low-lying areas, leading to habitat disruption, displacement of wildlife, and damage to vegetation .

17. Impact on Coral Reefs: Cyclones can cause physical damage to coral reefs through wave action and storm surges. Sedimentation and runoff from the land, particularly if it carries pollutants, can also negatively impact coral health . Displacement of Sediments: Cyclones can stir up and transport sediments from the sea floor, affecting water clarity and quality. This sedimentation can impact marine ecosystems, including seagrass beds and benthic communities . Loss of Biodiversity: Cyclones can cause direct harm to terrestrial and aquatic species. Trees can be uprooted, habitats can be destroyed, and marine life can be impacted by changes in water conditions and habitat destruction .

18. Water Quality Issues: The runoff from heavy rainfall during a cyclone can introduce pollutants, including agricultural chemicals, into water bodies. This can lead to water quality issues, negatively affecting aquatic ecosystems and posing risks to human health . Debris Generation: Cyclones can generate a significant amount of debris, including vegetation, building materials, and other solid waste. Improper disposal of debris can lead to environmental pollution and habitat disruption . Impact on Mangroves: Mangrove ecosystems, which are often found in coastal areas, can be severely impacted by cyclones. Storm surges and strong winds can uproot mangrove trees, leading to habitat loss for various species and disrupting the protective role that mangroves play against coastal erosion .

19. Disruption of Wetlands: Cyclones can impact inland wetlands through flooding and changes in water levels. Wetlands may provide important habitat for various species, and their disruption can affect the breeding and feeding patterns of wildlife . Changes in River Dynamics: Cyclones can influence river systems through increased precipitation and stormwater runoff. This can lead to changes in river flow, sediment transport, and the deposition of sediments in downstream areas .

20. Lightning impacts the environment Fire Loss of Power

21. Fire Impact the Environment houses, buildings, and other structures destroyed loss of habitat

22. Tsunamis Impact the Environment houses, buildings, and other structures destroyed loss of power Erosion fresh water contaminated

23. Volcanic Eruptions Impact the Environment houses, buildings, and other structures destroyed Fires toxic gases released into the atmosphere Carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes adds to the natural greenhouse effect . loss of habitat

24. Blizzards Impact the Environment flooding when snows melt trees fall power outages hypothermia

25. Flooding Impact the Environment Disease loss of habitat houses, buildings, and other structures destroyed household wastes get into the water system power outages

26. 1. Habitat Disruption: Floods can alter or destroy natural habitats, affecting the plants and animals that rely on them. Aquatic ecosystems, such as rivers, wetlands, and floodplains, are particularly vulnerable. Floods can lead to changes in the distribution and abundance of species, impacting biodiversity. 2. Water Quality: Floodwaters can carry pollutants from various sources, including agricultural runoff, industrial discharges, and urban areas. The influx of contaminants can degrade water quality, negatively impacting aquatic ecosystems and posing risks to both human and animal health. 3. Sediment Transport: Floodwaters can transport large amounts of sediment, leading to changes in riverbed morphology and sediment deposition in downstream areas. Excessive sedimentation can smother aquatic habitats, reducing the availability of light, oxygen, and nutrients for aquatic organisms.

27. 4. Nutrient Loading: Floodwaters can transport excess nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, from agricultural areas into water bodies. This nutrient loading can result in eutrophication, leading to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and disruptions to aquatic ecosystems. 5. Displacement of Species: Animals and plants may be displaced or transported to new areas during floods. While some species may be able to adapt or migrate, others may face challenges or perish, particularly if the flooding is severe or prolonged. 6. Disease Spread: Floods can facilitate the spread of waterborne diseases, as contaminated water may come into contact with drinking water sources. Increased water stagnation and the creation of breeding grounds for disease vectors, such as mosquitoes, can contribute to the transmission of diseases.

28. 7. Changes in Soil Structure: Floodwaters can erode soil, leading to changes in soil structure and fertility. The deposition of sediment after the flood may also alter the composition of the soil, affecting plant growth and agricultural productivity. 8. Impact on Forests: Floods can damage or destroy forests, particularly in low-lying or riparian areas. Tree roots can be weakened, leading to increased susceptibility to wind damage and the potential for landslides. 9. Infrastructure Impact: While not directly environmental, the destruction of human infrastructure, such as dams, levees, and roads, can have significant environmental consequences. For example, the failure of a dam can lead to downstream flooding and habitat destruction.

29. Long-term Changes in Ecosystem Dynamics: Depending on the severity and frequency of flooding, long-term changes in ecosystem dynamics may occur. Floods can influence the succession of plant and animal species, as well as the overall structure and function of ecosystems . The environmental impact of floods can vary depending on factors such as the magnitude and duration of the flood, the type of terrain, land use practices, and climate conditions. Effective flood management and mitigation strategies are essential to reduce the negative environmental consequences of floods.

30. Tornadoes Impact the Environment Tornadoes could hit hazardous or toxic materials which could carried by a thunderstorm and then transported along ways down stream . could transport certain types of small animals and plants across the land destroys topsoil and crops.

31. Drought Impact the Environment young trees die dried up lakes and other water sources loss of livestock and crops People use more fuel during droughts. losses or destruction of fish and wildlife habitat lack of food and drinking water for wild animals increase in disease in wild animals, because of reduced food and water supplies migration of wild animals, leading to a loss of wildlife in some (drought-stricken) areas and too many wildlife in areas not affected by drought increased stress on endangered species lower water levels in reservoirs, lakes, and ponds loss of wetland more fires wind and water erosion of soils, reduced soil quality

32. Water Scarcity: The most direct impact of drought is a reduction in water availability. Streams, rivers, lakes, and groundwater levels can drop significantly, leading to water scarcity for both natural ecosystems and human communities. This can affect aquatic habitats, water-dependent plants, and wildlife . Habitat Degradation: Reduced water availability can result in the degradation of habitats, particularly in aquatic ecosystems and wetlands. The shrinking of water bodies can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation, affecting the survival and reproduction of many species . 3. Changes in Water Quality: Droughts can concentrate pollutants in water bodies, as lower water volumes can lead to higher pollutant concentrations. This can result in poor water quality, affecting aquatic life and posing risks to human health.

33. Wildlife Stress and Mortality: Drought conditions can stress wildlife by reducing available water sources and food supplies. Prolonged drought can lead to increased mortality rates among various species, especially those that rely on specific water-dependent habitats . Ecosystem Imbalances: Droughts can disrupt the balance of ecosystems by favoring certain species over others. For example, drought may benefit drought-resistant species while negatively impacting those that are less resilient. This can lead to shifts in community composition and ecosystem dynamics . Increased Wildfire Risk: Dry conditions associated with drought create favorable conditions for wildfires. Vegetation becomes more susceptible to ignition, and the lack of moisture can contribute to the rapid spread of fires, leading to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity .

34. Soil Erosion: Drought can contribute to soil erosion as dry, compacted soil becomes more susceptible to wind and water erosion. This can lead to the loss of fertile topsoil, negatively impacting agricultural productivity and affecting downstream water quality . Crop Failure and Food Chain Disruption: Droughts can lead to agricultural losses, including crop failures and reduced yields. This not only affects food production for humans but also disrupts the food chain, as many wildlife species rely on crops or the insects associated with them . Tree Mortality and Forest Decline: Prolonged drought can lead to increased stress on trees, making them more susceptible to pests and diseases. Tree mortality and forest decline can result in changes to forest ecosystems, affecting biodiversity and ecosystem services .

35. Impact on Wetlands: Drought conditions can lead to the drying up of wetlands, which are crucial habitats for various species. The loss of wetlands can have cascading effects on the organisms that depend on these areas for breeding, feeding, and shelter . It's important to note that the severity and duration of drought, as well as the vulnerability of ecosystems and communities, can influence the extent of these environmental impacts. Sustainable water management practices and proactive measures to mitigate the effects of drought are essential for protecting ecosystems and maintaining biodiversity.

36. Five Largest Environmental Disasters https:// aceenvironmental.net/biggest-environmental-disasters-of-all-time April 20, 2010: the deep water horizon oil spill https:// youtu.be/t_AKlpNX-FI?si=krmSCtwNgYnUzb8d In 2010 the  Deepwater Horizon , an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico, exploded, releasing over 130 gallons of oil into the pristine waters around it. Eleven workers would die on this day, which marked the beginning of nearly three months of unchecked and unstoppable oil leakage into the surrounding waters, destroying millions of marine mammals including 72 dolphins, as well as birds, sea turtles, and fish. The environmental impacts are still being felt to this day.

37. 2. APRIL 26, 1986: CHERNOBYL https://youtu.be/Wlb5M7f4LlE?si=-k8yQC9-id_Ii774 The result of a runaway nuclear reaction, the  Chernobyl explosion  took the lives of 50 people immediately, sickening thousands more. It’s estimated that the explosion released 400 times more radiation than the Hiroshima bomb. The site and surrounding area is still radioactive, and no one is entirely sure how many nuclear materials may be buried under the wreckage. The wildlife has rebounded from the disaster and mutations are found in amazingly small numbers. Even more surprising is the emergence of herds of endangered Przewalski’s horses, with some of the original herd members surviving the blast . Most insect species were destroyed in the area.

38. 3. JANUARY 30, 2020: BAIA MARE CYANIDE SPILL 100,000 cubic meters of cyanide contaminated waste water leaked from a dam in Baia Mare, Romania, spilling 100 tons of cyanide into the Tisza, Somes , and Danube rivers. There were untold numbers of losses throughout the biosphere’s wildlife, aquatic life, and aquatic plants. Residents of Baia Mare were sickened after consuming contaminated fish, and tests conducted after the breach found cyanide levels between 300 and 700 times the acceptable standards.

39. 4. JULY 10, 1976: SEVESO DIOXIN CLOUD When an  explosion in northern Italy’s Seveso  rocked the area just outside of Milan, it released a cloudy, thick fog of dioxin that settled over the town. The first victims were the animals, both domestic and wild alike. Around four days later, humans began to feel the effects of the environmental pollution, including blurred vision, painful sores known as chloracne , and nausea. It took weeks before an evacuation was authorized. After citizens returned to Seveso , they gathered the remains of all the animals, along with soil containing the largest amounts of dioxin, and placed them all into giant tanks.

40. 5. DECEMBER 2, 1984: BHOPAL https://youtu.be/Sr86ajP02kY?si=CN0wZOrFNxJ72lK6 In the early morning hours of December 2, 1984, an  accident at the Union Carbide pesticide plant  released 45 tons of lethal methyl isocyanate into the surrounding community of Bhopal, India . It’s estimated that nearly a half million people were adversely affected by this incident, including the death of thousands of victims in the hours following the accident and an additional 15,000 dying throughout the next few months. It is widely considered the worst industrial accident in history.

41. Physical Impacts Injuries Death Physical disability Burns Epidemic Weakness/uneasiness Physical illness Sanitation Miscarriage Reproductive health Fatigue , Loss of Sleep Loss of Appetite

42. Structural Damage: Disasters such as earthquakes, hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and tsunamis can cause extensive structural damage to buildings, bridges, roads, and other infrastructure. This damage may range from minor cracks and cosmetic issues to complete collapse, rendering buildings and infrastructure unusable or unsafe.

43. Loss of Lives and Injuries: The physical impact of disasters often includes casualties, injuries, and fatalities resulting from collapsing structures, flying debris, flooding, landslides, and other hazards. The severity of these impacts depends on factors such as the magnitude of the disaster, population density, building codes, and emergency preparedness measures.

44. Environmental Destruction: Disasters can wreak havoc on the natural environment, causing deforestation, soil erosion, contamination of water sources, loss of biodiversity, and habitat destruction. Industrial accidents, oil spills, chemical leaks, and nuclear incidents can further exacerbate environmental damage, posing long-term risks to ecosystems and human health.

45. Infrastructure Disruption: The physical impact of disasters often disrupts critical infrastructure systems, including power grids, water supply networks, transportation networks, telecommunications, and sanitation systems. Damage to infrastructure can lead to service outages, interruptions in supply chains, and logistical challenges, hindering response and recovery efforts.

46. Displacement and Homelessness: Disasters can displace populations, forcing people to evacuate their homes and seek temporary shelter in evacuation centers, emergency shelters, or with relatives and friends. In severe cases, displacement may lead to homelessness, overcrowding in shelters, and the establishment of informal settlements, exacerbating social vulnerabilities and health risks.

47. Impact on Cultural Heritage: Disasters can have a profound impact on cultural heritage sites, monuments, artifacts, and traditions. Historical buildings, archaeological sites, museums, and cultural institutions may suffer damage or destruction, resulting in the loss of irreplaceable cultural assets and undermining cultural identity and heritage preservation efforts.

48. Risk of Secondary Hazards: The physical impact of disasters can trigger secondary hazards and cascading effects, including aftershocks, landslides, fires, dam failures, and disease outbreaks. These secondary hazards can prolong the duration and severity of the disaster, complicate rescue and relief operations, and increase the overall risk to affected populations.

49. Physical Impacts of Earthquake The types of impacts depend to a large degree on where the earthquake is located: whether it is predominantly urban or rural, densely or sparsely populated, highly developed or underdeveloped, and of course on the ability of the infrastructure to withstand shaking . It is therefore very common to see much worse earthquake damage in areas underlain by soft sediments than in areas of solid rock. A good example of this is in the Oakland area near San Francisco, where parts of a two-layer highway built on soft sediments collapsed during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake.

50. Figure : 1 A part of the Cypress Freeway in Oakland California that collapsed during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. [from: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/9/91/Cypress_collapsed.jpg]

51. Building damage is also greatest in areas of soft sediments, and multi- storey buildings tend to be more seriously damaged than smaller ones.  Figure : 2 Buildings damaged by the 1999 earthquake in the Izmit area, Turkey. [from U.S. Geological Survey at: http://gallery.usgs.gov/sets/1999_Izmit,_Turkey_Earthquake/thumb/_/1]

52. Fires are commonly associated with earthquakes because fuel pipelines rupture and electrical lines are damaged when the ground shakes. Most of the damage in the great 1906 San Francisco earthquake was caused by massive fires in the downtown area of the city . Some 25,000 buildings were destroyed by those fires, which were fuelled by broken gas pipes. Some of the effects of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake in the Sendai area of Japan. An oil refinery is on fire, and a vast area has been flooded by a tsunami. [from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_T%C5%8Dhoku_earthquake_and_tsunami#/media/File:SH-60B_helicopter_flies_over_Sendai.jpg]

53. Earthquakes are important triggers for failures on slopes that are already weak. An example is the Las Colinas slide in the city of Santa Tecla , El Salvador, which was triggered by a M7.6 offshore earthquake in January 2001. The Las Colinas debris flow at Santa Tecla (a suburb of the capital San Salvador) triggered by the January 2001 El Salvador earthquake. This is just one of many hundreds of slope failures that resulted from that earthquake. Over 500 people died in the area affected by this slide. [from: http://landslides.usgs.gov/learning/ images/foreign/ElSalvadorslide.jpg]

54. Ground shaking during an earthquake can be enough to weaken rock and unconsolidated materials to the point of failure, but in many cases the shaking also contributes to a process known as  liquefaction , in which an otherwise solid body of sediment is transformed into a liquid mass that can flow. When water-saturated sediments are shaken, the grains become rearranged to the point where they are no longer supporting one another . Liquefaction can lead to the collapse of buildings and other structures that might be otherwise undamaged. A good example is the collapse of apartment buildings during the 1964 Niigata earthquake (M7.6) in Japan (Figure 11.22). Liquefaction can also contribute to slope failures and to fountains of sandy mud (sand volcanoes) in areas where there is loose saturated sand beneath a layer of more cohesive clay.  

55. Collapsed apartment buildings in the Niigata area of Japan. The material beneath the buildings was liquefied to varying degrees by the 1964 earthquake. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964_ Niigata_earthquake #/media/File: Liquefaction_at_Niigata.JPG

56. Flood Impact Property and Infrastructure damage PTSD depression anxiety psychiatric disorders sleep disorder suicide chronic diseases Malnutrition Low birth rate Child Nutrition Gastrointestinal Water born Diseases like hepatitis A and  cholera.

57. One of the most significant impacts of flood is the damage to, and destruction of, homes and personal belongings.  This often results in grief, stress and sadness over the loss of irreplaceable possessions and built up equity . Flooding often results in damage to infrastructure. This can include damage to important services and infrastructure such as wastewater, electricity, sewerage and telecommunications . A breakdown in these services can make homes unliveable and business unviable and unsafe.

58. The immediate health impacts of floods include drowning, injuries, hypothermia, and animal bites. Health risks also are associated with the evacuation of patients, loss of health workers, and loss of health infrastructure including essential drugs and supplies. In the medium-term, infected wounds, complications of injury, poisoning, poor mental health, communicable diseases, and starvation are indirect effects of flooding. In the long-term, chronic disease, disability, poor mental health, and poverty-related diseases including malnutrition are the potential legacy.

59. Manali Floods https://youtu.be/KP10Vwsl5PU?si=keyg3GtrDQTIz5z _

60. Drought Impact Drought threatens people's livelihoods, increases the risk of disease and death, and fuels mass migration. Water scarcity impacts 40% of the world's population, and as many as 700 million people are at-risk of being displaced as a result of drought by 2030 . A dverse effect of drought on the recharge of soil moisture, surface runoff, and groundwater table . Soils dry up, surface runoff is reduced and ground water level is lowered. Rivers, lakes, ponds and reservoirs tend to dry up wells and tube-wells are rendered unserviceable due to lowering of the ground water table.

61. Landslide Impact The impact of a landslide can be extensive, including loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, damage to land and loss of natural resources . Landslide material can also block rivers and increase the risk of floods. They also have a devastating effect on farmers’ livelihoods as they can prevent access to land for years, destroy seed and food stocks and will commonly result in the loss of livestock and standing crops .

62. Short Term Impacts : The natural beauty of the area is damaged . Loss of life and property Roadblocks Destruction of railway lines Channel blocking because of the falling of rocks. It leads to the diversion of river water, which can cause floods as well. Long Term Impacts Landscape changes can be permanent. The loss of fertile land or cultivation land. Erosion and soil loss can lead to environmental problems. Population shifting and migration. Effects on the sources of water. Some roads can be damaged or closed permanently.

63. Loss of Life and Property: Landslides can cause significant loss of life and property. They can bury houses, roads, and other infrastructure, causing fatalities and injuries. In some cases, landslides can completely destroy entire communities. Environmental Damage: Landslides can also cause significant environmental damage. They can alter natural watercourses, leading to flooding and erosion. Landslides can also damage ecosystems by destroying vegetation and wildlife habitats. Economic Impacts: Landslides can have significant economic impacts. They can disrupt transportation systems, causing delays and increased transportation costs. They can also damage buildings and infrastructure, leading to costly repairs. Social Impacts: Landslides can have significant social impacts. They can displace communities, leading to social disruption and psychological stress. Landslides can also disrupt access to healthcare and education, leading to long-term social consequences.

64. https:// youtu.be/37Hhu-vswx0?si=3OxMDftM0jzl0OrH Nine tourists were killed and several were injured after a massive landslide hit a bridge in Himachal Pradesh's Sangla valley. In a terrifying video, large chunks of rocks can be seen breaking off a mountain and rolling down into the valley below. The video shows a section of the bridge crumbling and plunging into a river after a boulder hits it.

65. https:// youtu.be/fb1dSUFugYs?si=5dqO0nl3Z7Ii6IYb A massive landslide in the Sirmaur district of Himachal Pradesh in India has led to a road collapsing down the side of a mountain. The footage, captured on 30 July, has been widely shared on social media and Indian news channels. It is not clear whether there were any casualties. There have been incidents of landslides in the area amid heavy rains. Recently a huge rockfall hit the Sangla valley, destroying a bridge, cars and killing at least nine tourists.

66. Social Impacts Change in individual’s role Disruption of social fabric Isolation Change in marital status Sexual abuse & domestic violence Orphans Single parent children Family & social disorganization Migration Life style changes Breakdown of traditional Social Status  

67. Disaster badly hampers the social life of the victims. Living in Temporarily Displaced People (TDPs)/internally displaced Peoples (IDPs) camp has many social ills. Social fiber of a family is shattered badly if someone from the family had been a loss coupled with sharing accommodation with others. Upbringing in camps is always associated with some stigma and adjustment in society and community in normal manner is very difficult for this segment.

68. Economic Impacts Loss of life Unemployment Loss of Livelihood Loss of property/Land Loss of household articles Loss of crops Loss of Public Infrastructure

69. Earthquake Impact Infrastructure Damage: Earthquakes can cause significant damage to infrastructure, including roads, bridges, airports, ports, and utilities (such as water and power supply systems). The cost of repairing or replacing damaged infrastructure can be substantial, impacting transportation, communication, and essential services . Property Damage and Losses: The destruction of residential, commercial, and industrial buildings leads to property damage and financial losses. The rebuilding process involves substantial costs for individuals, businesses, and insurance companies . Business Interruption: Earthquakes can disrupt business operations, leading to temporary closures, production stoppages, and supply chain disruptions. This interruption can result in lost revenues, reduced productivity, and increased operational costs .

70. Job Losses: The economic impact of earthquakes includes job losses due to business closures, layoffs, and the overall economic downturn. Industries heavily reliant on local infrastructure, such as construction and manufacturing, may experience significant employment challenges . Impact on Agriculture: Earthquakes can damage agricultural infrastructure, such as irrigation systems, and disrupt farming activities. Crop losses, damage to livestock, and increased costs for farmers contribute to the economic impact on the agricultural sector . Tourism Decline: Regions heavily dependent on tourism may experience a decline in visitors due to the perception of earthquake-related risks. Damage to tourist attractions, hotels, and other infrastructure can lead to a long-term decline in tourism-related revenues .

71. Financial Market Volatility: Earthquakes can cause financial market volatility, affecting stocks, bonds, and currency values. Investors may react to uncertainty and risk, leading to fluctuations in financial markets and impacting the overall economic stability of a region . Insurance Costs: The economic impact of earthquakes includes increased insurance costs for individuals and businesses. Insurance companies may raise premiums in earthquake-prone regions, and the overall cost of insurance claims can strain the industry . Government Expenditure: Governments often bear a significant financial burden in the aftermath of earthquakes. Emergency response and recovery efforts require substantial funding for search and rescue operations, rebuilding infrastructure, providing financial assistance to affected individuals and businesses, and implementing preventive measures . Impact on Trade: Earthquakes can disrupt trade routes and logistics, affecting the movement of goods and services. Ports and transportation infrastructure may be damaged, leading to delays and increased costs in international trade.

72. Drought Impact Agricultural Losses: Droughts have a profound impact on agriculture by reducing soil moisture, limiting water availability for crops, and affecting livestock. Crop yields may decline, leading to lower production and financial losses for farmers. Livestock farmers may face challenges in providing sufficient water and forage for their animals, resulting in reduced productivity and increased costs . Food Price Increases: Reduced agricultural production can lead to a decrease in the supply of food commodities, causing an increase in food prices. This can lead to inflationary pressures and impact consumers, particularly those with lower incomes . Income Reduction: Farmers and agricultural workers may experience income reduction due to lower yields and reduced agricultural activities. This, in turn, can have a cascading effect on rural economies and communities that rely heavily on agriculture .

73. Job Losses: Drought-induced agricultural losses may lead to job losses in the farming and related sectors. This can result in increased unemployment rates and economic hardships for individuals and communities dependent on agriculture . Impact on Energy Production: Droughts can affect hydropower generation by reducing water levels in reservoirs. This can lead to a decrease in electricity production from hydroelectric plants, necessitating the use of alternative and potentially more expensive energy sources . Water Supply Challenges: Droughts can strain water supplies for both agricultural and urban use. Water scarcity may lead to increased competition for limited resources, affecting industries that rely on water for production processes .

74. Reduced Industrial Output: Industries that depend on water as a key input in their production processes, such as manufacturing and mining, may experience reduced output and increased operational costs during droughts . Impact on Transportation: Reduced water levels in rivers and lakes can impact transportation, especially for industries that rely on water transport for shipping goods. Low water levels may hinder navigation and increase transportation costs . Financial Strain on Governments: Governments may face increased financial burdens during droughts, as they allocate funds for emergency response, drought relief programs, and support for affected communities. This can contribute to budgetary constraints and potential long-term economic challenges .

75. Impact on Tourism: Regions heavily dependent on natural attractions, such as lakes, rivers, and landscapes, may experience a decline in tourism due to the environmental degradation caused by drought. This can lead to reduced tourism-related revenues and job losses in the hospitality sector . Insurance Costs: Droughts may increase insurance costs for individuals and businesses, particularly for sectors vulnerable to water scarcity and related risks. Insurance companies may adjust premiums and coverage to account for heightened drought risks .

76. The term defines that any calamity which is beyond the capability of local community. It means that sources of income are meager and new opportunities to invest and flourish the business are remote. Rather focus is more on recovery than on prosperity. The economy indicators have to be change and new indicators has to be placed. Though there is a vast requirement of everything but priorities would make it difficult to divert resources on economic and business activities as foremost requirement is to provide immediate relief assistance to the victims.

77. The Impact Of Natural Disasters On The Global Economy While most natural disasters are fairly local in their impact, the worst can change the planet. The 1815 eruption of the Indonesian volcano Tamora pumped so much sulfur into the atmosphere that the world’s temperature dropped by 2 degrees Fahrenheit (1 degree Celsius) for two years afterwards . The March 2011 earthquake in Japan even shifted the earth’s axis, shortening the length of the day

78. The economic impact on the world can be just as profound. The 2005 Atlantic hurricane season saw a record 28 storms, including seven major hurricanes. Hurricane Katrina took the headlines as the most expensive tropical cyclone in history by both economic and insured losses, but the season as a whole caused aggregate economic losses of US$209 billion, equal to the seventh most costly year on record for natural disasters.

79. The world’s costliest natural disasters

80. The economic impact of Nepal's earthquake Nepal is home to the world's highest mountain and is wedged between two growing economic superpowers, but it is one of the poorest countries in the world. Now it is struggling to cope with the worst earthquake to hit the Himalayan nation in 80 years. The magnitude 7.9 earthquake struck some 80km northwest of the capital Kathmandu and has affected eight million people, just under one-third of the population with upwards of 5,000 people killed. The economic losses could be as much as $10bn, according to an estimate from US Geological Survey. The cost of rebuilding is $5bn, according to IHS. All this in a country with economic growth that was already expected to slow, with an unemployment rate of more than 40 percent, and a reliance on agriculture, tourism and remittances to support its $19bn economy. The international support has rolled in led by Nepal's closest neighbors. India dispatched 16 military and civilian aircraft, eight helicopters and 1,000 members of its National Disaster Response. Nepal's northern neighbor China has a 62 member search and rescue team on the ground and has pledged more than $10m to the effort. The Asian Development Bank has given $3m for humanitarian efforts and pledged another $200m for reconstruction work.

81. Psychological Impacts Distress Flash backs Intrusion/Avoidance Hatred/Revenge Dependence/Insecurity Grief/Withdrawn/Isolation Guilt feeling Hyper vigilance Lack of trust Helplessness Hopelessness

82. Disaster completely changes the way of looking at life. Loss of human life and livelihoods, displacement from ancestor’s land, discontinuation of education, misery of fellow ones and lack of economic opportunities are few factors which deepens the psychological impact of a disaster. Disaster are known in history by the scale of destruction and losses it resulted.

83. Social Issues during Disaster Food Crisis Health Hazard Ravaged Infrastructure Unemployment and economic loss Militancy and Crimes

84. IMPACTS OF DISASTER ON SOCIETY Displaced Populations One of the most immediate effects of natural disasters is population displacement. When countries are ravaged by earthquakes or other powerful forces of nature, many people have to abandon their homes and seek shelter in other regions. A large influx of refugees can disrupt accessibility of health care and education, as well as food supplies and clean water.

85. Health Risks it is the second most damaging effect of disaster. Severe flooding can result in stagnant water that allows breeding of waterborne bacteria and malaria-carrying mosquitoes. Without emergency relief from international aid organizations and others, death tolls can rise even after the immediate danger has passed.

86. Food Scarcity After natural disasters, food often becomes scarce. Thousands of people around the world go hungry as a result of destroyed crops and loss of agricultural supplies, whether it happens suddenly in a storm or gradually in a drought . Food prices rise, reducing families’ purchasing power and increasing the risk of severe malnutrition or worse. The impacts of hunger following an earthquake, typhoon or hurricane can be tremendous, causing lifelong damage to children’s development.

87. Emotional Aftershocks Natural disasters can be particularly traumatic for young children . Confronted with scenes of destruction and the deaths of friends and loved ones, many children develop post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), a serious psychological condition. Left untreated, children suffering from PTSD can be prone to lasting psychological damage and emotional distress. resulting from extreme trauma.

88. Impacts of Floods: Building and property washed away by water and mud Crops ruined and farmlands saturated for months People and animals can drown in fast flowing water Transport can be interrupted; airport can be closed, roads and railways submerged under water Sewage contaminate drinking water and causes diseases like cholera & typhoid

89. Impact on Built and Natural Environments Houses washed away due to the impact of the water under high stream velocity. The houses are commonly destroyed or dislocated so severely that their reconstruction is not feasible. Flotation of houses caused by rising waters. This occurs when light-weight, typically wood houses are not securely anchored. They can be removed too far from their foundations for relocation and repair. Damage caused by inundation of house. The house may remain intact and on its foundation, but the water damage to materials may be severe. Repair is often feasible but may require special procedures to dry out properly. Undercutting of house. The velocity of the water may scour and erode the house’s foundation or the earth under the foundation. This may result in the collapse of the house or require substantial repair. Damage caused by debris. Massive floating objects such as trees and other houses may impact on standing houses and cause significant damage.

90. Health-Related Effects In floods, deaths usually exceed injuries. Surgical needs are low and are generally only during the first 72 hours . Floods may create conditions that promote secondary threats of waterborne and vectorborne diseases. A slight increase in deaths from venomous snake bites has been reported but not fully substantiated.

91. Impact on Agriculture In most flood prone countries where economies are based on agriculture, the largest economic flood-related losses are in the agricultural sector. Even in the industrialized United States 48 percent of flood losses in 1975 were in agriculture . Obviously most losses to agriculture result from the drowning of crops. Susceptibility to drowning depends on the type of crop and duration of flooding. Some are quickly killed by a relatively small amount of superfluous water. Others can resist as much as a few days of submersion. Even crops that thrive on large amounts of standing water will be killed if the water stagnates as in the Bangladesh example. Other agricultural losses occur in the submersion of crop storage facilities. Grains and other crops will quickly spoil if saturated with water, even for a short time.

92. An additional negative impact on the agricultural sector is the erosion of topsoil by the floods. Here the impact is indeed long term, resulting in the reduced productivity of the land and possibly eventual abandonment . Flooding, however, is not all bad. For some agricultural areas flooding is a positive and necessary event. These lands depend on the periodic silt deposits for added nutrients to the soil. Flooding also serves other advantages including the filtering or dilution of pollutants that enter the waterways, flushing of nutrients in river systems, preserving of wetlands, recharging of groundwater, and maintaining of river ecosystems by providing breeding, nesting, feeding and nursery areas for fish, shell fish, migrating waterfowl, and others.

93. Impact on Development Widespread floods can have a significant effect on the long-term economic growth of the affected region. Indirect and secondary effects on the local and national economy may include reduction in family income, decline in the production of business and industrial enterprises, inflation, unemployment, increase in income disparities, and decline in national income. In addition, relief and reconstruction efforts often compete with development programs for available funds. In countries where flooding occurs frequently, floods can create an enormous financial burden.

94. The loss of crops and the need to find alternate sources of income have often caused small scale migrations of farmers and skilled workers from rural areas to cities. Once established in a city, few return to their homes or farms. Small marginal farms usually cannot survive economically following a major flood. Farmers are often forced to sell their land because they cannot afford to rehabilitate it. This may result in a substantial increase in the number of people migrating to urban areas, and thus a related housing shortage.

95. EFFECTS AND LOSSES DUE TO LANDSLIDES A) Direct Effects: Physical Damage-Debris may block roads, supply lines (telecommunication, electricity, water, etc.) and waterways . Causalities- deaths and injuries to people and animals. B ) Indirect Effects: Influence of landslides in dam safety- failure of the slopes bordering the reservoir, Flooding caused by movements of large masses of soil into the reservoir .

96. Landslides and flooding- Debris flow can cause flooding by blocking valleys and stream channels, forcing large amounts of water to backup causing backup/ flash flood . C) Direct losses: Loss of life, property, infrastructure and lifeline facilities, Resources, farmland and places of cultural importance . D) Indirect losses: Loss in productivity of agricultural or forest lands, Reduced property values, Loss of revenue, Increased cost, Adverse effect on water quality and Loss of human productivity,

97. Global Disaster Trends The overall number of people affected by disaster in rising: Over 50 % of the world population now lives in urban areas. When human settle in high – risk urban areas, the hazard risk increases.

98. Overall disasters being less deadly: Due to globalization and international cooperation, the world community can discuss more effectively about risk reduction and decrease the human impacts of disaster. No of disasters have morn than tripled since 1970, the number of people death has fallen by 50 %. Effective preparedness campaigns – decrease people vulnerabillllllity and to react more appropriately in the event of disaster. Every warning system is giving more time to leave the dangerous situation. Diseases generated after post disaster are more effectively managed by modern public health response mechanism. Development of building codes are helping to increase the life of the various structures. Proper zoning are helping to prevent people from moving towards hazard prone areas.

99. Overall disasters becoming more costly: As per the International Reinsurance Firm, by the year 2000, the cost of disaster worldwide had exceeded 60 billion U.S dollars per year. Increasing population Movement of people towards urban area, to build expensive buildings and infrastructure in high risk zones. A greater number of less deadly but financially destructive disasters are occurring throughout the world as a result of climate change or other factors.

100. Poor countries are disproportionately affected by disaster consequences: On average 65 % of disaster related injuries and deaths are occurred in countries with per capita income below 750 U.S dollar per year. Can not afford costly houses which can withstand seismic activities. Live along coasts where storm, tsunami etc. strike or live in area prone to flood. Not educated for actions that theu can take when a disaster occur.

101. The number of disasters is increasing each year : Climate change (both natural and man – made) Environmental degradation The destabilization of slopes and increase and decrease in average global temp etc. causes the several major hazards. Geological hazards has remained constant. Number of weather related events have risen significantly. Technological disasters also increasing each year. The man – made disasters are increasing at a rate much greater then natural disasters. Technological disasters increased from 50 per year in 1980 to almost 350 per year in 2000.

102. Trends in disaster losses are unsustainable. Over the period 1950-2000 the world saw increases of: 250% in the number of recorded disasters 500 % in number of disasters with victims 500 % in the number of affected people 1500% in the total cost of disasters 1640% in the cost of insured damage . Compared to the average over the last 30 years (1991-2020), the total frequency of global natural disasters in 2021 was 13% higher, with 81% lower in deaths, 48% less in the affected population, and 82% more in direct economic losses.

103. Disasters Trends in India From 1995 to 2020, India experienced 1,058 floods, cyclones, droughts, cold waves and heatwaves. Floods accounted for 33% of these disasters, followed by heatwaves (24%), droughts (22%), cold waves (16%) and cyclones (5%), according to the report . The highest number of floods was reported from the state of Bihar, followed by West Bengal, Assam, Manipur and Tripura. Over the 25 years studied,  droughts  hit 33 of India’s 36 states and union territories. Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Rajasthan suffered droughts more than 15 times during this period. Karnataka, Bihar, Chhattisgarh and Odisha faced droughts over 10 times. Heatwaves affected 27 states and union territories. The highest number occurred in Odisha, followed by Maharashtra, West Bengal and Rajasthan . Eleven states were hit by cyclones during these years. Andhra Pradesh experienced the highest number, followed by Tamil Nadu, Odisha and West Bengal. Looking more closely, the South 24 Parganas district in West Bengal – home of the Sundarbans , the world’s largest mangrove forest – suffered more cyclones than any other district in India . https:// imdpune.gov.in/hazardatlas/index.html

104. Global disasters can be broadly categorized into natural disasters and human-made disasters. Here are some trends and factors associated with each: Natural Disasters: Climate Change: Trend: Increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, droughts, and wildfires. Factors: Greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and other human activities contribute to global warming and climate change.

105. 2. Geological Events: Trend: Earthquakes, tsunamis, and volcanic eruptions continue to occur, posing risks to populated areas. Factors: Tectonic plate movements, geological activity, and population density in vulnerable regions. 3. Pandemics : Trend: Occasional outbreaks of infectious diseases with the potential for global pandemics. Factors: Globalization, urbanization, and increased human-animal interaction contribute to the spread of diseases.

106. 4 . Meteorological Phenomena: Trend: Changes in meteorological patterns affecting regions with cyclones, typhoons, and monsoons. Factors: Ocean temperatures, atmospheric conditions, and climate variability influence these patterns .

107. Human-Made Disasters: 1. Industrial Accidents: Trend: Accidents in industries leading to chemical spills, nuclear incidents, and other environmental hazards. Factors: Lack of safety measures, inadequate regulations, and technological failures. 2. Conflict and War: Trend: Ongoing regional conflicts and wars causing displacement, infrastructure destruction, and humanitarian crises. Factors: Political instability, economic disparities, and historical tensions contribute to conflicts.

108. 3 . Technological Failures: Trend: Instances of critical infrastructure failures, such as power grid disruptions, cyber-attacks, and communication breakdowns. Factors: Aging infrastructure, dependence on technology, and vulnerabilities in systems . 4 . Environmental Degradation: Trend: Human activities leading to deforestation, pollution, and depletion of natural resources. Factors: Unsustainable resource exploitation, industrial pollution, and population pressure.

109. Climate Change and Urban Disasters It is defined as any change in the climate over time that directly and indirectly affects humans and their activities as well as natural systems and processes. It is a process that influences all hydro metrological hazards. Play an important role in causing weather related disaster and making community more vulnerable to the effects of the disaster. Increase in sea and air temperature, changes in the speed and direction of wind and sea waves, variation in precipitation patterns etc. Affects the disaster risks in two ways, increase in weather and climate hazards and secondary through increase in vulnerability of communities to natural hazards particularly through ecosystem degradation, reduction in food and water availability and changes to livelihoods. Over the last two decades, 76 % of all disaster events were hydrological, meteorological or climatologically in nature. Higher temperature and decreased precipitation have increased the dried condition.

110. Urban Disasters Poorly built urban environments, and the low incomes of many urban residents significantly increase vulnerability to natural hazards. An urban disaster is unique, occurring in a dense and highly complex environment. It absorb large populations and a range of economic activities. Among the various disasters, floods, fire, earthquakes, landslide and cyclone with lower incidents are occurred most. Fires have more localized effects but are very frequent in urban areas leading to heavy losses of life and property. Studies indicate that the loss of life and property due to floods has been increasing over the past decades. It is due to unplanned urban growth on the banks of the rivers and in other low-lying areas. These kind of disasters can only be avoided by proper urban planning keeping in mind the disaster and development in flood sensitive areas.

111. Climate change can exacerbate the frequency and intensity of various natural disasters, which, in turn, can impact urban areas more severely due to their concentration of population, infrastructure, and economic activities. Here are some key aspects of this relationship: Increased Frequency and Intensity of Extreme Weather Events: Climate change is associated with an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, floods, heatwaves, and storms. Urban areas are particularly vulnerable to these events as they can lead to widespread damage to infrastructure, disruption of services, and pose risks to human safety.

112. 2. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Cities: Rising sea levels, attributed to climate change, pose a significant threat to coastal cities. Many urban areas are situated near coastlines, making them susceptible to flooding and storm surges. Coastal cities may experience more frequent and severe flooding, causing damage to buildings, transportation systems, and utilities. Heatwaves and Urban Heat Island Effect : Climate change contributes to an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves. Urban areas often experience a phenomenon known as the urban heat island effect, where temperatures are higher than in surrounding rural areas due to human activities and infrastructure. Heatwaves can be more severe in urban environments, leading to heat-related illnesses and stressing energy and water resources.

113. 4. Changes in Precipitation Patterns: Climate change can alter precipitation patterns, leading to more intense rainfall in some regions and prolonged droughts in others. Increased rainfall can result in urban flooding, overwhelming drainage systems and causing damage to buildings and infrastructure . 5. Economic and Social Vulnerability: Urban populations are often more economically and socially vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Disasters can disproportionately affect marginalized communities, exacerbating existing inequalities. The concentration of people and assets in urban areas increases the potential for widespread economic losses and displacement during disasters.

114. 6. Infrastructure and Urban Planning: Climate change necessitates adaptive urban planning and resilient infrastructure to mitigate the impact of disasters. Failure to adapt infrastructure to changing climate conditions can result in increased vulnerability . 7. Limited Green Spaces: Urbanization often results in reduced green spaces and increased impervious surfaces. This limits the natural capacity of the environment to absorb excess water during heavy rainfall, contributing to urban flooding. 8 . Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies: Cities are increasingly implementing mitigation and adaptation strategies to address climate change. These may include green infrastructure, improved urban planning, early warning systems, and sustainable development practices.

115. Scenario of Flood in India for last 10 years : 2012 : In 2012, significant floods occurred in several states, including Assam, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh, affecting millions of people. The Kosi River in Bihar caused widespread devastation, displacing thousands of families. 2013 : The North Indian floods in 2013, particularly in Uttarakhand , were one of the deadliest in recent years. Heavy monsoon rains triggered flash floods and landslides, resulting in massive destruction of infrastructure and loss of thousands of lives. 2014 : Assam faced severe floods in 2014 due to incessant rainfall and overflowing rivers, affecting millions and displacing thousands. Jammu and Kashmir also witnessed devastating floods in September, causing widespread destruction .

116. 2015 : In 2015, Chennai and other parts of Tamil Nadu experienced unprecedented floods, primarily due to heavy rainfall from the Northeast monsoon. The floods resulted in significant damage to infrastructure, loss of life, and displacement of people. 2016 : Assam, Bihar, and Uttar Pradesh witnessed severe floods in 2016, affecting millions and causing extensive damage to crops, homes, and infrastructure. The Brahmaputra River and its tributaries overflowed, leading to widespread inundation. 2017 : Floods affected several states, including Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, and Gujarat, in 2017. The Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers overflowed, causing extensive damage to property, infrastructure, and agriculture.

117. 2018 : Kerala faced its worst floods in nearly a century in August 2018. Intense rainfall triggered landslides and flash floods, causing widespread devastation and claiming hundreds of lives. Other states like Karnataka, Maharashtra, and West Bengal also experienced floods during the monsoon season. 2019 : Assam faced severe floods once again in 2019, affecting millions and causing widespread damage. Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and other states also experienced flooding, leading to loss of life and damage to property and infrastructure. 2020 : Floods affected various parts of India in 2020, including Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Maharashtra. The Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers overflowed, causing extensive damage to homes, crops, and infrastructure. 2021 : Several states, including Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, and West Bengal, faced floods in 2021 due to heavy rainfall during the monsoon season. Landslides and overflowing rivers led to loss of life and widespread destruction.

118. The impact of drought manifests itself in the following sequence: Decline in cultivated area and fall in agricultural production (including crops and milk). Fall in employment in agricultural sector . Fall in purchasing power . Scarcity of drinking water, food-grains and fodder . Rise in inflation rate . Distress sale of cattle and loss of cattle life . Low intake of food and widespread malnutrition . Ill health and spread of diseases like diarrhoea , dysentery, cholera and opthalmia caused by malnutrition, hunger and starvation . Distress sale and mortgage of land, jewellery and personal property . Migration of people from drought hit areas to other areas in search of livelihood and food . Death due to malnutrition/starvation/diseases Slowing down of secondary and tertiary activities due to fall in agricultural production and decline in purchasing power.

119. Low morale of the people . Social stress and tension, disruption of social institutions and increase in social crime . Growth of fatalism and belief in supernatural powers and superstitions.