Earth and Science.pdf, origin of the universe and solar system

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1. The Universe and the
Solar System

2. Origin of the Universe
The Big Bang and Other Theories
Origin of Solar Systems
Solar Systems: Properties and Current Information

3. Origin of the Universe: Creation Myths
A creation myth is a symbolic narrative of the beginning of
the world as understood by a culture.

4. The Big Bang and Other Theories
•Theproponentsofthetheory
wereAlexanderFriedmanand
GeorgesLamaitrein1920.
•Allthematterandenergyin
theuniversearecrammedinto
atinycompact point
sometimescalledsingularity.
•TheessentialfeatureoftheBig
Bangtheoryisthenotionthat
theuniverseappearedaround
13.7billionyearsagoacolossal
explosion.

5. Time Era Temperature Characteristicsof the Universe
0to 10¯⁴³ s Big Bang Infinite •Infinitely small,infinitely dense primeval fireball
•Superunified force (gravity, strong,
electromagnetic, weak forces were unified)
10¯⁴³ s Planck time 10³² K •Earliest known time that could be described by
modern physics
•Gravity separated; unified forces included strong,
electromagnetic,weak (ground unified theory)
10¯³⁵s End of GUT 10²⁷K •Strong force separated;unified force consisted of
electromagnetic and weak
•Quarks and leptons formed, along with their anti-
particles
10¯³⁵to
10¯³³ s
Inflation 10²⁷K •Size of theuniverse drastically increased by factor
of 10³⁰ to 10⁴
10¯ⁱ²s Endof unified
forces
10¹⁵ K •Split of weak and electromagnetic forces; none of
theunified forces existed
•Protons and neutrons started forming from quarks
10⁻⁷s Heavyparticle 10¹⁴ K •Proton and neutron production in full swing
10¯⁴ s Light particle 10¹² K •Electrons and positrons formed

6. 100 s
(a few minutes)
Nucleosynthesis 10⁹ -10⁷ K •Helium, deuterium, and a few
other elements formed
380 000 years Recombination
(decoupling)
3000 K •Matter and radiation separated
•End of radiation domination of
the Universe
500 million yearsGalaxy formation 10K •Galaxies anf other large
structures formed in the
universe
~14 billion years Now 3 K •Youare reading this table

7. The four basic forces:

8. Supportingevidences:
1.Galaxiesmovingaway-1924,EdwinHubblefoundthatstarsarenot
uniformlydistributedinspace.Instead,theygathertogether,forming
clusterscalledgalaxies.
Clusters of stars called galaxies
continue to move away from
each other.

9. 2.Presenceofcosmicmicrowavesbackground(CMB)-1960,ArnoPenzias
andRobertWilsondiscoveredabackgroundradioemissioncomingfrom
everydirectioninthesky.
Cosmicmicrowavebackground
showsremnantsofthebigbang
inatemperaturerangeof±200
microKelvin

10. 3. Abundance of light elements –Elements like helium, hydrogen, with
trace amounts of lithium and beryllium found in the observable universe
agrees with the hypotheses of the big bang theory.
Abundanceoflightelementssuch
ashydrogen,helium,lithium,and
beryliumconfirmstheoccurrence
ofthebigbangnucleosynthesis.

11. Othertheories
Steadystatetheory–ProposedbyBondi,Gold,andHoylein1984.They
proposedthattheuniverseisunchangingintimeanduniforminspace.

12. InflationTheory–ProposedbyAlanGuth,AndreiLinde,PaulSteinhart,
andAndyAlbrecht.Thistheoryproposedaperiodofexponential
expansionoftheuniversepriortothemoregradualbigbangexpansion.
Atimelineoftheuniverse
basedonthebigbangand
inflationmodels

13. StringTheory–Theassemblyofparticletypeisreplacedbyafundamental
buildingblockcalledstring,withdimensionsconfinedtoPlancklenth
(roughly1.6x10¯³⁵m).Thestringtheoryisconsistentofquantomgravity.
Alsocalled“thetheoryofeverything”.
gravitation–isaparticlecarryingtheforceofgravity.

14. M-Theory
The string theory requires objects other than just strings. These objects
may be seen as sheets or branes (membranes). Strings can attach to one
both ends of these branes.
The origin of the universe occurs as a result of the contact of two
hyperdimensional branes. Stephen Hawking and Leonard Mlodinow argue
that the collision of M-branes leads to a new universe.
M-theory was used by Hawking can allow for an infinite number of
parallel universes which have the possibility of interphasing.
string
brane
TheM-theorysuggeststhatoneor
bothendsofthestringsare
attachedtoasheetonbrane

15. Origin of the Solar System : Early
Theories
1.Descartes’ Vortex Theory
Rene Descartes (1596-1650), a French mathematician and
physicist, was one of the first proponents of a model on the
origin of the Solar Systems.
The Solar systemwas formed into bodies with nearly circular
orbits because of the whirlpool-like motion in the pre-solar
materials.
The orbits of the planets are the primary whirlpool motion and
the satellites the secondary whirlpool motion.

16. Orbits of the planets as
explained by whirlpool-like
motion of pre-solar materials

17. 2. Buffon’s Collision Theory
George Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707-1788) is a French naturalist in
the eighteenth century who proposed that the planets were formed by the
collision of the sun with a giant comet.
Resulting debris formed into planets that rotate in the same direction as
they revolved around the sun.
Planetswereformedfrom
debrisaftesthesun’scollision
withagiantcomet

18. 3.Kant-LaplaceNebularTheory
Basedontheideasofdescartes,ImmanuelKant(1724-1804),andPierreSimon
Laplace(1749-1827)proposedthenubulartheorywhivhsuggestedthatagreat
cloudofgasanddust,callednebula,beginstocollapsebecauseofgravititional
pull.
Asthecloudcontracted,itspunmorerapidly.
Explainshowthesunandtheplanetwerecreatedinasingleprocesswasvery
attractivebutithadamajorflow.

19. 4. Jeans-Jeffrey’s Tidal Theory
James Hopwood jeans (1877-1946), a British mathematician and
astrophysicist, and HAROLD Jeffreys (1891-1989),suggested a
dualistic theory in which the sun and planets were produced by
difficult mechanism.
Proposed that the planets were formed from the substance that
was torn out of the sun.

20. 5. Solar nebula Theory
Thesolarsystemwasformedasaresultofthecondensationoghydrogengas
anddustreferredtoasintersellergasanddustcloud.
Contractioninthedenseregionofanintersellargasanddustcloudformsa
protostarorprotosun.
Theremaininggasanddustcloudformdisk-shaped(duetorotation)called
solarnebulae.
Theformationoftheplanetsinvolvesdifferentstages,incontrasttothesingle
processofnebulartheory.

21. Solar Systems: Properties and Current Information
1.Theorbitsofallplanetsarealmostinthesameplanet.Solarsystemisflat.
2.Theplanetaryorbitsarenearlycircular.Theellipticalorbitsdepartonly
slightlyfrombeingaperfectcircle.
3.Theorbitsoftheplanetsarenearlyinthesameplaneastherotationofthe
sun.
4.Allplanetsrevolvearoundthesunincounterclockwisedirection.Mostplanets
rotatetheirownaxisinacounterclockwisefashion.
5.Thedistancefromtheplanetsaroundthesuncanbeexpressedinasimilar
relationshipcalledbode’slaw,namedafterGermanastronomerjohannbode
(1747-1826).Thecalculateddistancesandobserveddistancesoftheplanets
fromthesunarealmostthesame,withtheexcemptionofNeptuneandPluto.

22. 6.ThesatellitesystemsofJupiterandSaturnarenearlyidenticalintheir
arrangementswiththeSolarSystems.
7.Thesatellitesandplanetscontainalmostalltherotationalmotionofthe
SolarSystem.
8.TheSolarSystemalsocontainsasteroidsandcomets.

24. Asteroids-aremadeupofrocksandaresometimesreferredtousminor
planetsinmanyways.Theyareatmosphere-freeandtheyorbitaroundthesun.
Mainasteroidbelt–wheremostasteroidsintheSolarSystemlie,islocated
betweenMarsandJupiter.

25. Ceres–thefirstknownasteroid.
Comets–composedmainlyoficeandnonvolatiledust.
Kuiperbelt–oftencalled“finalfrontier”becauseitisattheoutermost
regionoftheSolarSystem.AndlocatedbeyondtheorbitofNeptune,isa
reservoirofshort-periodcometslikeHalley’scomet.

26. Classification of Planets
The planets of the modern solar system are grouped into several
different and sometimes overlapping classifications, as illustrated
in the following figure:

27. TheplanetsinsidetheorbitoftheeartharecalledtheInferiorPlanets:
MercuryandVenus.
TheplanetsoutsidetheorbitoftheeartharecalledtheSuperiorPlanets:
Mars,Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,Neptune,andPluto.
TheplanetsinsidetheasteroidbeltaretermedtheInnerPlanets(or
theTerrestrialPlanets):Mercury,Venus,Earth,andMars.
TheplanetsoutsidetheasteroidbeltaretermedtheOuterPlanets:Jupiter,
Saturn,Uranus,Neptune,andPluto.
TheplanetssharingthegaseousstructureofJupiteraretermedtheGas
Giant(orJovian)Planets:Jupiter,Saturn,Uranus,andNeptune.