��DR RASHA INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY -Week -1&2 - نسخة.pptx

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1. INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY DR. RASHA KAMAL MOHAMED ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF PSYCHIATRIC NURSING

2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES ▶ Definition & goals of psychology ▶ History and origin of science of psychology ▶ Historical approaches ▶ Modern approaches ▶ Relevance to nursing ▶ Methods of psychology

3. INTRODUCTION Psychology is came from the subject philosophy Psychology is derived from Greek words “Psychi” and “Logos”. “Psychi” means soul, “logos” means the study of. Psychology means study of soul. Later on, William James used the term “mind” which replaced “ soul”. As years went by the meaning of psychology changed. علم النفس جاء من فلسفة الموضوع ➢ علم النفس مشتق من الكلمات اليونانية " النفسية " و " الشعارات " . ➢ " Psychi " تعني الروح، و " logos" تعني دراسة . " ➢ علم النفس يعني دراسة الروح. ➢ وفي وقت لاحق، استخدم ويليام جيمس مصطلح " العقل " ليحل محل " الروح " . ➢ مع مرور السنين تغير معنى علم النفس.

4. EVOLUTION OF MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY

5. WHY PSYCHOLOGY IS SCIENCE? Method e.g. observation, recording, analysis etc., Cause and effect relationship Study of facts : factual concepts like intelligence, memory, learning. Universality . E.g., laws of learning applicable to universe. Validity and reliability e.g., intelligence tests. Verification e.g., research Statistical analysis Predictability e.g., theories and principles can predict the behavior of person. 1. طريقة على سبيل المثال، المراقبة والتسجيل والتحليل وما إلى ذلك، 2. العلاقة بين السبب والنتيجة 3. دراسة الحقائق :المفاهيم الواقعية مثل الذكاء والذاكرة والتعلم. 4. عالمية . على سبيل المثال، قوانين التعلم المطبقة على الكون. 5. الصلاحية والموثوقية على سبيل المثال، اختبارات الذكاء. 6. تحَقَقّ على سبيل المثال، البحوث 7. التحليل الإحصائي 8. القدرة على التنبؤ على سبيل المثال، يمكن للنظريات والمبادئ التنبؤ بسلوك الشخص.

6. DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Psychology is the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. ▶ This definition ,its terms has a broad meaning. ▶ Behaviors refers to observable actions or responses in both humans and animals . Behaviors might include eating, speaking, laughing, running, reading, and sleeping. ▶ Mental processes, which are not directly observable, refer to a wide range of complex mental processes, such as thinking, imagining, studying, and dreaming. - علم النفس هو الدراسة العلمية المنهجية للسلوكيات والعمليات العقلية. - وهذا التعريف ومصطلحاته له معنى واسع. - تشير السلوكيات إلى أفعال أو استجابات يمكن ملاحظتها في كل من البشر والحيوانات . قدتشمل السلوكيات الأكل والتحدث والضحك والجري والقراءة والنوم. - تشير العمليات العقلية، التي لا يمكن ملاحظتها بشكل مباشر، إلى مجموعة واسعة من العملياتالعقلية المعقدة، مثل التفكير والتخيل والدراسة والحلم.

7. GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY Psychologists usually have four specific goals in mind when they study some behavior or mental process Describe: The first goal of psychology is to describe the different ways that organisms behave. Explain: The second goal of psychology is to explain the causes of behavior. Predict: The third goal of psychology is to predict how organisms will behave in certain situations. Control: The fourth goal of psychology is to control an organism’s behavior. عادة ما يكون لدى علماء النفس أربعة أهداف محددة في ذهنهم عندما يدرسون بعض السلوكياتأو العمليات العقلية 1. يصف: الهدف الأول لعلم النفس هو وصف الطرق المختلفة التي تتصرف بها الكائنات الحية. 2. يشرح: الهدف الثاني لعلم النفس هو تفسير أسباب السلوك. 3. يتنبأ: الهدف الثالث لعلم النفس هو التنبؤ بكيفية تصرف الكائنات الحية في مواقف معينة. 4. يتحكم: الهدف الرابع لعلم النفس هو السيطرة على سلوك الكائن الحي.

8. HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Psychology as a separate area of study split away from philosophy over 100 years ago. ▶ Some philosophers thought that mind and behavior could be studied with scientific methods. ▶ In 1879, the first psychological laboratory was established at the University of Leipzig by the German Philosopher and psychologist Wilhelm Wundt. Wilhelm Wundt was the first to measure human behavior and he is known as the ‘Father of Psychology’. ▶ Psychologist hold different views about the nature of mind and the best way study it. Schools of thought formed around theses psychologists, Theses schools of thought are known as schools of psychology.

9. تاريخ وأصل علم النفس جي انفصل علم النفس كمجال منفصل للدراسة عن الفلسفة منذ أكثر من 100 عام. - اعتقدبعض الفلاسفة أنه يمكن دراسة العقل والسلوك بالطرق العلمية. - في عام 1879 ، تم إنشاء أول مختبر نفسي في جامعة لايبزيغ على يد الفيلسوف وعالم النفس الألماني فيلهلم فونت. كان فيلهلم فونت أول من قام بقياس السلوك البشري ويعُرف باسم "أبو علمالنفس". - علماءالنفس لديهم وجهات نظر مختلفة حول طبيعة العقل وأفضل طريقة لدراسته. المدارس الفكرية التي تشكل تحول أطروحات علماء النفس، تعُرف مدارس الفكر هذه بمدارس علم النفس.

10. HISTORICAL APPROACHES Structuralism: Elements of the Mind لقعلا رصانع :ةيوينبلا Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory in 1879, in Leipzig, Germany. ▶ Wundt and his followers were analyzing their sensations, which they thought were the key to analyzing the structure of the mind (Hergenhahn, 2009). For this reason they were called structuralists and their approach ةيجهنملا was called structuralism. ▶ Structuralism was the study of the most basic elements, primarily sensations and perceptions, that make up our conscious mental experiences.

11. المقاربات التاريخية البنيوية:عناصر العقلقالا رصانع :ةيوينبلا أنشأ فيلهلم فونت أول مختبر لعلم النفس في عام 1879 في لايبزيغ بألمانيا. - كان فونت وأتباعه يحللون أحاسيسهم، التي اعتقدوا أنها المفتاح لتحليل بنية ولهذا السبب أطلق عليهم اسم البنيويين . ( Hergenhahn ، العقل ( 2009 وسمي منهجهم ةيجهنملا بالبنيوية. - كانت البنيوية هي دراسة العناصر الأساسية، في المقام الأول الأحاسيس والتصورات،التي تشكل تجاربنا العقلية الواعية.

12. HISTORICAL APPROACHES ▶ Structuralists tried to combine hundreds of sensations into a complete Wundt’s greatest conscious experience Perhaps contribution was his method of introspection. لمأتلا ▶ Introspection was a method of exploring conscious mental processes by asking subjects to look inward and report their sensations and perceptions . For example , after listening to a beating metronome, ضبانلا عاقيلإا لودنب the subjects would be asked to report whether their sensations were pleasant, unpleasant, exciting, or relaxing.

13. HISTORICAL APPROACHES ▶ Introspection was heavily criticized for being an unscientific method because it was dependent on subjects’ self- reports, which could be biased ةيزايحنا , rather than on objective ةيعوضوم measurements. ▶ Wundt’s approach was criticized for being too narrow and subjective in primarily studying sensations. These criticisms resulted in another new approach, called functionalism. - تم انتقاد الاستبطان بشدة لكونه غير علمي لأنهاكانت تعتمد على التقارير الذاتية للمبحوثين، والتي يمكن أن تكون متحيزة ةإيزايحنا، وليس على قياسات موضوعية ةيعوضوم. - تم انتقاد نهج فونت لكونه ضيقاً جداً وغير موضوعي في دراسة الأحاسيس في المقام الأول. وأسفرتهذه الانتقادات في نهج جديد آخر، يسمى الوظيفية.

14. FUNCTIONALISM: FUNCTIONS OF THE MIND ▶ William James published first text book of psychology, “principles of Psychology” in 1890. ▶ James viewed mental activities as having developed through ages of evolution because of their adaptive functions, such as helping humans survive. James was interested in the goals, purposes, and functions of the mind, an approach called functionalism.

15. FUNCTIONALISM: FUNCTIONS OF THE MIND ▶ Functionalism, which was the study of the function rather than the structure of consciousness, was interested in how our minds adapt to our changing environment. ▶ James suggested ways to apply psychological principles to teaching, which had a great impact on educational psychology. For all these reasons, William James is considered the father of modern psychology . ▶ Gestalt psychologists disagree with functionalism. كانت الوظيفة، التي كانت تدرس وظيفة الوعي وليس بنية الوعي، مهتمة بكيفية تكيف عقولنا لبيئتنا المتغيرة. - اقترح جيمس طرقاً لتطبيق المبادئ النفسية على التدريس،مما كان له الأثر الكبير في علم النفس التربوي. لكل هذه الأسباب، يعتبر ويليام جيمس والد علم النفس الحديث. - يختلف علماء نفس الجشطالت مع الوظيفية.

16. GESTALT APPROACH: SENSATIONS VERSUS PERCEPTIONS Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka are Gestalt psychologists The Gestalt approach emphasized that perception is more than the sum of its parts and studied how sensations are assembled into meaningful perceptual experiences. Example: Why do blinking lights seem to move?

17. GESTALT APPROACH: SENSATIONS VERSUS PERCEPTIONS ▶ Gestalt psychologists would explain that your experience of perceiving moving traffic lights is much more than and very different from what is actually happening— fixed lights flashing in sequence. ▶ These kinds of findings could not be explained by the structuralists and pointed out the limitations of their approach. نهجالجشطالت: الأحاسيس مقابل التصورات - سيشرح علماء النفس الجشطالت أن تجربتك إن إدراك إشارات المرور المتحركة هو أكثر بكثير من ومختلف تماماً عما يحدث بالفعل – ثابت الأضواءتومض بالتسلسل. - لا يمكن تفسير هذه الأنواع من النتائج من قبل البنيويينوأشاروا إلى القيود المفروضة على نهجهم.

18. GESTALT APPROACH: SENSATIONS VERSUS PERCEPTIONS ▶ The design you see here is entirely made up of broken circles. However, as the Gestalt psychologists discovered, our perceptions have a powerful tendency to form meaningful patterns. Because of this tendency, you will probably see a triangle in this design, even though it is only an illusion. Your whole perceptual experience exceeds the sum of its parts. After all these years, many principles of the Gestalt approach are still used to explain how we perceive objects.

19. BEHAVIORISM: OBSERVABLE BEHAVIORS ▶ John B. Watson stated should be considered that psychology an objective, experimental science, whose goal should be the analysis of observable behaviors and the prediction and control of those behaviors. ▶ The behavioral approach emphasized the objective, scientific analysis of observable behaviors.

20. BEHAVIORISM: OBSERVABLE BEHAVIORS ▶ From the 1920s to the 1960s, behaviorism was the dominant force in American psychology. Part of this dominance was due to the work other behaviorists, who expanded and ideas into the modern- day behavioral of B. F. Skinner and developed Watson’s approach, the 1970s dominance and continuing was challenged into the present, by the cognitive ▶ Beginning in behaviorism’s approach.

21. PSYCHOANALYSIS ▶ Psychoanalysis was founded by Sigmund Freud. He developed a theory of behavior and mind which said that what we do and think results from urges or drives which seek expression in behavior and mind . ▶ Freud probed the unconscious mind. In doing so, he altered modern views of human nature. His early experimentation with a “talking cure” for hysteria is regarded as the beginning of psychoanalysis. Through psychoanalysis, Freud added psychological treatment methods to psychiatry.

22. PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE ▶ Our behavior is largely influenced by our unconscious wishes, thoughts, and desires, especially sex and aggression ▶ All thoughts, actions, and emotions are determined ▶ Freud performed dream analysis and was an interactionist (combination of our biology and environment makes us who we are) المنظورالتحليلي النفسي - يتأثر سلوكنا إلى حد كبير برغباتنا وأفكارنا ورغباتنا اللاواعية، وخاصة الجنس والعدوان - يتم تحديد جميع الأفكار والأفعال والعواطف - قام فرويد بتحليل الأحلام وكان من دعاة التفاعل ( إن الجمع بين بيولوجيتنا وبيئتنا يجعلنا ما نحن عليه نكون )

23. MODERN APPROACHES An approach refers to a focus or perspective, which may use a particular research method or technique. The approaches to understanding behavior include the ▶ biological, ▶ cognitive, ▶ behavioral, ▶ psychoanalytic, ▶ humanistic, cross- cultural, and, ▶ evolutionary. ان يقترب يشير إلى التركيز أو المنظور، الذي قد يستخدم طريقة أو تقنية بحث معينة. تتضمن طرق فهم السلوك ما يلي: - البيولوجية, - ذهني، - سلوكية, - التحليل النفسي, - إنسانية، وثقافية، و - تطوري.

24. MODERN APPROACHES The biological approach focuses on how our genes, hormones, and nervous system interact with our environments to influence learning, personality, memory, motivation, emotions, and coping techniques. The cognitive approach examines how we process, store, and use information and how this information influences what we attend to, perceive, learn, remember, believe, and feel. النهج الحديثة 1.يركز النهج البيولوجي على كيفية عمل جيناتنا وهرموناتنا، ويتفاعل الجهاز العصبي مع بيئاتنا للتأثير على التعلم والشخصية والذاكرة والتحفيز والعواطف والتأقلم التقنيات. 2.يدرس النهج المعرفي كيفية معالجة وتخزين واستخدام المعلومات وكيف تؤثر هذه المعلومات على ما نحضره، يدرك،ويتعلم، ويتذكر، ويؤمن، ويشعر.

25. MODERN APPROACHES The behavioral approach studies how organisms learn new behaviors or modify existing ones, depending on whether events in their environments reward or punish these behaviors The psychoanalytic approach stresses the influence of unconscious fears, desires, and motivations on thoughts, behaviors, and the development of personality traits and psychological problems later in life. The humanistic approach emphasizes that each individual has great freedom in directing his or her future, a large capacity for personal growth, a considerable amount of intrinsic worth, and enormous potential for self- fulfillment.

26. النهج الحديثة 3.يدرس المنهج السلوكي كيف تتعلم الكائنات سلوكيات جديدة أو تعدل سلوكيات موجودة، اعتماداًعلى ما إذا كانت الأحداث في بيئاتها تكافئ هذه السلوكيات أو تعاقبها. 4.يؤكد منهج التحليل النفسي على تأثير المخاوف والرغبات والدوافع اللاواعية على الأفكار والسلوكيات وتطور السمات الشخصية والمشاكل النفسية في وقت لاحق من الحياة. 5.يؤكد النهج الإنساني على أن كل فرد يتمتع بحرية كبيرة في توجيه مستقبله، وقدرة كبيرة على النمو الشخصي، وقدر كبير من القيمة الجوهرية، وإمكانات هائلة لتحقيق الذات.

27. MODERN APPROACHES The cross-cultural approach examines the influence of cultural and ethnic similarities and differences on the psychological and social functioning of a culture’s members. هباشتلا هجوأ ريثأت تافاقثلا ربع جهنلا سردي .ةفاقثلا ءاضعلأ يعامتجلااو يسفنلا ءادلأا ىلع ةيقرعلاو ةيفاقثلا فلاتخلااو The evolutionary approach studies how evolutionary ideas, such as adaptation and natural selection, explain human behaviors and mental processes. 6.يدرس النهج متعدد الثقافات تأثير أوجه التشابه والاختلاف الثقافية والعرقية على الجانب النفسي والاجتماعي أداءأعضاء الثقافة. 7.يدرس المنهج التطوري كيفية الأفكار التطورية مثل التكيف والانتقاء الطبيعي، يشرحان سلوكيات الإنسان والعمليات العقلية.

28. MODERN APPROACHES ECLECTIC APPROACH: Rather than strictly focusing on one of the seven approaches, most of today’s psychologists use an eclectic approach, which means they use different approaches to study the same behavior. By combining information from the biological, cognitive, behavioral, psychoanalytic, humanistic, cross- cultural, and evolutionary approaches, psychologists stand a better chance of reaching their four goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and controlling behavior. بدلا من التركيز بشكل صارم على أحد الأساليب السبعة، فإن معظمها يستخدم علماء النفس اليوم نهجا انتقائيا، مما يعني أنهم يستخدمون طرق مختلفة لدراسة نفس السلوك. من خلال الجمع بين المعلومات من الجوانب البيولوجية والمعرفية والسلوكية، مناهجا لتحليل النفسي والإنساني والثقافي والتطوري، يتمتع علماء النفس بفرصة أفضل للوصول إلى أهدافهم الأربعة وصف السلوك وتفسيره والتنبؤ به والتحكم فيه.

29. 26 BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

30. BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY ▶ General psychology: deals with the fundamental rules, principles and theories of psychology in relation to the study of human behavior of a normal adult. ▶ Abnormal psychology: deals with the behavior of individuals who are unusual. It studies mental disorders, their causes and treatment. ▶ Social psychology involves the study of social interactions, stereotypes, prejudices, attitudes, conformity, group behaviors, aggression, and attraction. ▶ Biological psychology or psychobiology involves research on the physical and chemical changes that occur during stress, learning, and emotions, as well as how our genetic makeup, brain, and nervous system interact with our environments and influence our behaviors.

31. BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Developmental psychology: describes the processes and factors that influence the growth and development in relation to the behavior of an individual from birth to old age. It examines moral, social, emotional, and cognitive development throughout a person’s entire life. ▶ Experimental psychology: Experimental psychologists do basic research in an effort to discover and understand the fundamental and general causes of behavior. They study the basic processes such as sensation, perception, learning, human performance, motivation, and emotion. - علم النفس التنموي: يصف العمليات والعوامل التي التأثيرعلى النمو والتطور فيما يتعلق بسلوك الشخص الفردمنذ الولادة وحتى الشيخوخة. فهو يدرس الأخلاقية والاجتماعية والعاطفية، والتطورالمعرفي طوال حياة الشخص بأكملها. - علم النفس التجريبي: يقوم علماء النفس التجريبي بإجراء البحوث الأساسية في محاولة لاكتشاف وفهم الأساسي والعامة أسباب السلوك. يدرسون العمليات الأساسية مثل الإحساس، الإدراكوالتعلم والأداء البشري والدافع والعاطفة

32. BRANCHES OF PURE PSYCHOLOGY extrasensory perceptions, causes of rebirth, ▶ Parapsychology: deals with telepathy and allied problems. ▶ Geo psychology: This branch of psychology describes the relation of physical environment like weather, climate and soil with behavior. علم التخاطر: يتعامل مع التصورات خارج الحواس، وأسباب إعادة الميلاد، والتخاطر والمشاكل المرتبطة بها. - علم النفس الجغرافي: يصف هذا الفرع من علم النفس علاقة البيئة المادية مثل الطقس والمناخ والتربة بالسلوك.

33. BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Clinical and counseling psychology includes the assessment and treatment of people with psychological problems, such as grief, anxiety, or stress. ▶ Cognitive psychology involves how we process, store, and retrieve information and how cognitive processes influence our behaviors. ▶ Psychometrics focuses on the measurement of people’s abilities, skills, intelligence, personality, and abnormal behaviors. ▶ Industrial/organizational psychology examines the relationships of people and their work environments.

34. BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Educational psychology: this branch covers psychological ways and means of improving all aspects of teaching /learning process. They involve in increase in efficiency of learning in schools by applying psychological knowledge about learning and motivation. ▶ Legal psychology يئانجلا سفنلا ملع : study the behavior of persons like clients, criminals, witnesses etc. The root cause of crime, offence, dispute or any legal case can be properly understood through the use of this branch. ▶ Military psychology: ةيركسعلا use of psychological principles in military science. Deal with recruitment of appropriate personnel or military services, keeping the morale of the soldiers high during war time.

35. BRANCHES OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Political psychology يسايسلا : This branch of psychology relates itself with the use of psychological principles and techniques in studying politics and deriving political gains. - علم النفس السياسي : يرتبط هذا الفرع من علم النفس باستخدام المبادئ والتقنيات النفسية في دراسة السياسة واستخلاص المكاسب السياسية.

36. RELEVANCE TO NURSING Psychology has become necessary in every profession including nursing today. The learning of psychology helps a nurse in the following ways: To understand her own self: The knowledge of psychology will help the nurse to get an insight into her motives desires, emotions, feelings, attitudes, personality characteristics and ambitions تاحومط . This will help her to solve her problems and helps her to understand her strengths and weaknesses. To understand patients: The knowledge of psychology will help the nurse to understand the problems and needs of patients and care for them.

37. RELEVANCE TO NURSING cont… To recognize abnormal behavior: The knowledge of psychology helps the nurse in recognizing mental illnesses at general hospitals and community health settings and provide appropriate guidance to deal with stress, anxiety and other life problems. To understand other people: The knowledge of psychology helps the nurse to understand other people in healthcare settings and thus achieve greater success in interpersonal relationships. To provide quality care to the patients: A nurse with good knowledge of psychology can understand the fears or anxieties the patients faces, his feelings, the reason for their behaviors, to anticipate and meet their health care needs. Helps the patient adjust to the situation according to their illness.

38. RELEVANCE TO NURSING cont… ▶ Help student nurses to appreciate the necessity for changing the environment or surrounds. ▶ Help for effective studying ▶ Helps for adjusting with challenges in nursing career. Physical and psychological well being of patients depends on the nurse. To serve them satisfactorily knowledge of psychology is quite essential. - مساعدة الممرضات الطلاب على تقدير ضرورة تغيير البيئة أو المناطق المحيطة بها. - مساعدة للدراسة الفعالة - يساعد على التكيف مع التحديات في مهنة التمريض. تعتمدالصحة الجسدية والنفسية للمرضى على الممرضة. إن خدمتهم بشكل مرضي معرفة علم النفس أمر ضروري للغاية.

39. METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY ▶ Special tools and procedures help us in gathering and organizing its subject matter or the essentials facts about the behavior. These procedures are termed as methods, which are used to study human behavior. They are as follows: Introspection method. Observation method. Scientific or experimental method. Clinical or Case study method. Survey method. Genetic or developmental method

40. 1. INTROSPECTION METHOD ▶ Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was formerly used in philosophy, and then in psychology to collect data about the conscious experience of the subject. ▶ Introspection means to see with in one self or self observation. To understand one’s own mental health and the state of mind. This method was developed by the structuralists in psychology who defined psychology as the study of conscious experiences of the individual. Introspection has some advantages and disadvantages;

41. Merits Or advantages : It gives information about one’s own self which is difficult by other methods. It is an easy method and needs no equipment It makes a base for other methods such as experimental and observation method Demerits or disadvantages : This method is subjective in nature and lacks scientific objectivity ةيملعلا ةيعوضوملا ىلإ رقتفتو The most serious objection against this method is that human mind is not static like inanimate objects such as stone or chairs etc. our mental process is under constant changes so when one attempts to introspect, the sate of mental process disappears and it becomes a retrospect. Not applicable for children, animals or mentally retarded people.

42. 2. OBSERVATION METHOD ▶ With the development of psychology as an objective science of behavior, the method of introspection was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behavior. ▶ Observation literally means looking outside oneself. ▶ It is a very important method for collecting data in almost all type of research studies. ▶ Different type of Observation used in research: ▶ direct or indirect, ▶ scheduled or unscheduled, ▶ natural or artificial, ▶ participant and non-participant. ▶ But there are two basic types of observation. They are; 1. Natural observation, 2. Participant observation

43. OBSERVATION METHOD 1. Natural observation ▶ In natural observation the observer observe the specific behavioral and characteristics of subjects in natural settings and the subject does not aware of the fact that their behavior is being observed by someone. Eg: The teacher can observe the behavior of his student in the playground or in any other social gathering without making him conscious. Natural observation can be done any where with out any tools. 1.الملاحظة الطبيعية - في الملاحظة الطبيعية يلاحظ المراقب سلوكاً محدداً وخصائص الموضوعات في البيئات الطبيعية والموضوع لايدرك حقيقة أن سلوكه يتم ملاحظته من قبل شخص ما. على سبيل المثال: يستطيع المعلم ملاحظة سلوك تلميذه في الملعب أو في أي تجمع اجتماعي آخر دون أن يشعره بذلك. طبيعي يمكن إجراء المراقبة في أي مكان دون أي أدوات.

44. 2. Participant observation: In participant observation the observer became the part of the group which he wants to observe. Observation is a scientific technique of collecting data, whose results can be verified and relied upon to locate behavioral problems. Eg: Nurse makes observation of patient’s temperature, pulse, blood pressure, facial expressions etc to understand clinical condition of patient. Steps in observation method: ▶ Observation of behavior, ▶ documentation of behavior ▶ Interpretation and analysis of behavior ▶ Generalization

45. Merits of observation method: It is a natural, economical as well as flexible, results can be verified and relied. The data which is studied through observation can be analyzed, measured, classified and interpreted. This method is objective in nature and free from personal bias and prejudice. Through this method we can observe as many children as we like This method is quite suitable for children and abnormal person who can not be examined through introspection. This can be used any time and anywhere 1.إنها طبيعية واقتصادية ومرنة ويمكن التحقق من نتائجها والاعتماد عليها. 2.البيانات التي تتم دراستها عن طريق الملاحظة يمكن تحليلها وقياسها وتصنيفها وتفسيرها. 3.أن يكون هذا الأسلوب موضوعيا بطبيعته وخاليا من التحيز والتحيز الشخصي. 4.من خلال هذه الطريقة يمكننا ملاحظة أكبر عدد ممكن من الأطفال. هذه الطريقة مناسبة تماماً للأطفال والأشخاص غير الطبيعيين الذين لا يمكن فحصهم من خلال الاستبطان. 5.يمكن استخدام هذا في أي وقت وفي أي مكان

46. Demerits of observation method: ▶ There are chances of subjective reporting and also prejudices of observer may creep in. ▶ Sometimes to observe the natural behavior the observer may have to spend more time, energy and money. ▶ It lacks repeatability as each natural situation occur only once. ▶ Not being able to establish a proper cause and effect relationship - هناك فرص للتقارير الذاتية وقد تتسلل أيضاً تحيزات المراقب. - في بعض الأحيان، لمراقبة السلوك الطبيعي، قد يضطر المراقب إلى إنفاق المزيد من الوقت والطاقة والمال. - إنه يفتقر إلى التكرار لأن كل حالة طبيعية تحدث مرة واحدة فقط. - عدم القدرة على إقامة علاقة مناسبة بين السبب والنتيجة

47. 3. THE SCIENTIFIC OR EXPERIMENTAL METHOD ▶ It is considered as the most scientific & objective method of studying behavior. ▶ The word experiment comes from a Latin word meaning “to try”, “put to the test”. ▶ The use of this method has raised psychology to the status of an experimental science like physics, Chemistry & Physiology. ▶ In psychology experimental method is used to study the cause and effect relationship regarding the nature of human behavior. Eg: the effect on anxiety on human behavior. ▶ The psychologists use objective observation under controlled conditions to observe behaviors of individuals. From these observations certain conclusions are drawn and theories or principles established .

48. Merits of experimental method: ▶ It is a scientific method ▶ Establishes cause and effect relationships ▶ Maximum control of phenomena ▶ Repetition is possible Demerits of experimental method: ▶ It advocates the study of behavior under completely controlled rigid conditions. ▶ Difficulty in controlling or equalizing intervening variable. ▶ All problems of psychology cannot studied by this method, as we cannot perform experiment for all the problems ▶ It is costly & time consuming method.

49. CLINICAL OR CASE STUDY METHOD. ▶ It is used by clinical psychologists, psychiatric social workers in child guidance clinics or mental hygiene clinics & allied institutions. ▶ It aims at studying the cause & basis of people’s anxieties, fear & personal maladjustments. - يتم استخدامه من قبل علماء النفس السريري والأخصائيين الاجتماعيين في الطب النفسي للأطفال عيادات الإرشاد أو عيادات الصحة النفسية والمؤسسات المرتبطة بها. - ويهدف إلى دراسة سبب وأساس القلق والخوف والقلق لدى الناس سوءالتكيف الشخصي.

50. ▶ The relevant data is collected by using case histories, interview, home visits & psychological tests to draw valid inferences about the nature of the individual’s difficulties & problems . ▶ In this techniques, information is collected from the memory of the individual, his parents ,members of his family, friends, teachers & all other available records & reports. ▶ The case history is constructed from actual observations made by the investigator according to a plan. - يتم جمع البيانات ذات الصلة باستخدام تاريخ الحالات والزيارات المنزلية والاختبارات النفسيةلاستخلاص استنتاجات صحيحة حول الحالة طبيعةالصعوبات والمشكلات التي يواجهها الفرد. تتنافسث، - يتمفي هذه التقنيات جمع المعلومات من ذاكرة الفرد ووالديه وأفراد أسرته وأصدقائه ومعلميه وكافة السجلات والتقارير الأخرى المتاحة. - يتم إنشاء تاريخ الحالة من الملاحظات الفعلية التي أدلى بها المحققوفقا للخطة.

51. Merits: ▶ Case histories will give the clinician an insight into the causes of the problem & suggest possible solutions. ▶ Case studies can be productive sources of ideas for further investigation by other methods. Demerit: ▶ The case history method depends largely on memory of incidents which may have been observed inaccurately or over interpreted. المزايا: - تاريخ الحالة سوف يعطي الطبيب نظرة ثاقبة على أسباب المشكلة واقتراح الحلول الممكنة. - يمكن أن تكون دراسات الحالة مصادر مثمرة للأفكار للمزيد التحقيق بطرق أخرى. العيب: - تعتمد طريقة تأريخ الحالة إلى حد كبير على ذاكرة الأحداث والتيربما تمت ملاحظتها بشكل غير دقيق أو تم تفسيرها بشكل مبالغ فيه.

52. SURVEY METHOD ▶ This is commonly employed in social psychology. ▶ Some problems like attitudes, health care study of opinions, needs etc. can be studied by means of survey method. - وهذا يستخدم عادة في الاجتماعية علم النفس. - بعض المشاكل مثل دراسة الآراء، يمكن دراسة المواقف واحتياجات الرعاية الصحية وما إلى ذلك عن طريق طريقة المسح.

53. ▶ The survey method involves collection or gathering of information from a large number of people by using questionnaires, inventories & interviews. ▶ An adequate survey requires a carefully pre- tested questionnaire, a group of interviewers trained in its use, a representative subject, & appropriate methods of data analysis so that the results are properly interpreted. - تتضمن طريقة المسح جمع أوجمع المعلومات من عدد كبير من الناس باستخدام الاستبيانات وقوائم الجرد والمقابلات. - يتطلب المسح المناسب إجراء مسبقا بعناية اختبارالاستبيان، مجموعة من المقابلات تم تدريبه على استخدامه، وهو موضوع تمثيلي، & الطرق المناسبة لتحليل البيانات بحيث يتم تفسير النتائج بشكل صحيح.

54. SURVEY METHOD Merit ▶ A large amount of data can be collected in a shorter time. Demerit ▶ The behavior is not observed directly. طريقةالمسح استحقاق - يمكن جمع كمية كبيرة من البيانات في وقت أقصر. العيب - لا يتم ملاحظة السلوك بشكل مباشر.

55. GENETIC OR DEVELOPMENTAL METHOD Psychologists study not only the behavior of an individual at a particular time, but also his development from birth to death, the influence of heredity and environment in the development of the person and conditions favorable and unfavorable for normal and abnormal behavior, Eg: To understand the learning behavior of an adult, the study will start from the childhood and adolescence. This can be done in to ways: Cross sectional study in which the children of different age groups will be studied simultaneously. Longitudinal study in which the same child will be studied in different stages of life.

56. GENETIC OR DEVELOPMENTAL METHOD Merits: This is a more useful method to understand the behavior from the point of view of hereditary and environmental influences. Demerit: This method requires more time and energy. المزايا: هذه طريقة أكثر فائدة لفهم السلوك من وجهة نظر التأثيرات الوراثية والبيئية. العيب: تتطلب هذه الطريقة المزيد من الوقت والطاقة.

57. References: ▶ Gleitman, Gross, Reisberg (2011), Psychology , 8 th edition, w.w. Norton & company, NewYork, London , ISBN 978- 0- 393- 93250- 8 ▶ Rod, Plotnik(2011), Introduction to psychology, 9 th edition , Wadsworth ,USA , ISBN- 13: 978- 0- 495- 90344- 4 ▶ R.Sreevani, (2018), Psychology for nurses, 3 rd edition, Jaypee brothers medical publishers, ISBN 978- 93- 5270- 154- 4 ▶ www.qcc.cuny.edu/socialSciences/cbluestone/.../BiologicalBasisBehavior- Bluestone.