Economy for upsc student who person preparing cse exam

World History

Why Study World
History ?
“ If you want to understand today , you
have to search yesterday. ’’
Why World History ?
1. Knowing who we are ?
2. Preparing to live in the world
( “Global citizen” )
3. Attaining cultural literacy on a world
scale

Relevance of World History

Relation of West and East
WEST depends on EAST for 2 things – a) Silk and b) Spices
These 2 things played the main role in establishing Trade and
Commerce between West and East
This Trade and commerce was maintained by 4 Routes

Maritime Silk Route
1)South China Sea
2)Bay of Bengal
3)Arabian Sea
4)Mediterranean Sea

World History – The Story of TRANSFORMATION from Old Order to
New Order
Pre - Modern World ( Old Order ) Modern World ( New Order )
EconomySimple ( Barter System ) Complex ( Bitcoin , Token Money )
Polity Mainly Monarchical Mainly Parliamentary Govt.
SocietyPrivileged Classes Egalitarian
ReligionDharma Samvidhaan ( King was the
representative of God – Divine
Theory ) – e.g Asoka-
(Devanampiyadasi , Kushanas –
Devputra , Balban – Zil-i-Ilahi )
Man made Constitution ( Janta ka
Pratinidhi – PM or any elected head )

Story To Enlightenment
Human Being
Law Of Nature
DVIJ ( Born Twice )Parents Guru
Imparts Education which leads
to Enlightenment and binds
Human Being to the Law of
Nature

Enlightenment
•The Enlightenment, also known as the
Age of Reason, wasan intellectual and
cultural movement in the eighteenth
century that emphasized reason over
superstition and science over blind
faith.

CULTURE Vs CIVILIZATION -Culture is the pattern of behaviour of
groups and is a part of civilisation. Civilisation is a broader and
complex concept in which large aggregations of people came into
existence

Enlightenment
Enlightenment
Indian ( Spiritual
– e.g Buddha ,
Mahavira )
Europe ( Age of
reason –
Materialism )

Preceding Events that led to
Enlightenment
•No event can happen in
isolation thus some of the
major events that led to
Enlightenment were –
a)Feudalism
b)Renaissance
c)Reformation

Feudalism – Dark Age
•Ancient Europe - Ancient Europe saw great progress in development of human
society in the form of Greek and Roman civilizations.
•MEDIEVAL EUROPE -‘Dark Age’ coined by an Italian scholar (Francesco
Petrarch) . Rise of feudalism can be seen as a major factor responsible for the
decline in various spheres of life during the period. It was the 'age of faith' rather
than 'the age of reason and new, ideas’.
•Feudalismwhich was based on a hierarchy in which king was on the upper most
level. The king used to provide jagir to lords who in return rendered military
service to the king.

Privileged Class
Knights were maintained
by Feudal Lords

Feudal Lords had to collect taxes , maintain
army and law and order
King
Feudal Lords
Feudal Lords
Feudal Lords

The Church
•The Roman Catholic Church was as powerful as the institution of Feudalism
•Church’s Evils
1.In the Middle Ages (600 AD to 1500 AD) the Church’s evils took the form of:
•Money for Church posts.
•Money for every ritual.
•Money for removing sins. For example, the Church started selling Letters of
Indulgence which upon their purchase removed the need for doing pilgrimages for
removal of sins.
•Church owned & amassed huge property.
•The Church was the only institution for education
•Logic, Reason and Science were discouraged

Disintegration of Feudal System
Revival of Trade
and growth of
towns
Emergence of
middle classes
Discovery of
New Sea routes
and lands
Revolts against
feudal
oppression

Renaissance
The literal meaning of Renaissance is 'reawakening'.
Humanism was at the core of Renaissance.
It meant focus on Humanity, rather than Divinity.
It manifested in a shift in focus towards study of man and nature,
rather than theology.

Emphasis of
Renaissance
Curiosity and the spirit of enquiry-this factor
encouraged scientific discovery.
Spirit of adventure-this factor promoted great
voyages.
Humanism-Emphasis over dignity of man and a
sense of this -worldliness.
Individualism-greater importance attached to
individual led to writing of autobiography.
Secularism-An attack over those priests in whose
'word' and 'action' there was greater dichotomy.

Reformation - Reformation was a movement against the practices
and authority of the radical Catholic Church
Reformation
Protestant
Reformation
Catholic
Reformation

Reformation •Under Martin Luther, a monk who opposed the Letters
of Indulgence and other Church evils, the first
Protestant Church was setup in Germany (from 1520-
1545) under the King’s support.
•They desired freedom from authority of Pope and
control on wealth of Monasteries.
•Protestant churches adopted the use of language
spoken by the people, rather than the elitist Latin. The
Bible was translated into local languages.
•The use of local languages further increased national
consciousness & thus Renaissance and Reformation
can said to be a precursor to nationalism in Europe.

Causes Of Reformation
•Religious Factor
•Economic factor: Roman Catholic Church discouraged money lending which was
not favourable for the merchant class
•Church owned the best land of the country, which the rulers saw as means to
increase their wealth by confiscating it.
•Political factor: Rise of absolutisms (as against dual sovereignty) –As the Church
interfered in political matters as well so some ambitious monarchs encouraged the
protestants movement to make the decline of Universal Church System faster
and gain absolute control over political matters

30 Year War
(1618-1648)
This was a struggle between the catholic
power and protestant power.
It started in Germany as a result of conflict
of interest of Roman Catholics and
Protestants.
One important aspect to be noted here is
that although it started as a religious conflict
it ended with political consequences thus
changing the balance of power in Europe

Background to
American Revolution

Seven Year Global War (1754-63)
•“The main reason behind the war was the quest for hegemony over colonies between Britain and
France”.
•InNorthAmerica,theBritishhad13coloniesontheEasterncoastalongtheAtlanticOcean.They
wantedtoexpandwestwardsforwantofmorerawmaterialsandanincreasedexportmarketinNorth
America.
•ButthewestwasunderthedominationofFrance.TheFrenchwereanxioustoholdontoWesternNorth
AmericatopreventBritishhegemonyintheworldpoliticalandeconomicaffairs.
•BritainwasundergoingtheIndustrialrevolution(1750onwards)atthattime,whichwasmakingthe
Britishgoodsmuchmorecompetitiveintheworldmarkets.Also,Britainwasemergingasadominantsea
poweranditsmaritimetradeprofitsweresoaring.Thus,FrancefearedthatastrongerBritaininNorth
AmericawouldsoonthreatentheFrenchcoloniesintheCaribbean.
•TheywererightandinCaribbeantheBritishfoughtagainstSpainandFrancewhocontrolledthe
profiteeringsugarplantationsintheirCaribbeancolonies.
•TheWestAfricanSenegalhadlargenaturalresources,especiallyofGum,andtheFrenchtradingports
here,cameundertheBritishattack.
•In1760-61theBattleofWandiwashbetweentheFrenchandtheBritishestablishedtheBritish
supremacyinSouthIndiawhiletheFrenchwererestrictedtoPondicherry.

Result: Treaty of
Paris of 1763
•The Treaty of Paris of 1763 signed after the 7 Year
War had the following clauses:
•Britain got Canada from France and Florida from
Spain.
•France was allowed to retain its Caribbean sugar
islands.
•Spain’s control over Cuba and Philippines was
recognized.
•The effect of the Seven Year War on world politics
was that it reduced the domination of France,
while Britain Consolidated its colonial power.
•Also, it laid the ground for American Revolution
(1765-83) & French Revolution (1789).

AMERICAN
REVOLUTION
(1765-1783)

“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all
men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their creator with certain unalienable rights that
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness.” - The Declaration of Independence, 4
July 1776

The 13 colonies that eventually became United States were -New
Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South
Carolina and Georgia

Reasons for
American
resentments
against the British

1) Economic issue
British Mercantilism Vs American Mercantilism
Mercantilism iseconomic nationalism for the purpose of building a wealthy and
powerful state. Adam Smith coined the term “mercantile system”.
Navigation act of 1651 was introduced to promote the interest of the shipping
industry of Britain at the cost American shipping industry.
Americans were compelled to sell three important products -Rice, Tobacco and
Cotton only to the British merchants.
British government consciously discourages Industrialization in America, so that
America could work as the market for British product.

2) Class interest favoured Revolution
Merchants favoured revolution against Britain in the hope of economic
freedom
Smuggler favoured revolution as they were hoping free movement in Atlantic
Ocean after liberation.
Political leaders advocated for revolution as they could manifest their bright
future in independent America.
Students and intellectuals supported revolution as they were inspired by
republican ideas.
Tobacco growers of Virginia enthusiastically participated in revolution as
British had restricted their westward expansion.

3) No Representation in British Parliament
•The British Parliament enacted the Stamp Act in 1765, which imposed
stamp taxes on all business transactions in the British colonies in USA.
•Since the British Parliament had no American representation, the
American leaders opposed the right of Britain to levy any taxes on
them.
•In the Massachusetts Assembly, the leaders of all 13 colonies gathered
and adopted the slogan of “No Taxation without Representation”.

4) Recovery of (Seven Year) War Expenditure
•The Seven Year War had cost a lot of money to Britain. When they
decided to make up for the costs of war by taxing the people in
British colonies in North America, the latter opposed it.

Immediate factor
Differences already existed between Britain and American colonies
but it reached up to breaking point when having been encouraged by
over ambitious King George III. The different British ministries
started to intervene into the economic matter of American colonies.
It was the government of Granville (Britain PM in 1763) who started
to examine the American account and to augment the British income
in America. He imposed several taxes like Stamp Act, Sugar Act etc.
and also tries to enforce navigation act forcefully.

Events of
the
Revolution

Events of the Revolution
1) The Massachusetts Assembly (1765)
2) The Boston Tea Party (1773)
3) The Philadelphia Congress
4) Declaration of Independence
5) The War of Independence

1) The Massachusetts Assembly (1765)
•Leaders of all the colonies assembled in the colony of Massachusetts to discuss their common
problems. They insisted on 'No taxation without representation' and threatened to stop the
import of British goods.
•This threat led to the repeal of the Stamp Act. But the British parliament made it a point that
it's their right to levy taxes by taxing consumer goods coming into colonies like paper, glass,
tea and paint.
•Again, the colonist opposed by stressing that it is only their local assemblies which had the
right to raise money via taxes from them and in protest the Americans cut down the English
imports by one-half.
•The English again back tracked but to assert their right to levy taxes, didn't abolish the tax on
tea.

2) The
Boston Tea
Party
(1773)
Colonies refused to unload the tea coming
in English ships. In Boston, when the
governor ordered unloading of a ship, a
group of citizens led by Samuel Adams,
boarded the ship and dumped the tea
crates into the water.
This incident is known as 'Boston tea
party'. The government in England ordered
the closure of the port for all trade, thus
further fanning the resentment.

3) The
Philadelphia
Congress and
the Declaration
of
Independence:
•All the colonies (except Georgia), sent delegates to the first
continental congress held in Philadelphia in September 1774.
•This congress appealed to the British king to remove restrictions on
industries and trade and not to impose any tax without their consent.
•It also organized a continental association and decided to start
military -preparations. The British king, taking their action as
mutiny ordered to send British troops to America.
•The colonists too planned for military defence with local troops. The
first clash occurred in Massachusetts in 1775.
•After the initial skirmishes the Second Continental Congress met in
Philadelphia and chose George Washington as the commander-in-
chief of the American forces.
•It again reiterated its demand to the British king But the British
decision to continue fighting led continental congress to adopt the
“Declaration of Independence” on 4 July 1776, it was drafted by
Thomas Jefferson.

4) Declaration of Independence
•The declaration asserted on the equality of all men and held that the people
are the source of authority.
•It affirmed people’s right to set up their own government. Up to the
declaration of independence the colonists had been fighting for their rights as
English men. But after the declaration in 1776 they fought for their right to be
an independent nation.

5) The War of Independence
•The declaration of Independence marked the formal beginning of the American
war of Independencethat was to last more than six years with fighting in every
colony.
•Battle of Saratoga (1777) was a military turning point of the revolution. The
British forces under General Burgoyne surrendered to the Americans.
•However further the Americans faced several defeats until France came to their
help in 1778 after concluding a Treaty of alliance. France declared war against
England and in 1779, Spain entered the fray as an ally of France.
•Finally, with the surrender of Lord Cornwallis at New York town in 1781 the
revolutionary war was over and with the “Treaty of Paris” causes of American
success.

Second Treaty of Paris 1783
It ended the American War of Independence.
Some of its important clauses were:
•Perpetual Peace between USA and Britain
•All US Colonies were recognized as free, sovereign and independent
states, with Britain giving up all claims on government, property and
territory.

Causes of American Success
•Though British forces were stronger than the American side led by George Washington,
the British were defeated.
•From the beginning, the British authorities did not attach much importance to the
revolutionary effort of the Americans and they mainly relied on mercenary soldiers to
suppress them.
•The remoteness of the American continent and British ignorance of American
geography also contributed to the success of the Americans.
•The fierce spirit of liberty drove the Americans to success.
•The military success owed its origin to the extraordinary military leadership of George
Washington.
•The international situation also helped the American revolutionaries

Significance of American Revolution
•American colonies were the first colonies which got independent so it became symbol for colonial
liberation.
•In 1789, the United States Constitution came into effect. It was the first written Republic Constitution. The
Bill of Rights is the set of first ten amendments to the USA constitution and includes freedom of speech, press,
religion and justice under the law.
•The American Revolution established the first democratic Republic in the world and the USA soon embarked
on Industrial Revolution.
•American federation became the modelfor those countries which were much larger in size, multi rationales
and multi religious.
•The most important contribution of American Revolution was its contribution to ideas of Liberty, Equality,
Fundamental Rights, Nationalism and anti-colonialism.
•American Revolution was a revolution in ideas and system of Polity and it impacted the future events, the
most prominent of them being the French Revolution of 1789.
•Lastly, after the liberation of American colonies, it emerged as the stronger Nation and it has played a very
decisive role in world history after 150 years.

American Civil War

Introduction
•Hardly did any destructive events produce
such a constructive impact as the American
Civil war did. If as American Revolution
made USA an independent Nation, American
civil war made USA modern Nation.
•After the civil war United States of America
was more economically and culturally
unified.

Background
When American won Independence from
England in 1776, there were 13 colonies
which formed a federal government.
Colonies expanded from east coast to
west forming 34 states by 1861.
There were differences between states in
the north and states in the south–which
resulted in the American Civil War.

Northern States Southern States
Relied upon workforce where people
worked and got paid. Did not have
slavery dominating their society . It was
mostly industrialized
Relied heavily upon slave
workforce in the field to help
harvest crop ( Plantations )

Cause behind the Civil War
Slavery Issue
Economic Issue
Constitutional Issue
Bleeding Kansas
Fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and Republican party

Slavery Issue
At the heart of the divide between the North and the South was slavery.
The South relied on slavery for labour to work the fields.
Many people in the North believed that slavery was wrong and evil. These
people were called abolitionists (Frederick Douglass, John Brown ) . They
wanted slavery to be illegal throughout the United States
This made wealthy landowners in the South fearful that their way of life
would come to an end.

Economic
Issue
In northern American states,
Industrialization started but slavery system
was antithetical to industrial economy as a
demand of industrial economy was
movement of free labour.
On the other hand, in southern states, the
plantation agriculture was the backbone
of an economy.This plantation
agriculture could not survive without the
slave labour that’s why southern states
widely supported the slavery system.

Constitutional Issue
It was the time American federation was making a west ward expansion under its
famous slogan of ‘Manifest Destiny’. But whenever region was inducted into the Union
as the new state, fresh controversy started between northern states and southern states,
whatever this region concern, should be inducted as a ‘free state’ or a ‘slave state’
This question was much important because of the fact that in a slave state, number of
slaves had to be counted that indicates the number of representation in the House of
Representative.
The northern free states were worried about the fact that, if more or more region would
be inducted as slave state, the slave state would form majority in House of
Representative.

Bleeding Kansas
•The first fighting over the slavery
issue took place in Kansas.
•In 1854, the government passed the
Kansas-Nebraska Act allowing the
residents of Kansas to vote on
whether they would be a slave state
or a free state.
•The region was flooded with
supporters from both sides. They
fought over the issue for years.
Several people were killed in small
skirmishes giving the confrontation
the name Bleeding Kansas.
Eventually Kansas entered the Union
as a free state in 1861.

Fear of reforms by Abraham Lincoln and
Republican party
•The final straw for the South was election of Abraham Lincoln to
President of the United States.
•Abraham Lincoln was a member of the new anti-slavery Republican
Party. He managed to get elected without even being on the ballot in
ten of the southern states.
•The southern states felt that Lincoln was against slavery and also
against the South

Contribution of Abraham Lincoln
•In 1860, Lincoln was elected as the 16th President of the
USA as a Republican Candidate.
•Abraham Lincoln was president of the United States
during the Civil War. Though he had little military
experience, he pursued the war to the end, thus reuniting
the North and the South.
•Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which
freed the slaves in the rebellious Southern states. This set
the precedent for ultimately freeing the slaves through
the 13th Amendment after Lincoln's death.
•He promoted American Capitalism and Republican ideas
and he successfully preserved the Union
•After the civil war, citizens of all states of the USA were
granted citizenship and equal rights.
•It was Abraham Lincoln who gave the famous principle of
democracy –i.e. government of the people, by the
people and for the people.

Significance/impact of the American Civil War
•The war put an end to the institution of slavery (13th amendment).
•The war abolished the secession of states for all times to come.
•In the economic sphere, the war led to the growth of large scale manufacturing industries.
•More area came under cultivation –particularly in the western regions on North America.
•Use of more machines –which enhanced production, so the employment opportunities.
•Regulation of banking system (National Banking Act) and use of paper currency contributed to the
growth of the nationwide business.
•New weapons were used.
•Improvement in transport and communication
•Inspiration to other countries to abolish evil practice of the slavery.

FRENCH
REVOLUTION

Introduction
The French Revolution was the watershed event in modern
European history that brought about the enlightenment
principles and democracy, creating a rational and
egalitarian society. It started in 1789 and ended in 1799.
The French Revolution was a time of social and political
upheaval in France and its colonies. The liberal and radical
ideas overthrew the Monarchy and influenced the decline of
absolute Monarchies in other parts of Europe.

Background
•France was a strong and powerful state in the 18th century which was
characterized by autocratic nature, extravagant rulers, privileged nobles and
clergy, landless peasants, jobless workers. However, despite its outward strength,
the French monarchy was facing a crisis which was to lead to its destruction.

Social Conditions in 18
th
Century
•French society was divided into classes or Estates.
The clergy constituted the First Estate, the
aristocracy comprised the Second Estate, and the rest
of the population formed the Third Estate.
•The first two Estates were privileged while the third
Estate was unprivileged.
•Progress in trade and commerce in 18th century
Europe gave rise to a new social class called the
bourgeoisie or the middle class.
•The French revolution can be seen as an example of
a “bourgeois revolution” which sprang from such
societal unease.

Causes of
French
Revolution

Political Cause
•The word ‘revolution’ generally means a fundamental change in a social system, or
structural, and a shift from one type of social system or structure to another.
•The French Revolution of 1789 can therefore be branded a “total revolution”.
•The very thrust of the revolution aimed at the destruction of the feudal social system which
had developed in Europe over the last thousand years or so and the establishment in its place
of a capitalist or bourgeois social system.
•In eighteenth-century Europe, autocratic and hereditary monarchies were in power, and
France was no exception. Louis XIV, a French king of the Bourbon dynasty, reinforced
autocratic monarchy by centralizing his power.

Social Cause
•The clergy, who formed 1% of the population, was in control of
10% of total land, from which it extracted a tithe (tax),
enabling them to lead a luxurious life.
•Corruption was rampant in the church. Even the clergymen
were divided into upper clergy, who were socially and
economically aristocratic, and the lower clergy, who belonged
to the third Estate.
•Majority of the population of France belonged to the Third
Estate. It comprised of rich businessman, industrialists
intellectual on one hand and the labouring men and peasants on
the other. Thus socio-economic division and disparity was more
pronounced here.
•The people of the Third Estate were broadly divided into three
groups-the bourgeoisie, the peasants, and the San-culottes
(town men).

Economic Cause
•The main cause of the economic crisis in France was the disparity in taxation.
•The structural and economic crisis of the Ancient regime deepened with the
coronation of Louis XVI in 1774. With the participation of France in the
American War of Independence.
•The French economy meant that the exploitation of farmers by feudal lords
gained in intensity. The French historian Taine shows that four-fifths of a
farmer’s income would be spent in payment of state tax, religious tax imposed
by Church and dues to feudal lords.
•The depression of 1778 and the failure of crops in 1787, on the eve of the
French Revolution, was an utter disaster for the French economy.

Intellectual Cause
The 18th century brought a conscious change in the French thinkers
who refused the ‘Divine Rights Theory’:
•Philosophers like Rousseau rejected the paradigm of absolute
monarchy and promulgated the doctrine of equality of man and
sovereignty of people.
•They played a pivotal role in exposing the fault lines of the old
political system-‘the ancienregime’, thus adding to the popular
discontent.
•The American Revolution also triggered the ideas of enlightenment
and liberty among the intellectuals of the French society.

Timeline of the French Revolution
The meeting of the
Estate Generals
1789
The revolution
1789–1792
The Declaration of
Rights of the Man
1789
The Reign of Terror
1793–1795
The end of the French
Revolution
1795

1789: The meeting of the Estate Generals
•The Estates-General was an assembly that represented the French nobility clergy and
the middle class. They were called by Louis XVI to discuss the new tax measures in May
1789.
•The third estate was already gathering support for their involvement in the decision-
making body and voting rights during this time.
•The middle class was in favour of the political and judicial reforms while the nobles did
not want to give up their privileges. The talks with the third estate also failed.
•The Tennis court oath: The third estate and their support formed the National
Assembly and took an oath of office in June 1789 and vowed not to disperse until
reforms have been initiated.

1789-92: The revolution
•The national assembly continued in Versailles as the nation was
gripped in fear and uncertainty which led to the insurgency.
•This resulted in the taking of Bastille fortress on July 14, 1789. This
event marked the beginning of the French Revolution.
•The peasants revolted, attacked the houses of nobles and tax
collectors, and the upper class was forced to flee for their lives. This
period is called the period of Great Fear.

1789: The Declaration of Rights of the Man
•The National Assembly adopted the Rights of Man and of the Citizen
on August 4, 1789. The charter was based on democratic principles,
drawing from philosophical as well as political ideas of Enlightenment
thinkers like Jena-Jacques Rosseau.
•The French constitution was adopted on September 3, 1791. It was
moderate in its stance by limiting the powers of the king, but it was
not enough for the more radical members of the assembly,
Robespierre who wanted Louis XVI to stand trial.

1793-95: The Reign of Terror
•A group of insurgents attacked the royal residence in Paris and arrestedLouis XVIon
August 10, 1792
•The following month many who were accused of being the ‘enemies of the revolution’
were massacred in Paris. The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National
Convention which proclaimed the establishment of the Republic of France and the
abolition of the Monarchy.
•King Louis XVI was condemned to death on January 21, 1793, and executed for treason. His
wife, Marie Antoinette was also executed nine months later.
•The execution of the king marked the beginning of the most violent and turbulent phase of
the French Revolution –the Reign of Terror.
•The National Convention was under the control of an extremist faction led by
Robespierre. Under him, thousands were executed for suspected treason and counter-
revolutionary activities.
•The Reign of Terror ended after Robespierre’s execution on July 28, 1794.

1795: The end of the French Revolution
•On August 22, 1795, the National Convention composed of moderates
approved the creation of a new constitution that created France’s
bicameral legislature.
•A Directory, a five-member group was formed by the parliament, and an
army was groomed under General Napoleon Bonaparte.
•The Directory became corrupt and the army had more powers with
them. A coup d’état was staged by Napoleon himself, toppling them
from power.
•Napoleon appointed himself “first consul”. The French Revolution was
over and the Napoleonic era was about the begin

Role of women in the French Revolution
•Women in the Third Estate worked for a living and didn’t have access to education or training.
•Only daughters of the noblewomen and richer sections of society had access to any education.
•The wages for women were lower than those of men.
•But during the Revolution, women played an active role in revolutionary activities. They started their
own clubs and newspapers.
•One of the most famous political clubs was the Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women and
they were disappointed by the Constitution of 1791 which designated them, passive citizens. This
Society demanded equal political rights as men. They wanted to vote and stand in elections for political
office.
•After the end of the revolution, the early revolutionary governments introduced many laws that
improved the lives and status of women in society.
•Schools were created, and education was made compulsory for all girls. Marriage without consent was
made illegal and divorce was made legal. Women were also allowed to be artisans and run small
businesses.

Impact of French
Revolution
Pros
Cons

Pros
•The French revolution had an important impact not just on France, but rest of the world
•Monarchy was abolished and Republic took its place.
•Political sovereignty introduced at individual and nation-state level with a centralized
government.
•Serfdom, Feudalism, Slavery (USA banned it in 1865) were abolished and the influence of
Church decreased in personal lives.
•The privileged classes i.e. the first and the second estate, were abolished.
•Idea of separation of public and private realm emerged.
•The French revolution ushered in the new economic system of Capitalism as against the
prevalent Feudalism.
•The French Revolution inspired movements against colonialism in colonies around the world,
while movements for democracy and self-rule rose in whole of Europe.

Cons
•Post-revolution regime failed to resolve the grievances of the workers, who were
the main force during the uprising of 1789, and only the peasants benefited (as
they became owners of land confiscated from the privileged classes).
•The revolution failed to bring in democratic rule and the Reign of Terror under the
Jacobians started.
•Napoleon, due to his continuous warfare resulted in rise of nationalism in the
invaded territories and he came to be perceived, not as a liberator, but a conqueror.

Impact of French Revolution
•End of the social divide
•Declaration of rights of man
•Revolutionary ideas ( The Trinity –Liberty , Equality and Fraternity )
•End of Monarchy
•Parliamentary Democracy
•Constitution and Rule of Law

THE RISE AND FALL OF
NAPOLEON

Introduction
•He was a staunch supporter of Corsican nationalism, he
eventually embraced the ideals of the French
revolution which started in 1789 when he joined the
Jacobins, the pro-French Corsican Republicans.

Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
•Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797:Napoleon led the French army to victory over the
better equipped and larger armies of Austria. The Treaty of Campo Formiosigned
between France and Austria led to territorial gains for France.
•Battle of Nile (1798):He led a French expedition to conquer Egypt which was a
British Protectorate then. Even though the French won the first battle of
pyramids, they were wiped out in the next Battle of Nile.
•The coup of 18 Brumaire, 1799:The Directory, a five-member group that
governed France since theReign of Terrorended in 1795. With the political
situation deteriorating, Napoleon became a part of the coup that overthrew the
directory.

Napoleon I, the Emperor of France
•The constitutional amendment of 1802 made Napoleon
the first consul for life, which was nothing less than a
dictator. And then later in 1804, he crowned himself the
emperor of Francein an elaborate ceremony in the Notre
Dame cathedral.

Napoleonic wars (1803-1815)
Battle of Trafalgar (1805): Britain’s naval victory at
Trafalgar forced Napoleon to abandon his plans to invade
England, and he turned his attention to Austro-Russian
forces, which he defeated at theBattle of Austerlitzlater
that year in one of his greatest victories.
To defeat his British rivals through economic
means, Napoleon came up with the Continental
System in 1806, which blockaded European ports
from British Trade. This combined with consequent
victories over Russian and Austrian forces
reinforced napoleon’s fame as a great general.

Causes for the success of Napoleon
•The interplay of military innovations that made Napoleon a national hero and the longing for a strong, secure
government that Napoleon promised led to his seizure of power in 1799.
•Further military victories, once again against the Austrians in Italy allowed Napoleon to consolidate his hold
on power and declare himself emperor of France in 1804.
•Napoleon was also a very active administrator, and his internal reforms did a great deal as far as both
consolidating some accomplishments of the French Revolution and suppressing others.
•He centralized the tax system (still used today) and established the Bank of France to stabilize the economy of
France.
•The Revolution’s system of free but mandatory education was kept and expanded with military uniforms and
discipline being imposed.
•One of his main accomplishments as a ruler was the establishment of the Napoleonic Civil Law Codes, which
made all men equal under the law while maintaining their legal power over women
•Napoleon saw nationalism as indispensable to maintaining the loyalty of the French people to his regime

Administrative reforms by Napoleon
•He tried to restore stability by centralizing the government and introducing reforms in
education, banking, encouraging arts and sciences.
•Napoleonic code(21
st
March 1804) Napoleon instituted the Napoleonic Code, also
known as the French Civil Code.
•It forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and stated that
government jobs must be given to the most qualified
•It included criminal code, military code & code of civil procedure, and commercial
code.
•He abolished serfdom and feudalism.
•Napoleon established an elaborate education system called lycées, which promoted
universal education without class and creed bias.

THE NAPOLEONIC CODE (FRENCH CIVIL CODE)

Fall of Napoleon
•Discontent among the public: The French Revolution aimed to end the monarchy in which Napoleon
played a big role. But when later he crowned himself the emperor of France, the public became wary of
his ways.
•The Continental systemdevised by him to blockade British trade wasn’t very successful and in the end,
backfired.
•Peninsular War (1807–1814):It was the war between coalition Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal
against the invading and occupying forces of France for control of theIberian Peninsuladuring
theNapoleonic Wars.Napoleon was defeated here.
•Invasion of Russia:Thegreat French dominion collapsedrapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in
1812. Napoleon failed to conquer Russia in 1812 for several reasons: faulty logistics, poor discipline,
disease, and not the least, the weather.
•Napoleon’s forces were again defeated in 1813 during the Battle of Leipzig by a coalition force of
Austrian, Prussian, Russian, and Swedish troops. He was forced to abdicate his throne when the coalition
forces captured Paris.
•He was exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of Italy while his wife and son were sent to Austria.

IBERIAN PENINSULA

Battle of Waterloo ( 1815 )
•On February 26, 1815, Napoleon escaped to mainland France, where he was
welcomed to Paris by cheering crowds. He began a campaign to regain the lost
French possessions in Europe. He governed France for what is known as the
‘Hundred days’ reign.
•The French Army invaded Belgium in 1815 to defeat a combined British and
Prussian army. The Prussians were defeated at Ligny.
•On June 18, the French were badly defeated by the British under the command
ofDuke of Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, with Prussian support at Waterloo.
The battle permanently ended Napoleon’s threat in Europe.
•In June 1815, Napoleon was dethroned once again.
•Exile on Saint-Helena : The British kept Napoleon on the island of Saint Helena
in the Atlantic Ocean, 1,870 km (1,162 mi) from the west coast of Africa.

THE CAUSES BEHIND THE DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEON
BONAPARTE
•Weaknesses of the Napoleonic System -defects of dictatorship; too much
dependence on one person; its militaristic nature (War face cannot be continued
for ever); Adoption of his tactics of warfare by the opponents from 1819, etc.
•Spirit of Nationalism -Spread of Nationalism in the conquered territories and the
growing hatred among the subject people for the foreigners.
•Naval superiority and strong finances of Great Britain.
•Failure of the Continental system.
•Peninsular War with Spain and Russian Campaign -while the former exhausted
the resources of France, the latter ended in disaster for Napoleon and for France.

Congress Of Vienna
•After defeat of Napoleon, the European heads of government met from
1814 to 1815 to settle the terms by which the Napoleonic Wars should
be concluded.
•A series of meetings in Vienna for this purpose was hold with an
objective of a collective security and stability for the entire continent.
This is called Congress of Vienna and it ended by sealing a return to
more or less the same system of European powers that existed before
the French Revolution.
•Most of the decisions were made by the five great powers of the day
viz. Russia, Austria, Britain, France and Prussia.

PRESENT

There were three goals
of Metternich (who was
head of Austrian
delegation) at Congress
of Vienna
To prevent future
French aggression by
surrounding France
with strong countries.
To restore a balance
of power, so that no
country would be a
threat to others.
To restore Europe’s
royal families to the
thrones they had held
before Napoleon’s
conquests.

For a tired and
timid generation
Metternich was
“The Necessary
Man”. Comment

Vienna Congress
and Unification of
Italy

Vienna congress
After the defeat ofNapoleon in 1815, a European congress met from 1814
to 1815 at Vienna (capital of Austria) headed by Austrian Chancellor Duke
Metternich.
The delegates of Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria drew up the Treaty of
Vienna of 1815 with the objective of undoing most of the changes that had
come about in Europe during French revolution and Napoleonic wars.
This congress came to known as Vienna congress.

Objective of Vienna congress
Rearranging the Map of Europe which
was disrupted by the Napoleon.
To restore the Balance of power in
Europe.
To crush the idea of French
revolution.

Participants/ delegates
AUSTRIA BRITAIN RUSSIA PRUSSIA

Unification
of Italy

Factors
responsible for
unification
Role of
napolean
bonaparte
Role of 1848
revolts
Role of vienna
congress

Role of 1848 Revolts
The 1848 revolts were led by intellectuals and
liberals who were against the reactionary Austria
control and wanted a liberal government.
In the eyes of ruling elite of this region, a unified
Italy offered them to possibility of economic and
political development

Obstacles in the way of the
Unification of Italy
•The northern and the southern regions of Italy
had some cultural differenced as well.
Cultural division
• The Italian language had not acquired one
common form and still had many regional and
local variations.
Language:
•Italy was divided into seven states, of which
only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an
Italian princely house.
Disintegration
•The northern region of Italy was economically
more prosperous than the southern region.
Economic division
•There was a control of Austrian forces in
northern Italy and Spanish forces in southern
part.
Foreign rule

Role of Mazzini,
Cavour, and
Garibaldi in the
unification of
Italy
Mazzini
•He was an Italian revolutionary in 19th century Europe
•Soon he becamea member of the Secret societyof the Carbonari.
•At the age of 24, he was excited for attempting a revolution in Liguria,
which cause him to be imprisoned.
•While in prison, he concludes that Italy could and therefore should be
unified and formulated his program for establishing a free, independent,
and republican nation with Rome as its capital.
•He then founded Two more underground societies (i) “Young Italy”in
Marseilles and “Young Europe”in Berne, whose members were like-
minded young men from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states.
•Though the means of secret propaganda, Mazzini awakened the masses
from its lethargy and direct it to struggle for unity and independence.
•Mazzini believed in Godand thought that God created nations to be the
natural units of mankind.
•Thus, he is known aa the “Heart of unification”.

Cavour
•He was a Dedicated Monarchist
•His initial aim was to extend the boundaries of Piedmont-
Sardinia up to the region of Lombardy and Venetia.
Because initially it was not his agenda
•Finally, when he ready for unification he tried with the
help of Military, diplomacy and International-
cooperation.
•He introduced many reforms which convert Italy into a
Modern state
•He introduced modern postal system and banking,
organized new taxation system, built railways, and
encourage trade and commerce.
•He also known as “Brain and Hand” of unification

Garibaldi
•He was a Nationalist and Republican.
•He was also a member of Young Italy led by
Mazzini and play a important role in the 1834
uprising of Savoy but unfortunately he failed.
•From 1836-1848 he Spend his life in South
Africa and participating in the Liberation
movements.
•In 1862 Garibaldi became impatient because
Pope still ruling Rome. Therefore, he rushed with
his volunteers and capture Rome from Pope and
after that he got retired from his career.
•He was also known as “Sword of the”unification of
Italy

Germany Unification
18th Century: Germany
was divided into number
of states (some very
small)
By the end of Napoleonic
wars 38 independent
states remained including
Prussia, Wurttemberg,
Bavaria and Saxony

Role of different
factors in Unification
of Germany

Role of different factors in Unification of
Germany
•Role of Vienna Congress
•Military-Diplomatic factors
•Industrial-diplomatic factors
•Industrial revolution plays a important role in the unification of Germany because industrial revolution
started in the early 19th century.
•Prussia was responsible for the industrialization because it holds the Coal and Iron rich region in Rhine
land after that industrialization spread in the other parts of Germany.
•In 1834 Custom union was formed known as Zollverin. This led to integration of Prussia too the rest of the
Germany.
•Ideological- cultural factors
•Herder: - He gave the concept of Volk Geist ( national soul ). According to him nation have its own soul.
•Hegel: - He present an ideal picture of a nation.

Compare and
contrast the
history of
unification of
Germany and
that of Italy
•Nationalism emerged as a major force in
Europe in the aftermath of Vienna system
as a result of which there is rise of
Germany and Italy as new powerful
nations after their unification process
during the mid-19th century period which
changed the geo-political scenario in
Europe

GermanyUnification ItalyUnification
Context
•
Prior to unification, the German- speaking
territories were divided into numerous
independent states, withPrussiaemerging
asthedominantpower.
•
The process of German unification was
primarily driven by Prussia'sChancellor,
OttovonBismarck.
•
Prior to unification, the Italian Peninsula
wasfragmentedintoseveral independent
states, including kingdoms, republics, and
foreign-controlled territories.
•
Italian unification, also known as the
Risorgimento, was drivenbyasense of
nationalism
Key
personalities
•
Otto von Bismarck played a crucial role in
uniting Germany.
•
Giuseppe Garibaldi, Count Cavour, and
Victor Emmanuel II, the King of Sardinia-
Piedmont.

Method
•
The unification of Germany was largely
spearheaded by the Kingdom of Prussia, under the
leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bismarck.
•
Bismarck employed acombinationofdiplomacy,
militaryforce,andstrategic alliancestoachieve
unification.
•
Important milestones in this process include the
Austro-PrussianWar(1866)andtheFranco-
Prussian War (1870-1871).
•
The process of Italian unification involved a
combination of politicalmanoeuvring,military
campaigns,andpopularuprisings.
•
Military conflicts, such as the Wars of Italian
Independence and the Expedition off the
Thousand, played a crucial role in the unification
process.
Process
•
The unification of Germany was primarily achieved
through a series of wars.
•
Prussia defeated Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866,
and France in 1870-1871.
•
These victories led to the formation of the North
German Confederation, which eventually became the
German Empire in 1871.
•
Italian unification was acomplexprocessthat
involvedbothdiplomaticmanoeuvringand
armed conflicts.
•
Count Cavour played a crucial role in forming
alliances and using diplomacy to annex various
regions.
•
Giuseppe Garibaldi, a military leader, led
volunteer armies known as the "Red Shirts" and
played a significant role in capturing territories
through militarycampaigns.

Industrial Revolution

The Coming Up of the Factory
•In the 1730s the earliest
factories in England were
setup, but only in the late
eighteenth century, the
number of factories multiplied.
•Cotton was the first symbol
of the new era and its
production boomed in the late
nineteenth century.
•Richard Arkwright created
the cotton mill where costly
machines were set up and all
the processes were brought
together under one roof and
management.

CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
•Technological Innovations: Pioneering inventions like the steam engine fuelled
industrial growth by accelerating production processes.
•Changes in Agricultural Practices: The British Agricultural Revolution improved
farming efficiency, freed up labour for industrial jobs, and provided raw materials
for industries.
•Population Growth: A burgeoning population generated increased demand for
goods, driving the need for mass production.
•Natural Resources: Britain's wealth in coal and iron reserves enabled energy-
intensive industrial processes.
•Stable Government and Banking System: A supportive political and economic
environment in Britain promoted industrial development and investment.

FEATURES OF THE
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
•Transition to Machine Production
•Emergence of New Technologies
•Use of Steam Power
•Infrastructure Development
•Urbanization
•Mass Production
•The Factory System
•Child Labour

IMPACTS OF THE
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
•Economic Impact:
a)Boost in Productivity: The Industrial Revolution ignited a phase of unprecedented economic growth by
significantly enhancing productivity.
b)Democratization of Goods: Mass production and reduced costs led to a wider availability of goods to the general
populace.
c)Industrial Competition: The emergence of new industries like textiles and steel boosted trade and intensified
international competition.
•Impact on India:
a)Colonial Exploitation: The Industrial Revolution furthered colonial exploitation, with India serving as a raw
material source for British industries and a market for finished goods.
b)Economic Displacement: Traditional Indian industries suffered as cheaper, mass-produced goods flooded the
market.
c)Seed of Industrialization: Despite challenges, this era planted the seed of industrialization in India, influencing
its future economic trajectory.
•Social Impact:
a)Urban Challenges: Rapid urban growth led to overcrowding, unsanitary conditions, and related social issues.
b)Worker Exploitation: The factory system often led to labour exploitation, with workers enduring long hours in
harsh conditions.
c)Emergence of Social Classes: The era gave rise to distinct social classes, including a prosperous industrialist class
and a struggling working class.
•Technological Impact:
a)Innovation Surge: The Industrial Revolution saw ground breaking technologies altering work and lifestyle,
setting the stage for future scientific and technological advancements.
•Environmental Impact:
a)Environmental Degradation

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA
Late Start : The Industrial Revolution in Russia started later than in Western Europe, with a
focus on heavy industries like iron and steel. This period marked Russia's transformation from a
primarily agrarian society to an industrial power.
State-led Industrialization: Industrialization in Russia was state-driven, with Tsarist policies
supporting industrial growth. The government controlled significant parts of the economy,
particularly railways and large industries.
Impact: Despite initial growth, Russia's industrial sector faced challenges due to limited
domestic demand and heavy state control. However, industrialization played a key role in
transforming Russia's economy and society.
Social Impact: Industrialization in Russia also led to significant social changes, with the
emergence of a new working class and the growth of cities.

INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
IN JAPAN
•Industrial Revolution in Japan refers to
the, the "Latecomer" period of rapid
industrialization andmodernization
thattookplaceinJapanduringthe
late19thandearly20thcenturies.
•This industrial revolution differed from
the earlier industrialisation
experienced by Western countries

Here are some of the key factors that set Japan's industrial revolution different from that in western
countries:
State-led industrialisation:
Cooperation between government and industry:
•This collaboration, known as the "iron triangle," involved close ties between government
officials, industry leaders, and bureaucrats.
Geopolitical Factors:
•Japan's lack of natural resources also contributed to its drive for technological innovation
and efficiency to compensate for resource limitations.
Emphasis on human capital:
Emphasis on Learning and Adaptation:
•Japan studied and adapted Western technology, knowledge, and industrial practices
through a process known as "reverse engineering.”
Focus on critical industries:

MEIJI RESTORATION ( 1868 )
End of Isolation: The Meiji Restoration marked the end of Japan's period of isolation, with the adoption of western
technologies and ideas. This opened Japan to global trade and foreign influences.
Rapid Industrialization: With state support, Japan underwent rapid industrialization, focusing on sectors like textiles,
shipbuilding, and later, heavy industries. This positioned Japan as a major global economic power.
Social and Political Reforms: The Meiji era saw sweeping reforms, including the modernization of the military and the
adoption of a Western-style constitution. These changes were part of Japan's broader transformation into a modern nation-
state.
Education Reforms: The Meiji Restoration also saw significant reforms in the education sector, with the establishment of a
national education system based on Western models. This played a crucial role in Japan's modernization process

WHY DID
THE
INDUSTRIAL
REVOLUTION
FIRST OCCUR
IN ENGLAND?
Political Stability
Natural Resources
Agricultural Revolution
Technological Advances
Urbanization
Geographic location and waterways
Access to Markets in colonies

COLONIALISM
•Colonialismisasocio-politicaland
economicphenomenonthatsaw
variousEuropeannationsexploring,
conquering, settling, and exploiting
vast global territories. This practice
profoundlyshapedthecourseof
historyandcontinuestohavelasting
impactsonformercolonies

DRIVERS OF
COLONIALISM
Pursuit of Wealth: Early colonists, inspired by Spain's exploits,
sought to uncover abundant riches, especially gold and silver, in
the Americas and India.
Mercantilism: Colonial establishments provided lucrative
business opportunities, contributing to economic and societal
development in the home countries.
Religious Conversion: The Catholic Church, during the Age of
Discovery, strived to propagate Christianity in the New World,
converting indigenous peoples—a policy most prevalent among
the Portuguese.
Resource Acquisition: The scarcity of natural resources in
Europe, relative to their expanding populations, spurred the
search for colonies.
Navigation Technology: The advent of the compass and mapping
of new sea routes facilitated the exploration and colonization of
new lands.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COLONIALISM
Wealth Drain: Colonial
powers drained wealth from
their colonies through one-
way exports and excessive
spending on military and civil
services.
Excessive Taxation: High tax
rates dissuaded natives from
starting their enterprises.
Economic Imbalance: The
colonies served as markets
for European goods and
sources of raw materials,
leading to economic
imbalances that invariably
disadvantaged the colonies.
Subordination: Colonies were
subjugated parts of the
mother country, with
colonists enjoying greater
rights and privileges than the
indigenous people.
Human Rights Violations:
Colonial rulers frequently
perpetrated severe atrocities
against natives, such as the
infamous Jallianwala Bagh
Massacre.
Divide and Rule: Colonial
powers employed tactics like
divide and rule to fragment
the social cohesion of
colonies and further their
colonial objectives

IMPACTS OF COLONIALISM
Military Superiority: Using vast colonial resources and manpower, colonial powers enhanced their military
capabilities, enabling them to wage major wars.
Religious Spread: Colonies served as fertile grounds for disseminating the religious beliefs of the colonizers.
Economic Advancement: The bounty of colonial resources and an extensive export market facilitated wealth
transfer from colonies to Europe, spurring economic development.
Expansionism: The affluence derived from colonies fuelled the desire to acquire more colonies.
Hindered Growth: Colonialism imposed significant trade restrictions, stifling the growth and autonomy of colonial
businesses.
Trade Limitations: Colonial authorities dictated protected goods that could only be sold to colonist merchants,
such as sugar, tobacco, cotton, indigo, furs, and iron.
Slavery: Colonialism facilitated the expansion of the slave trade in many colonies. For example, colonies
supplied rum, cotton, and other commodities to meet the demand of imperialists in Africa.
Agriculture Commercialization: Colonizers emphasized cash crops at the expense of food security in the colonies.
Racism: Natives endured racial discrimination and social degradation at the hands of European colonists.

COLONIALISM IN AFRICA

Introduction
•Colonialism in Africa refers to the
period of European imperialism in
Africa during the 19
th
and early 20th
centuries when European powers divided
and occupied Africa for a multitude of
interests. This period was marked by
significant exploitation of Africa's natural
resources, imposition of European-style
governance, and the spread of European
culture and values

REASONS FOR
COLONIALISM
IN AFRICA
●The Industrial Revolution in Europe led to a demand for
raw materials, such as rubber,cotton, and palm oil, which
could be found in Africa.
●European countries saw colonizationasawaytoincreasetheir
wealthandpower, and to spread their influence around the
world.
●Some European countries, such as Britain and France, saw
their colonies as a way to bring civilization and Christianity to
"uncivilized" parts of the world.
●European imperialism was alsomotivatedbycompetition
betweenEuropeanpowers, with each country seeking to
establish colonies before its rivals.
●The desire to establish coaling stations for steamships and to
controlstrategicwaterways,suchastheSuezCanal.
●Thedesireforpoliticalprestigeandnationalpride.
●The belief in the superiority of Western civilization and the
need to spread Western ideas and values.

RISE OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA
●The Scramble for Africa began in the late 19th century, as European countries competed
toestablish colonies in Africa.
●TheBerlinConferenceof1884-1885, convened by European powers to establish rules
for the partition and colonization of Africa, formalized European control over much of
the continent.
●European powers used various means to establish their control over African territories,
including military conquest, treaties, and the manipulation of local power structures.
●The technological advancements of the Industrial Revolution, such as steamships and
machine guns, made it easier for Europeans to travel to and conquer Africa.
●The decline of the transatlantic slave trade led to a need for new sources of labor, which
was found in Africa.

EVENTS OF COLONIALISM IN AFRICA
●Colonialism in Africa wasmarkedbyviolenceandexploitation,asEuropeanpowerssoughttoextract
resourcesandlaborfromAfricanterritories.
●European colonizersimposedtheirownvaluesandsystemsofgovernanceonAfricansocieties, often
overriding local cultures and customs.
●Africans resisted colonial rule through armed rebellion, such as the Maji Maji Rebellion inTanzania,
and through nonviolent protest, such as the nationalist movements against British colonial rule in South
Africa.
●The division of Africa by European powers often ignored existing ethnic, linguistic, and cultural
boundaries, leading to the formation of arbitrary and often conflicting nations.
●The exploitation of Africa's natural resources led to significant economic growth in Europe, but also
led to the impoverishment of many African nations.
●The imposition of Christianity and Western education led to the spread of Western ideasandvalues
inAfrica, but also led to the loss of traditional beliefs and practices

LEGACY OF
COLONIALISM
IN AFRICA
●The legacy of colonialism is still felt in Africa
today, with many African nations struggling with
the consequences of exploitation, inequality,
and division created by colonial rule.
●The borders and boundaries established by
colonial powers continue to shape African
politics and conflicts, such as the ongoing
conflict in Sudan.
●The impact of colonialism on African societies
and cultures is still being studied and debated,
with some arguing that colonialism brought
progress and modernization to Africa, while
others argue that it left a legacy of economic
exploitation, political corruption, and social
inequality.

COLONIALISM IN PACIFIC, CENTRAL ASIA
AND CHINA
The historical footprint of
colonialism in the Pacific, Central
Asia, and China underscores the
imposition of foreign dominance
over indigenous populations.
From the late 19th to the mid-20th
century, European powers, along
with Japan, marked their territories
and spheres of influence within
these regions. They wielded their
political, economic, and cultural
prowess, altering the landscapes of
local societies

COLONIALISM IN THE PACIFIC
•InitiationofEuropeanExplorationinthePacific
a)The late 18th century sparked the European interests, notably Britain, France, and Spain, in Pacific exploration
b)They sought new territories to expand their empires and new sources of raw materials.
c)During this period, the establishment of coaling stations for their naval fleets also became a driving force.
d)This led to colonies like Australia and New Zealand under Britain and French Polynesia under France.
•KeyMilestonesinPacificColonization
a)Significant moments in the Pacific colonization timeline include the:
b)Arrival of the First Fleet in Australia in 1788 and the
c)Signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in New Zealand in 1840.
•ImpactofColonialCultureandExploitation
a)The colonial imposition of Western culture, religion, and language deeply influenced the indigenous
peoples.
b)The exploitation of natural resources led to European economic growth but often at the cost of
impoverishing local communities.
•CurrentChallenges:LegacyofColonialism
a)Today, the Pacific Island nations grapple with the colonial legacy through challenges such as:
opoverty,
oenvironmental degradation, and
opolitical instability.

COLONIALISM
IN CENTRAL
ASIA
Imperial Interests in Central Asia: The Russian and British
Colonization
•In Central Asia, Russian and British imperial interests
clashed, with the region seen as a strategic buffer zone.
Russian colonization started in the mid-19th century
and persisted till the fall of the Soviet Union in the 1990s.
•Simultaneously, Britain gained control over areas of
modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Colonial Impact on Central Asian Societies and Its Ongoing
Legacy
•The colonial era was characterized by the suppression of
indigenous cultures and traditions, exploitation of natural
resources, and the imposition of Western-style education
systems.
•The political, economic, and social structures of Central
Asian states today bear the remnants of these colonial
practices.

COLONIALISM
IN CHINA
Emergence of European and Japanese Colonial Interests in China
•The thirst for trade and a vast market led European powers to China.
•The colonial influence over China took shape during the mid-19th
century, signalled by the Opium Wars between Britain and China.
•Early in the 20th century, parts of China also fell under Japanese rule.
Adversities and Transformations: China under Colonial Rule
•This era was marred by unequal trade agreements, suppression of
Chinese culture and religion, and imposition of foreign governance.
•China also suffered significant military aggression during Japan's rule.
•Despite these adversities, the establishment of the People's Republic
of China in 1949 under Mao Zedong's leadership marked a turning
point in China's political history.
The Long-Lasting Impact of Colonialism on Modern China
•The legacy of European and Japanese colonization has significantly
influenced China's socio-economic structure.
•China's struggle with poverty, inequality, cultural identity crisis, and
political restructuring reflect the profound impact of colonial rule.

•Opium Wars are the two armed conflicts in China in the mid-19th century between the
forces of Western countries and of the Qing dynasty, which ruled China from 1644 to 1912.
•The first Opium War (1839–42) was fought between China and Britain.
•The Second Opium War (1856–60), also known as the Arrow War or the Anglo-French War
in China, was fought by Britain and France against China.
•In each case, the foreign powers were victoriousand gained commercial privileges and legal
and territorial concessions in China.
•The conflicts marked the start of the era of unequal treaties and other inroads on Qing
sovereignty that helped weaken and ultimately topple the dynasty in favour of republican
China in the early 20th century.
How did they begin?
•The Opium Wars arose from China’s attempts to suppress the opium trade.
•Foreign traders (primarily British) had been illegally exporting opium mainly from India to
China since the 18th century, but that trade grew dramatically from about 1820.
•The resulting widespread addiction in China was causing serious social and economic
disruption there.

NEO-COLONIALISM
Neo-colonialism, characterized by the
coordinated efforts of former colonial
powers and developed countries, has
had a profound impact on the
development of African nations.
This exploitative phenomenon aims to
impede growth and maintain control
over resources and labor, hindering
the path to self-determination and
sustainable development.

World War I

CAUSES
•Complex Alliances: The intricate network of alliances between nations promised
mutual support in the event of conflict with other powers, complicating global
diplomacy.
•The German Factor: Germany's unconditional support for Austria-Hungary
following the assassination of Franz Ferdinand sought military and political
dominance in the Balkans.
•European Expansion: As nations like Britain and France grew their empires,
tensions rose among European countries.
•Colonial Competition: Germany, eyeing Britain's and France's colonial
possessions, believed itself capable of overpowering both nations.
•Imperialism: The desire for more markets and colonies to bolster capitalism was
a significant catalyst for the war.

CONSEQUENCES
•Formation of New States: Several new countries emerged
from the disintegration of old empires, including the breakup
of Austria-Hungary.
•Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty required Germany and the
Central Powers to pay reparations and undergo
demilitarization.
•League of Nations: The League was established as a global
forum for nations to collaborate and prevent another
worldwide conflict.
•Rise of Communism: The post-war period witnessed a surge
in far-left, often explicitly Communist, revolutions in several
European countries, including Germany and Hungary.
•Foundation of World War II: Germany's humiliation fuelled
Hitler's motivation to instigate World War II two decades later.
•Rise of the US: The US emerged as a global force following its
involvement in World War I.

TREATY OF
VERSAILLES
Signing of the Treaty:
•The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28, 1919, in the Palace of
Versailles, France, after six months of negotiations among the Allies.
Notably, Germany was not invited to participate in these negotiations.
Terms of the Treaty:
•Disarmament: The Treaty imposed significant military restrictions on
Germany. It limited the German army to 100,000 men, prohibited the use
of heavy artillery, military aircraft, and battleships, and outlawed
conscription.
•Territorial Concessions: Germany lost about 13% of its pre-war territory.
Key regions such as Alsace-Lorraine were returned to France, while
significant portions of eastern Germany were given to the newly
independent Poland.
•Reparations: Germany was required to pay reparations to the Allies to
compensate for war damages. The amount, set at 132 billion gold marks
(about $31.4 billion at the time), was considered extraordinarily high.
•War Guilt Clause: Article 231, also known as the "War Guilt Clause",
placed full blame for the war on Germany and Austria-Hungary. This clause
was a primary justification for the reparations that Germany was ordered
to pay

Effects of the
Treaty
•Political Instability: The harsh terms of the Treaty created
political discontent in Germany, leading to instability and
contributing to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
•EconomicHardship: The obligation to pay reparations
imposed a severe financial burden on Germany,
contributing to hyperinflation in the early 1920s and
economic depression in the early 1930s.
•Resentment and Desire for Revision: The Treaty was widely
perceived as unjust within Germany, fueling resentment
and a desire for revision of the terms. This sentiment played
a crucial role in the build-up to World War II.

Criticisms of the Treaty
A Carthaginian Peace:
•Critics, most notably John Maynard Keynes, argued that the punitive reparations
and restrictions imposed on Germany would lead to future conflict.
•Keynes famously described the Treaty as a "Carthaginian Peace," suggesting that
it was intended to completely destroy Germany.
Absence of 'Fourteen Points':
•Many felt that the Treaty failed to incorporate the principles of peace and self-
determination outlined in the U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's 'Fourteen Points.'
•The U.S., in fact, never ratified the Treaty and later negotiated separate peace
treaties with the Central Powers.

LEAGUE OF
NATIONS
•FoundingoftheLeagueofNations:
a)The League of Nations was founded
on January 10, 1920, as part of the
Treaty of Versaillesthat ended
World War I.
b)The organization's inception was
heavily influenced by the U.S.
President Woodrow Wilson's
'Fourteen Points,' which outlined his
vision for a new international order
based on peace and cooperation.

Achievements
of the League
•Health and Social Issues: The League made
significant strides in improving global health
standards, working against diseases like
leprosy and malaria. It also led efforts in
combating human and drug trafficking.
•ResolvingInternationalDisputes: The League
had some success in settling minor international
disputes, such as the Aaland Islands dispute
between Sweden and Finland
•PromotingInternationalCooperation: The
League encouraged cooperation among nations
in various areas, including labour rights,
intellectual cooperation, and humanitarian aid
for refugees

Failures and
Criticisms
•Lack of UniversalMembership: The absence of
key powers, most notably the United States,
significantly undermined the League's
authority and reach.
•InabilitytoPrevent Aggression: The League
was ineffective in preventing military
aggression by its members, as seen in Italy's
invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935 and
Japan's invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
•LackofEnforcementPower: The League did
not have a military force of its own and relied
on member states for enforcement, which
proved ineffective in preventing conflicts.
•GreatDepression: The global economic crisis of
the 1930s exacerbated international tensions
and hampered the League's work

INDIA'S
ROLE IN
WORLD
WAR I
Contributions:
•MilitarySupport: Over a million Indian troops served overseas under British
command, with 62,000 casualties and another 67,000 wounded.
•FinancialSupport: India gifted around 100 million British Pounds to Britain to
fund their war effort, anticipating dominion status and home rule in return.
•MaterialSupply: The British sourced approximately 3.7 million tonnes of
supplies and jute from India, including clothing, weaponry, and vehicles.
Outcomes:
•Emergence of Revolutionaries: Indian revolutionaries like the Ghadr Party saw
the war as an opportunity to end British rule in India.
•Boostto theNationalMovement: Unfair treatment by the British, highlighted by
events like the Rowlatt Act and the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, fuelled Gandhian
mass movements.
•AttitudinalShift: The war dispelled the myth of the invincible British Empire,
boosting Indian self-confidence.
•Global Decolonization: India's struggle for independence was further
strengthened by the worldwide decolonization movements and growing
international criticism of colonialism following World War I.

LINKAGE
BETWEEN
WORLD
WAR I
AND
WORLD
WAR II
Treaty of Versailles:
•It imposed harsh terms on Germany after World War I, creating a sense of humiliation and
resentment within the German population.
•The treaty's impact on Germany's economy, territorial losses, and military restrictions
contributed to political instability and the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.
Great Depression:
•The worldwide economic depression in the 1930s, was a significant factor that fuelled the rise
of extremist ideologies and militarism.
•The economic hardships experienced by many countries led to social unrest, political instability,
and the emergence of totalitarian regimes in several nations, including Germany, Italy, and
Japan.
Failure of Appeasement and Diplomacy:
•The policy of appeasement, followed by Western powers, notably Britain and France, in
response to Hitler's aggressive expansionist policies, is seen as a significant contributor to the
outbreak of World War II.
Failure of League of Nation:
Rise of Fascism and Nazism:
•The interwar period witnessed the rise of fascist and nationalist ideologies in various countries,
not just Germany.
•Fascist leaders such as Benito Mussolini in Italy and Francisco Franco in Spain came to power,
while Japan adopted an expansionist and militaristic ideology.
•The actions and policies pursued by these regimes, in addition to Hitler's Nazi Germany,
contributed to the tensions that led to World War II.
Nationalism and Territorial Disputes:

RUSSIAN
REVOLUTION

Introduction
•The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a pivotal event that led to the
overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy and the establishment of the Soviet
Union. It had a profound impact on global politics and significantly
influenced the course of the 20th century

CAUSES
●Involvement in World War I: Russia's participation in the war strained the country’sresources, leading
to widespread economic hardship.
●Government's War Effort: The government's criticized handling of the war, led to the disillusionment of
many Russians.
●Discontent among Workers and Peasants: These groups, hardest hit by the war, were discontented with
their living conditions and lack of political representation.
●Push for Political Reform: Intellectuals and political activists advocated for political reform, including the
establishment of a socialist government.
●Crimean War (1853-56):The Crimean War highlighted the backwardness of Tsarist Russia, both militarily and
administratively.
●Despite the war ending in 1856, the echoes of the conflict contributed to political and social instability,
eventually leading to calls for reform and contributing to the discontent that sparked the 1917 Revolution

OUTCOMES
●Radical Reforms: The Soviet government nationalized land, banks, and
industry, and established a planned economy.
●Global Influence: The Soviet Union became a global superpower and led the
socialist movement.
●Global Inspiration: The revolution inspired socialist movements worldwide and
influenced the establishment of communist governments in various countries.
●Repression and Economic Struggles: Despite its influence, the Soviet Union was also
known for its human rights abuses, and its economy struggled compared to
capitalist nations.

CONSEQUENCES
●Cold War: The rise of socialism and communism contributed to a global Cold War between
capitalist and communist nations.
●Rise of Totalitarianism: The revolution also contributed to the rise of totalitarianism, as
other countries modelled their political systems after the Soviet Union.
●Influence on Anti-colonial struggles: The success of the Russian revolution provided a
model for anti-colonial struggles worldwide, encouraging similar movements, particularly in
Africa and Asia.
●Global Impact: The revolution significantly influenced world history, marking the 20
th

century and beyond

FASCISM
AND
NAZISM

Nazism Fascism
Origin Germany Italy
Leadership Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini
Characteristics
•Emphasis on Aryan racial superiority and the
concept of a master race.
•Hitler's ideology aimed to establish a totalitarian
state based on racial purity, territorial
expansion, and the subjugation of other nations.
•Emphasized the creation of a totalitarian
state, with absolute loyalty to the nation
and its leader.
•It advocated for a strong centralized
government, suppression of political
dissent, and the subordination of
individual rights to the needs of the state.
Cult
Personality
•Nazism was strongly centred around Adolf Hitler.
•Hitler was seen as the charismatic leader and the
embodiment of the Nazi movement.
•His cult of personality was pervasive, and he held
complete control over the Nazi Party and the
German state.
•Fascism also had a strong leader cult, but
it was not as centralized around a single
figure as in Nazism.
•Mussolini played a significant role in the
Italian fascist movement, but the
ideology of fascism focused more on the
state itself rather than the leader.

REASONS
FOR THE
RISE OF
FASCISM
●VersaillesDisappointment: Italy felt cheated at not receiving
control over Yugoslavia andAlbania despite its significant
contributions during World War I.
●War-inducedEconomicCrisis: World War I negatively
impacted Italy's economy, resulting in increased
unemployment, especially among veterans.
●ParliamentarySystem'sShortcomings: The proportional
representation system led to the formation of numerous
political parties, resulting in instability.
●Political and Social Disillusionment: With the public in search
of a strong leader, Mussolini filled the void.
●LeadershipFactor: Mussolini's promises of stable
governance and protection of private property rights
resonated with the populace.
●HyperNationalism: Fascism fuelled nationalism by
scapegoating Jews and other minority groups

FEATURES OF FASCISM
●AuthoritarianGovernment: Fascism emphasized a 'corporate state' with an
organizedworkforce under government control.
●ExtremeNationalism: Fascist regimes emphasized state superiority and rebirth.
●One-partyRule:Fascism endorsed a single party system, often characterized by
charismatic leadership.
●EconomicSelf-sufficiency:Fascism advocated for a state-directed economy.
●Propaganda:Modern propaganda methods, like marches and songs, were used
for mass mobilization.
●Military Strength and Violence: Fascist regimes relied heavily on force and
violence in both domestic and foreign policy.

REASONS FOR
THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF NAZISM
●Treatyof Versailles: The humiliation and harsh terms
imposed by the treaty fueled Germany's desire for revenge.
●HandoverofRUHRRegions:The transfer of these regions to
France as war indemnity further humiliated Germany.
●WeakWeimarLeaders:The ineffective governance of the
Weimar Republic failed to address German issues and economic
challenges.
●GreatDepression:The economic crisis of 1929 worsened the
German economy and intensified resentment.
●SpreadofCommunism:The rise of communism and labor unions
was perceived as a threat by German capitalists, who funded the
Nazis for protection.
●RoleofHitler:Hitler's oratory skills, charisma, and nationalist
promises propelled him to leadership.
●ImmatureDemocracy:The fledgling democracy after World War
I failed to counter Hitler's rise to power.
●ImperialRuleJustification:Racial thinkers and imperialists
justified Aryan racial superiority and sought to preserve it.
●PoorSocialIntegration:Social divisions in Germany made it easier
for the Nazis to scapegoat Jews.

EVENTS
LEADING
TO THE
RISE OF
HITLER
●HitlerasPM:Hitler was appointed as
Prime Minister in 1933 and assumed
de facto controlafter President
Hindenburg's death in 1934.
●EnablingAct,1933:The act established
Hitler's dictatorship, sidelining
parliament and granting him absolute
power.
●Reichstag Fire: The Reichstag building
was set ablaze in 1933, allowing Hitler
to consolidate power and suppress
opposition.

FEATURES
OF NAZISM
●MilitaryConscription:Hitler introduced mandatory
military service in 1935, violating theTreaty of
Versailles.
●TheNightoftheLongKnives:A purge launched by
Hitler in 1935 to eliminate communist leaders and
rivals within the Nazi Party.
●RemilitarizationofRhine:Hitler ordered the
reestablishment of the Navy, Air Force, and
remilitarization of the Rhineland.
●AnnexationofAustria:Germany annexed Austria in
1938, violating the Treaty of Versailles.
●AnnexingSudetenland:Hitler occupied German-
speaking areas of Sudetenland and later attempted to
annex the entirety of Czechoslovakia.
●GreaterGermanyAmbitions:Hitler signed a
nonaggression pact with the Soviet Union to invade
Poland and expand Germany's territory.

GREAT DEPRESSION (1929)
•The Great Depression, a severe worldwide economic crisis from 1929 to the
late 1930s, had far-reaching implications for economies, societies, and
politics across the globe. Crucially, it posed a substantial challenge to the
Democratic State System between the two World Wars.

CAUSES OF THE GREAT DEPRESSION
•Stock Market Crash: The Stock Market Crash of 1929 marked the beginning of the Great Depression.
Speculation and easy credit led to a collapse in stock prices, causing severe financial distress.
•Overproduction and Underconsumption: Overproduction and Underconsumption in the 1920s created a
significant gap between production and consumption capacity. The fallout from this imbalance
significantly contributed to the economic downturn.
•Agricultural Crisis: The Agricultural Crisis stemmed from overproduction and high debts in the agricultural
sector. Drought conditions further aggravated this crisis.
•OverdependenceontheAmericanEconomy:Many European nations heavily relied on American loans to
rebuild their economies post-World War I. When the American economy crashed, it had a ripple effect on
these countries.
•Unequal Distribution of Wealth: There was a severe disparity in wealth distribution, with the rich
becoming richer while the masses remained poor, leading to a lack of adequate consumer demand.
•Instability of the Banking System: The banking system was not sound, and with the crash, many banks
failed, leading to a loss of savings and reduced investment and consumption.
•InadequateGovernment Intervention: The laissez-faire economic policies adopted during the 1920s
prevented the government from intervening effectively during the initial years of the crisis

WORLD WAR II - CAUSES,
CONSEQUENCES

GLEIWITZ INCIDENT

Causes
•The onset of World War II was a complex interplay of several factors:
•GermanInvasionofPoland: The immediate trigger for the war, leading Britain and France to declare
war on Germany.
•Hitler’sExpansionism: His aggressive annexations and violations of the Treaty of Versailles were key
catalysts.
•AftermathofWWI:The resentment towards the perceived injustice and humiliation Germany suffered
in WWI and the Treaty of Versailles fuelled expansionist sentiments.
•GreatDepression:The economic hardship amplified by war reparations imposed on Germany led to
ineffective governments and slow reconstruction in many European states.
•FailureofLeagueofNations:The League's inability to effectively mediate international disputes and
its perceived Western bias further eroded faith in peaceful resolutions.
•RiseofFascism:The advent of hyper-nationalism, led by figures like Hitler and Mussolini, set the stage
for war.

CONSEQUENCES
The war had numerous significant consequences:
•Allied Occupation: The victorious Allies occupied the territories of former Nazi Germany
and Japan, steering them towards democratic governance.
•Age of Superpowers: The development of nuclear weapons heralded an era dominated
by superpowers, with the US at the helm.
•Europe in Ruins: The war left Europe economically devastated, necessitating immediate
funds for reconstruction.
•Formation of UN: The UN was established as a global forum for negotiations and conflict
resolution.
•Cold War: The US and USSR initiated an arms race that escalated into a global
geopolitical struggle.
•End of Colonial Age: The war precipitated the decolonization process, leading to the
independence of nations like India.
•Division of Europe: Europe was divided along ideological lines into Communist East and
Liberal West, symbolized by the Iron Curtain.

INDIA IN WORLD WAR II
Contributions
a)Military Support: India's colossal all-volunteer force of over 2.5 million men by 1945 played a
significant role in the war.
b)Financial Contribution: Imposed British taxes and levies, essentially financed Britain's war efforts in Asia.
c)Prisoner of War: Approximately 75,000 Indian soldiers were captured by Axis powers during the war.
Outcomes
a)National Struggle: The national struggle for independence intensified, culminating in the Quit India
Movement.
b)Bengal Famine: Diversion of food supplies to the war front led to a catastrophic famine, causing an
estimated 3 million deaths
c)Independence: The war hastened the end of colonial empires and paved the way for India's
independence.

WORLD WAR
CONFERENCES
AND
FORMATION OF
UN
Paris Peace Conference (1919): This assembly, following World
War I, was designed to craft peace agreements with the
defeated Central Powers. The most consequential output, the
Treaty of Versailles, levied stringent conditions on Germany
and redrew the European map
Yalta Conference (1945): Leaders of the United States, Soviet
Union, and the United Kingdom congregated to discuss post-
World War II reconstruction of Europe and lay the groundwork
for the United Nations. Agreements were reached on the
division of Germany and Soviet participation in the war against
Japan.
Potsdam Conference (1945): Organized post-Germany's
surrender, this conference's purpose was to decide the terms
for World War II's conclusion. It addressed issues including
Germany's occupation, war crimes trials, and the
administration of post-war Europe.

Feature League of Nations United Nations
EstablishmentFounded in 1920 after World War I.Founded in 1945 after World War II.
Membership At its peak, had 58 member states.United Nations has 193 member states.
US ParticipationThe United States, though
instrumental in its conception, never
joined due to isolationist sentiments.
The United States is a founding member and hosts
the UN headquarters in New York City.
Enforcement
Mechanisms
Lacked enforcement
mechanisms to ensure
compliance with its resolutions.
Has the Security Council, which can authorize
sanctions, embargoes, and even military
intervention.
Scope Primarily focused on state
sovereignty and political disputes.
Has a broader mandate, addressing social,
economic, and humanitarian issues, in addition to
peace and security.
EffectivenessGenerally seen as ineffective, failing to
prevent World War II.
Despite some criticisms and failures, has had
notable successes in peacekeeping,
decolonization, human rights, and social and
economic development.

COLD WAR

Introduction
•The Cold War, a period of intense rivalry
between the United States and the
Soviet Union from the late 1940s to the
early 1990s, had profound global
implications.
• It was driven by ideological differences
and geopolitical competition, shaping
international relations, fuelling proxy
wars, and leading to a dangerous arms
race.

CAUSES
OF THE
COLD
WAR
●Ideologicaldifferences: Clash between the capitalist
ideology of the United States and the communist
ideology of the Soviet Union.
●WorldWarIIaftermath: Disagreements over the post-
war settlement and the division of Europe.
●Mutualdistrust:Lack of trust between the two
superpowers due to historical tensions and conflicting
interests.
●Nucleararmsrace:Development of atomic weapons by
both sides, leading to a race for military superiority.
●Geopoliticalcompetition:Struggle for influence and
control over strategic regions and countries around the
world.

EVENTS DURING THE COLD WAR
●TrumanDoctrine(1947):US policy to contain communism and provide economic and
military assistance to threatened countries.
●MarshallPlan(1948):US initiative to provide financial aid to war-torn European
countries, preventing the spread of communism.
●BerlinAirlift(1948-1949):US and Allied response to the Soviet blockade of West Berlin,
ensuring supplies to the city.
●KoreanWar(1950-1953):Conflict between North Korea (supported by the Soviet Union
and China) and South Korea (supported by the US and United Nations).
●CubanMissileCrisis(1962):Tense standoff between the US and the Soviet Union over
the placement of nuclear missiles in Cuba.
●VietnamWar(1955-1975):Protracted conflict between North Vietnam (supported by the
Soviet Union and China) and South Vietnam (supported by the US).

Truman Doctrine (1947)
➢The Truman Doctrine was announcedbyPresidentHarryS.Trumanon
March12,1947,aimingtocounterSovietgeopoliticalexpansionduringthe
ColdWar.
➢It committed the US to support countries that rejected communism, marking
the official beginning of US involvement in the Cold War.
➢Truman pledged US support, both military and economic, to Greece and
Turkey, which were threatened by communism, marking the shift from
American isolationism.

Marshall Plan
(1948)
The plan provided over $13 billion in aid (approximately $135
billion in today's dollars) to Western European nations over
four years, revitalizing their economies and strengthening
democratic governments.
Its primary goal was to rebuild war-torn Europe after WWII,
stabilize economies, and prevent the spread of Soviet
communism.
Officially known as the European Recovery Program, the
Marshall Plan was initiated by Secretary of State George C.
Marshall in 1948.

Cuban
Missile
Crisis
(1962)
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a 13-day confrontation in
October 1962 between the United States and the Soviet
Union over Soviet ballistic missiles deployed in Cuba.
Sparked by the discovery of these missile installations -
through aerial reconnaissance - it was the closest the Cold
War came to escalating into full-scale nuclear war.
US President John F. Kennedy decided to establish a naval
blockade around Cuba, which is often seen as the peak of
the crisis.
Following intense negotiations, the crisis was resolved as
the USSR agreed to dismantle their weapons in Cuba in
return for a US commitment not to invade Cuba and secretly
dismantle US missile installations in Turkey

END OF THE COLD WAR AND THE
FALL OF THE USSR
The Cold War, a period of
intense rivalry between the
United States and the
Soviet Union, ended in the
late 20th century.
The climax of this period
came with the dissolution
of the USSR in 1991,
marking a significant shift
in global power dynamics.

CAUSES OF THE END OF THE COLD WAR
Political Factors:
•Glasnost and Perestroika: Gorbachev's policies of reform and openness exposed the flaws
of the Soviet system and hastened its collapse.
•Leadership and Personality: The personalities of leaders, especially Gorbachev and U.S.
President Ronald Reagan, played a role in easing tensions between the two superpowers.
Economic Factors:
•Economic Stagnation: The Soviet economy suffered from inefficiencies and couldn't
compete with the dynamic capitalist economies in the West.
•Arms Race and Military Spending: The arms race with the U.S. put a severe strain on the
Soviet economy.
Social Factors:
•Nationalism: The growth of nationalist movements in the Soviet Republics put pressure on
the Soviet Union and led to its eventual breakup.
•Desire for Freedom and Democracy: The Soviet population was influenced by the
democratic ideals of the West.

THE FALL
OF THE
USSR
Crisis and Dissent: Economic problems led to public
discontent, and Gorbachev's reforms couldn't salvage
the situation.
Failure of the August 1991 Coup: The failed coup by
hardline Communists led to a power vacuum,
accelerating the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
Declaration of Independence by Soviet Republics:
Following the failed coup, various republics declared
independence, leading to the official dissolution of
the Soviet Union on December 26, 1991.

IMPACT AND
CONSEQUENCES
Impact
on
Russia:
Political Transition: Russia transitioned from a
communist system to a democratic one, albeit with
considerable challenges.
Economic Crisis: The immediate post-Soviet period
saw a severe economic crisis and rising inequality in
Russia.
Global
Impact:
End of Bipolarity: The end of the Cold War marked
the end of a bipolar world, with theU.S. emerging as
the sole superpower.
Spread of Democracy: The dissolution of the USSR
spurred the spread of democracy in Eastern Europe
and beyond.
New Security Challenges: The post-Cold War period
saw the rise of new security challenges, including
ethnic conflicts, terrorism, and nuclear proliferation.

HAS COLD
WAR
ENDED?
The term cold war means there is no large-scale fighting directly between the
two superpowers, but they each supported opposing sides in major regional
conflicts known as proxy wars
According to some experts, cold war has been ended with the disintegration of
the USSR. Francis Fukuyama in his essay mentioned it as End of history
But the present Ukraine-Russia war, China-USA trade tensions reflect some
evidences that cold war has taken a new shape. USA has been using Ukraine as
a proxy to counter Russia
The formation of QUAD, AUKUS as groupings show how USA has been using
different players in geopolitics to put pressure on the Russia and China to
ascertain its hegemony.
Earlier the Cold War was between USA and USSR, but today it has broader
dimensions. USA has been facing challenge to its hegemony from the
revisionist country like China as well.
USA and China are competing to establish their control on the Indo-pacific,
their focus is on building military base to get more control over the territory.
From these evidences it is clear that cold war still has its evidences in present
context. But various scholars have their own views on it. According to some it
has never been ended and for some it has taken new shape.

DECOLONIZATION

What is Decolonization ?
•Decolonisationis the historical manifestation that occurs when a
nation seeks independence from foreign rule. That is, it is a
movement that can be generated when the people of a nation attain
independence or are merged into another state through a law of free
association.

Five Stages of Decolonisation
The first is known as
rediscovery and
recovery, in which a
colonized or formerly
colonized region
actively finds its
roots in order to
regain the
supremacy of its
own culture, history
and traditions of its
own particular
region.
The second stage is
named the phase of
mourning, where
people as a
community, process
and understand any
victimization or
persecution that the
colony might have
experienced. This is
frequently voiced in
the form of
frustration and
protest.
The third stage of
decolonisation,
commonly named
the most crucial, is
the process of
constructing the
future of the
proposed
independent colony.
This takes place most
commonly through
debate or
consultation, where
discussions include
the future of the
colony, the guiding
procedures and body
and the re-
establishment of
culture.
The fourth stage is
about dedication to
a single determining
cause and direction
for the colony. This
stage involves the
gathering of the
voices of all people,
the voices that are
united in a direction
so that the colony
can move ahead to
the final stage.
The fifth and the
most common final
stage of
decolonisation is the
action towards the
determined unified
goal, which can
articulate itself in a
range of ways,
specifically through
violence and
reclaiming what was
once a colony. The
process of the
previous four stages
of decolonisation, at
times, cannot be
afforded to a colony
if they are under
serious threat, in
which case the fifth
stage tends to
demonstrate itself
rapidly.

Causes of
Decolonisation

Atlantic
Charter
•TheAtlantic Charterwas a statement issued on 14
August 1941 that set out American and British goals
for the world after the end ofWorld War II.
•The joint statement, later dubbed the Atlantic Charter,
outlined the aims of the United States and the United
Kingdom for the post war world as follows:
•no territorial aggrandizement,
•no territorial changes made against the wishes of the
people (self-determination),
•restoration of self-government to those deprived of it,
•reduction of trade restrictions,
•global co-operation to secure better economic and
social conditions for all,
•abandonment of the use of force,
•disarmament of aggressor nations.

Aftermath or consequence of World
War Two
•Britain and France had just been in a war for the past 6
years, in which one of them was taken over (France) and
the other was being threatened to be taken over, since
1940 (Britain). Both the countries were in debt and both
militaries were exhausted.

Colonies were Discontented after World War Two
•Many of these colonies offered resources and manpower
to their colonial resources during World War Two, since
they thought they would attain their independence if
they offered assistance because that was what they
vowed in the Atlantic Charter and by their colonial rulers.

The Emergence of Two New SuperPowers
•Post World War Two, the United States and the Soviet
Union sprung up as the two superpowers of the world.
Both nations had one thing in common, they both were
against colonial rule and they put pressure on colonial
powers to end their colonial rule.

Nationalism
•Opposition to the Colonizing Nations
This takes place when the conquering nations assume all the
commercial and social benefits, displacing the subjugated nations,
who end up rebelling to uphold their rights.
•Democratic Ideology
The concept of supremacy and autonomy are disseminated and
assimilated, which cause patriotic sentiment and are exhibited in two
ways. The first is conservative nationalism which concentrates on the
past and the relevance of culture, while progressive nationalism seeks
to copy the positive actions of power states.

Consequences of Decolonisation
•Decolonisation not just represented liberty and national power, but also fuelled both neo-
colonialism and underdevelopment.
•In other words, the countries that attained their independence did not find an economic
arrangement appropriate for their progress, which is why they still rely upon the developed nations
today. They continue to remain reliant, even though they have professed their liberation.
•Underdevelopment also includes the lack of a steady social-administrative arrangement, which is
the reason for the high population growth that leads to increased hunger, starvation and illness.
•This context also creates a lack of infrastructure and technical means since there exists no local
production, which indicates that vital resources must be imported.
•On the other hand, these countries tend to cause an imbalance in the social system by nationalizing
industries and progressively dissipating capital. For this reason, external debt arises, resulting in a
higher reliance on foreign states due to the liquidation of interests.
•At present, a few underdeveloped people generally demand a political negotiation, due to the
inability of paying off their foreign debt, acquired over the course of the decolonisation process.

Vietnam
War

1858 France colonizes Indochina (Vietnam)
1930 Ho Chi Minh forms the Indochinese Communist Party
1954 Domino Theory established
Eisenhower worried about Vietnam
French surrender their colonial control of Vietnam (May)
1954 Geneva Accords
•Vietnam divided into two nations on the 17th parallel
•France granted independence to Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos (this area known as
Indochina)
•Ho Chi Minh’s forces control North Vietnam
•Accords called for free elections in 1956 and the unification of both North and South
Vietnam
1956 South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinh Diem begins campaign against political dissidents

1959 Vietcong support North Vietnam
Communist rebel group in South Vietnam
1960 American aid to Diem increases
1963 JFK authorizes 16,000 advisors to Vietnam
1964 LBJ authorizes 5,000 more advisors to Vietnam
1964 Gulf of Tonkin Incident
U.S.S. Maddox fired upon by two North Vietnamese patrol boats
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
•Congress authorizes the president to “take all necessary measures” to
protect American forces and “prevent further aggression”
•Gave tremendous war powers to the president without an official
declaration of war

1965 Operation Rolling Thunder
First sustained bombing campaign in North Vietnam
US soldiers in active combat in Vietnam
•By end of this year, 180,000 soldiers
1966 350,000 U.S. soldiers active in Vietnam
1967 500,000 U.S. soldiers active in Vietnam
•War now a stalemate
•500 Americans being killed per week
Use of napalm & Agent Orange
Aid from China and Soviet Union being sent to Vietnam

1968 Tet Offensive launched
Combined assault by Viet Cong and North Vietnamese army
Military victory but psychological defeat
My Lai Massacre
American soldiers kill 500 Vietnamese civilians
1969 Nixon orders secret bombing of Cambodia
1970 Start of “Vietnamization”
De-escalation of military on the ground
1971 Pentagon Papers
•The New York Times prints classified government history of America’s involvement in
Vietnam; showed that American leaders involved the U.S. in Vietnam without fully
informing the American people and occasionally even lied to Congress
New York Times v. United States
•Government lost the case; they had tried to prevent the Times from printing the papers

1973 Paris Peace Accords
•Cease fire
•America withdraws from Vietnam with “peace with honor”
1973 War Powers Act
•Congress restricted the President’s war-making powers by requiring him to
consult with Congress within 48 hours of committing American forces to a
foreign conflict
•The President can only use military force in another country for 60 days
without a formal declaration of war
1975 North Vietnamese troops invade South Vietnam and take control of the
whole country after South Vietnamese President Duong Van Minh
surrenders.
Fall of Saigon

Background
•Indochina refers to a region in South-East Asia comprising of Laos,
Vietnam and Cambodia. It was part of French colonial empire.
•Indochina had come under Japanese occupation during the WW
II as Vichy France had agreed to Japanese control of Indochina.
•During the WWII the struggle for independence in the colonies
was many a times led by communist organizations.
•Vietminhor League for Vietnamese Independence under Ho Chi
Min was leading the independence struggle in Vietnam.
•After Japanese defeat in WWII , the French refused to decolonize
Indochina.
•Thus, Vietminh fought against the Japanese during the WW II
and then against the French.
•Vietminh declared independence from France in 1945 and this led
to beginning of first phase of struggle in Vietnam or what is also
known as the 1st Indochina war (1946-54).

Background
USSR supported Ho
Chi Min. China
supported Vietminh
with arms and
equipments after
1950.
This led to US
helping the French
with arms and
economic aid as they
viewed China’s
intervention as part
of the Cold War.
Thus, Vietnam
became part of the
Cold War.
But the French were
weak after the WW II
and they could not
deal with the
guerrilla war tactics
of Vietminh.

Background
The French were economically weak and could not afford a long drawn military
engagement.
Finally, Geneva Agreement (1954) was signed after the French suffered a debacle
where the Vietnamese besieged 12000 French troops at a place called Dien Bien
Phu.
According to this agreement, Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia were given
independence and Vietnam was divided along the 17th parallel into North Vietnam
and South Vietnam.
The division was to be temporary and elections were to be held after which the
country was to be united.

Why Civil
War in
Vietnam
after Geneva
Agreement
(1954)?
•Elections were to be held in 1956 for formation of a
government for united Vietnam.
•Ho Chi Min (who had formed a temporary
government in North Vietnam) was confident of
victory in the elections.
•The government in South Vietnam refused to hold
elections fearing a communist victory.
•This resulted in a civil war in South Vietnam with an
aim for uniting the country.
•The Ho Chi Min government in North Vietnam
actively supported the revolutionaries in South
Vietnam while the US was determined to prevent
emergence of a united Vietnam under communist
rule.

Vietnam
War
(1961-75)
•US President Eisenhower (1953-61) was a
supporter of the Domino Theory.
•He feared that a domino effect was in play. After
China, North Korea had emerged as communist
and if South Vietnam also goes the communist way
then sooner or later the communist revolution
would reach all other Southeast Asian nations and
entire Asia would come under communism.
•In Japan, this would threaten the huge US
investments (US had invested a lot in Japan after
the WW II to make it a thriving capitalist country to
contain the spread of communism in the Far East).

Vietnam War (1961-75)
•The government of Diem in South Vietnam was unpopular due to rampant
corruption and inefficiency in governance. He neglected all criticism of his
government as communist propaganda.
•Also, 3/4th of Vietnamese population was comprised of Buddhist peasants
who felt discriminated against under the government of President Diem who
belonged to a wealthy Roman Catholic family.
•The peasants in South Vietnam demanded Land reforms on line of China and
North Vietnam but this demand was not fulfilled. Also Diem was seen by the
people as a US puppet

Vietnam War (1961-75)
All this led to all opposition
groups, the former
Vietminh communists and
the non-communists,
forming the National
Liberation Front in 1960.
The NLF demanded a
coalition government which
would peacefully negotiate
with the North Vietnam for
forming a united Vietnam.

Vietnam
War (1961-
75)
•The demand of NLF being rejected, the Vietcong,
the communist organization in South Vietnam,
began guerrilla warfare.
•Many Buddhist monks self-immolated to protest
against the government.
•Diem rejected every criticism as a communist
propaganda.
•In 1963, Diem was murdered in an Army coup and
till 1975, South Vietnam was ruled by military
generals. Meanwhile the guerrilla war by
Vietcong continued.

Vietnam War (1961-75)
From 1961 to 1975, under Presidencies of Eisenhower, Kennedy,
Johnson, Nixon and Ford, US got militarily involved in South
Vietnam against the Vietcong which was being actively supported
in form of troops, arms and aid by Ho Chi Min’s North Vietnam.
USSR and China also got involved and supported the communists.

Under Kennedy (1961-63)
Safe Village Policy was initiated.
It entailed moving peasants into safe or fortified villages and thus isolate
and freely attack the Vietcong cadres.
Kennedy kept US role to minimum and limited to anti-guerrilla campaign.
He sent helicopters and 16000 “advisers” to aid South Vietnam government.

Under Johnson (1963-69)
•He bombed North Vietnam from 1965 to 1968 as he believed that Vietcong
and NLF had no local presence/control in South Vietnam and to win the war
in South Vietnam requires destroying North Vietnam.
•Under Johnson, US dropped more bombs on North Vietnam than were
dropped on Germany during the WWII.
•Under him US got heavily involved and sent a million US troops to South
Vietnam.
•Johnson had to stop bombing North Vietnam due to high public opposition
within US.

Under Nixon (1969-74)
•US did not send more troops.
•He followed a policy of Vietnamization which entailed withdrawal of US
troops in a gradual manner and to simultaneously rearm and train South
Vietnam’s army to make it solely responsible for the defence of South
Vietnam.
•Nixon also restarted bombing North Vietnam and began bombing the Ho
Chi Min trail. Thus Laos, Vietnam and Cambodia all came under US shelling.
•The government in Cambodia was overthrown and a pro-US military
dictatorship was installed.

The US failed
in Vietnam
because

Wide public support for Vietcong and the National
Liberation Front
•There was wide public support for Vietcong and the National Liberation Front.
•Within the NLF, the communists were only of the groups and not the only
group.
•Had US focused its energies on pushing the government for solving the public
grievances against inefficient governance, US would have been in a better
position to contain communism but by not doing so it indirectly encouraged
communism.

Guerrilla tactics and Camouflaging
•Vietcong, like Vietminh, was very efficient in its guerrilla campaign.
•The members of Vietcong easily mixed up with the peasants
evading US military campaigns.
•This camouflaging technique helped the Vietcong guerrilla to
defeat the US Safe Village Policy that entailed vacating peasants
from villages to isolate and then freely attack Vietcong

Ho Chi Min Trail

Support of USSR and China
Support of USSR and
China in form of arms and
other supplies was crucial.
Especially after 1970,
Russian military aid in form
of anti-aircraft missiles,
tanks and machine guns
proved vital for Vietcong’s
victory.

Resilience of North Vietnamese
•Resilience of North Vietnamese: They suffered high casualty yet
continued to resist the US. They built factories outside the cities
and evacuated people from the cities to minimize casualties from
US shelling.

End of the War
•By 1973, the public opinion in US was heavily in favour of ending the US
involvement in the war.
•Many US soldiers had lost their lives, US forces had used inhumane means like
Napalm Jellyand chemical weapons and yet the victory was nowhere in sight.
•Also USSR and China were tired of the war. In 1973, Nixon signed a ceasefire
agreement. All US troops were withdrawn but the division along the 17th parallel
was to be respected by North and South Vietnam.
•In 1975, Vietcong brought South Vietnam under its control and North Vietnam
and South Vietnam were united under a communist regime. Laos and Cambodia
also emerged as communist states in 1975.
•Thus by 1975, US policy of containment had failed in the South-East Asia

Arab – Israeli
Conflict

Why Israel
created in
1948 ?

1) Historical grievances of Jews
a) Roman persecution: In 71 AD, Jews were driven out of Palestine by
Romans and they settled in different parts of the world including US.
Gradually, over years many Jews returned from exile but their population was
not significant to make Arabs anxious.
b) World Zionist Organization (1897): It was formed in Switzerland. Zionist
means people who wanted Jews to return to their homeland, Palestine and
form a Jewish state of their own. Problem was Palestine was now inhabited
mainly by Arabs who were now threatened by loss of their “homeland”.
c) Nazi persecution: This resulted in high influx of refugee European Jews,
who were looking for a home, into Palestine and by 1940 half the population
of Palestine was Jewish. Nazi persecution and with change in demography of
Palestine, the demand for Israel as a separate state grew.

How creation of Israel
became inevitable and
how middle path
solution failed ?

a) Britain: After WW I, Britain got Palestine as a mandate. In 1917, Britain said
it favoredcreation of Israel. This led to influx of Jews into Palestine which was
opposed by Arab States who wanted an independent united Palestine under
Arabs.
b) Zionist Terrorism: started after WW II, targeting Arabs and Britishers who
opposed Jewish influx under pressure from Arab States. US pressured Britain to
allow Jews enter Palestine.
c) Attempts at middle path failed:
1.In 1937, the Arabs rejected British 2 state proposal.
2.In 1939, British proposed a One state solution whereby Palestine would be
made independent in 10 years and Jewish immigration would be limited to
10,000 per annum. Jews rejected this proposal.
3.In 1946, Britain again proposed a One State solution with two provinces,
one each of Arabs and Jews. Truman rejected this plan.

UN creates
Israel in 1948

•Britain asked for UN help
because was unable to
bear high costs of
maintaining peace.
•1947 UN voted to divide
Palestine into two
halves. British withdrew
in 1948.

1948 Arab-Israel War
Immediately after its creation, Israel was attacked by Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon.
Result:
1) Egypt: Egypt did not earn anything from the war. Rather, Israel captured the Egyptian port of Eilat. Egypt also
faced the problem of refugees from Palestine as there was a refugee exodus due to Israel’s brutal treatment of
Palestinians after the war. In 1952 the Egyptian Army did a coup to dethrone King Farouk as he favoredthe
presence of British troops in Suez Canal. Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser Hussein became the President of Egypt in
1954 and sought to reduce British influence.
2) Israel: captured 3/4th of Palestine, more than what was given to it by UN.
3) Jerusalem: was captured by Israel (West Jerusalem) and Jordan (East Jerusalem).
4) West Bank: It is the Palestinian territory west of river Jordan. It was captured by Jordan. This led to conflict
within the Arab world because Jordan wanted West Bank for itself
5) Refugee influx: into Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Egypt and Lebanon.
6) Plight of Palestinians: Now most of them lived in refugee camps. Many found themselves now living under
Israel and Jordan.

Eilat

Suez War 1956
•Importance of Suez Canal: The Suez Canal opened in 1869 and was a very important sea-route of commerce.
It reduced the distance for the British merchant vessels traveling to India. It provided an outlet from the
Mediterranean sea towards the Indian Ocean. Without the Suez Canal the ships would have to travel all
around the Western coast of Africa and then the Cape of Good Hope to reach Asia.
•Anglo-French control of Suez Canal: Egypt went bankrupt in 19th century while trying for industrialization.
Due to this the Governor of Egypt had to sell his shareholding in the company that managed Suez Canal, to the
British. Thus since 1875, control of canal was with France and Britain. Consequently Egypt was colonized by
Britain. It gained independence in 1922 but British troops remained to maintain control over the canal. The
British continued to meddle in the internal affair of Egypt.
•Foreign control of Suez Canal was resented by the nationalist Egyptian Army.
•Suez War 1956: Colonel Nasser persisted with the demand that the British should evacuate Suez Canal. In
1956, Britain, France and Israel attacked Egypt.

The reasons
were

1) Colonel Nasser’s anti-West policies and his pro-Palestine stance against Israel.
2) Colonel Nasser had organized Fidayeensto carry out murders and bombings in Israel.
3) Egypt had also blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba to prevent the western ships going to Eilat port. Eilat port was
under Israel occupation after the 1948 war.
4) Further, Nasser refused the renewal of the 1936 British-Egypt Treaty that allowed British troops in Suez Canal
zone.
5) Nasser had also helped the Algerian Arabs in their struggle for independence against the French.
6) He prodded the Arab nations to resist the Baghdad pact led by the British. Baghdad Pact was aimed at
maintaining the British influence in Northern Africa and the Middle East.
7) The Cold War:
a) Colonel Nasser further antagonized the British by signing a defence deal with Czechoslovakia in 1955.
This agreement provided for arms supply and training of the troops of Egyptian army.
b) Cancellation of US grant for Aswan dam (1956): USA saw the bonhomie between Russia and Egypt as
part of the Cold War and it feared Russian entry into the oil-rich region of Middle East. As a result of this
communist phobia, USA cancelled the grant it had promised to Egypt for building of Aswan dam.
8) Nationalization of Suez Canal: Conditions of economic stress and given the importance of Aswan dam to
Egypt, the cancellation of the grant by USA prompted Colonel Nasser to Nationalize the Suez Canal. Colonel
Nasser wanted to use the income from the Suez Canal to fund the construction of the dam.

1.In return for the nationalization of Suez Canal, Colonel Nasser promised adequate
compensation to the shareholders. He also promised the use of Suez Canal by all nations
except Israel.
2.Thus the aim of Nasser’s policies was not of hurting the trade regime of the British but
securing his country’s independence from the Neocolonialismand exercising the
sovereign right of Egypt to manage its resources and infrastructure which included the
Suez Canal.
3.But the main concern of the British and French was to maintain their influence in
neighboringstates and ensure the continued benefits out of Neo-colonialism. They
feared the Arab unity which was taking shape since the creation of Israel. There existed
an apprehension among the Western powers that Egypt desired creation of a United
Arabia under Egyptian control which might be pro-USSR. Such Arab unity was against the
economic interests of the West since Middle East and North Africa were the main sources
of oil and if the Arabs decided to use Oil as a leverage then they would come under the
domination of the Arab countries.

The result of the 1956
Suez war

End of British influence
•Britain was weak post World War II. It expected a quick victory but
the Egyptian Army fought with valour and persistence draining the
British of their strength. The Suez War marked the end of British
influence in Egypt and from now on Britain was heavily dependent
on USA in the domain of foreign policy.

Positives for Israel
•It captured the Sinai
peninsula of Egypt and used
it as a leverage in the peace
talks and there was
temporary cessation of the
Fidayeenattacks on its
territory.

The result of the 1956 Suez war
•Ceasefire: USA and the Soviet union mediated a ceasefire by working along with the United Nations. Israel
returned Sinai peninsula to Egypt.
•Suez and Oil supply: British and the French failed to achieve their war aims. Egypt blocked the Suez Canal till
1957 and the Arab states decreased oil supply to the European countries.
•Russian influence: There was an increase in the Russian influence in the region as the US aid was replaced
by the Russian aid. Also, British lost an ally in form of Iraq.
•Iraqi Revolution (1958): Encouraged by defeat of the British and French, the nationalists in Iraq murdered the
pro-British King Faisal and PM Said in 1958.
•Algerian freedom struggle: The defeat of France in Suez War gave a morale boost to the nationalists fighting
for independence which was achieved in 1962. Nasser helped Algerians.
•Arab Unity under Nasser: The year of 1956, thus marked emergence of a new face of Arab Unity in form of
Colonel Gamal Abdel Nasser. He now emerged as the tall leader of the Arab world who had the wherewithal
to stand up to the Western domination. Nasser helped the Algerians further in their independence struggle
which was finally won in 1962. India supported the anti-neocolonialismstruggle of Egypt and Indian Prime
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru shared good rapport with Colonel Nasser. Both of them along with leaders like
Nkrumah of Ghana, Tito of Yugoslavia & Sukarno of Indonesia were the founding members of the Non Aligned
Movement in 1961.

Six Day War (1967): Syria, Iraq, Jordan, Egypt, Lebanon
and Algeria (independent since 1962) ordered troop
mobilization but this was slow and gave early warning
and time to Israel which launched preemptive strikes
and destroyed the Egyptian air crafts.

Result
1) Israel: The battle failed to achieve a military solution to the problem of Palestine. Israel
captured
a)Sinai Peninsula of Egypt. Golan Heights of Syria.
b)In Palestine: Whole of Jerusalem and West Bank from Jordan; and Gaza Strip, earlier with
Palestinians.
c) This time Israel rejected UN resolution asking return of captured territory. It desired to
ensure that Sinai and Golan Heights act as a buffer zones
2) Militarization of the region by Russia: Russia started supplying modern arms to Egypt and
Syria (the reason for present strength of Syria against the rebels).
3) Suez Blockade: Egypt began a blockade of Suez Canal (remained till 1975).

Yom Kippur War or October War (1973)
Boosted by the military arsenal from Russia,
Egypt and Syria attacked Israel. Yom Kippur
is a Jewish festival and Egypt and Syria
wanted to catch the Israelis off-guard.

Why?
1.To retrieve Sinai and Golan Heights from Israel.
2.Egypt wanted to force a negotiation on Palestine. President Anwar Sadat of
Egypt (in power since death of Nasser in 1970) was convinced that there cannot
be a military solution to the Israel-Palestinian dispute. Thus he desired a
negotiated peace but the USA had refused to take the lead. With the war, Egypt
wanted to force USA to act as a mediator.
3.Also PLO (Palestinian Liberation organization) was pushing Arab states for further
action. PLO’s extreme faction blew off an airplane over Jordan in 1970 and killed
Israeli sportsmen in Munich Olympic (1972)

Result
a) Oil Crisis (1973): During the Yom Kippur war, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) decreased oil supply. It resulted in inflation in the importing nations and
there were oil shortages. OPEC wanted to pressurize the USA and European countries, who
were supporting Israel, into submission. Some argue that OPEC was genuinely concerned
towards preservation of the scarce resource.
b) USA and USSR intervened through the UN and ceasefire was achieved.
c) Suez Canal: Israel withdrew troops from Suez Canal and Egypt agreed to open the Canal in
1975 (closed since 1967 war). But Israeli ships were still not allowed to use it.
d) Israel retained all territory captured in 1967 war (Sinai, Golan Heights, West Bank, Gaza,
whole of Jerusalem)
e) Success for Sadat: Egypt celebrates October 6 yearly as October War led to 1979 Camp
David Accords which led to withdrawal of Israeli troops from Sinai. Sinai after 1979 was to be
demilitarized with US satellites monitoring the peninsula.

Camp David Accords (1979) or 1979 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty
In 1979, under the mediator role of USA President Carter, Egypt and Israel signed a landmark
peace agreement, famously known as the Camp David Accords.
Under the Camp David Accords,
1) Israeli troops were withdrawn from Sinai and it was to be demilitarized with US satellites
monitoring the peninsula. Only limited troops from Egypt were allowed. Presently, there is a
UN force in Sinai.
2) Egypt guaranteed oil supply to Israel from newly discovered oil fields in Sinai peninsula.
3) Ended the state of war between Israel and Egypt (in operation since 1948). Egypt promised
to not attack Israel again.
4) Egypt allowed the Israeli ships to use Suez Canal. But this bonhomie between Israel and
Egypt was not accepted in principle by many Arabs and President Sadat was executed in 1981
during a public event.

Present Status

Present Status
•Illegal Settlements: Israel boosted construction of Israeli settlements in legally
Palestinian lands (West Bank, East Jerusalem, Gaza). Palestinians continued to
protest in the refugee camps in West Bank and Gaza.
•In 1980s, Israel declared that it wont ever give back Golan Heights to Syria &
never allow West Bank to be part of Palestine.
•What is pre-1967 position frequently desired by Palestinians and opposed by
Israel ?
a)Palestine = West Bank, Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem.
b)Israel = West Jerusalem, Rest of Israel, minus Golan Heights which was then
with Syria).

Present Status
Oslo Accords 1993 between Israel and PLO
a)Recognition of PLO by Israel. Also PLO recognized Israel’s right to exist.
b)PLO promised to give up terrorism.
c)Palestinian Authority was established.
d)Israel gave limited self rule to Palestinians (under PA) in parts of West Bank and of Gaza strip (not all of Gaza and West
Bank). The Jewish settlers and extreme faction within PLO opposed. The latter wanted complete independence.
2nd Oslo Accords 1995 :
a)A permanent solution was to be achieved by 1999.
b)Israel would withdraw from West Bank and Gaza. This was not done because Hamas terror campaign in 1996.
c)A Palestinian Legislative Council (agreed for during 1993) directly elected by all adult Arabs was to rule the vacated
area (parts of Gaza and West Bank). Elections were held in 1996 and Yasser Arafat became Palestine’s President.
d)Consequence:
1.Israeli extremists opposed & Israel’s PM was executed in 1995.
2.Hamas (Sunni organization) began terror campaign.
3.Hezbollah (Shia organization in South Lebanon) shelled North Israel.
4.Netanyahu a right wing leader came to power in 1996.

•2005-Israel unilateral pull out from area under its control in Gaza strip and handed over
control to Palestinian Authority
•Aim was to separate Palestinians of Gaza Strip from Jews.
•Result was that Hamas took control & replaced PA . It has used Gaza to launch rocket
attacks on Israel.
•2007 Blockade of Gaza by Israel to prevent movement of goods in and out of Gaza. Turkey
condemned Israel for firing at a flotilla carrying goods to Gaza. Impact of blockade was
illegal trade with Egypt with goods being sold at exorbitant prices hurting poor Palestinians.
•2012 Palestine from “Non-member Observer Entity” to “Non-member Observer State”:
India co-sponsored & supported the resolution on enhancing Palestine’s status from ‘Non-
Member Observer Entity’ to ‘Non-Member Observer State’ in UNGA. Palestine with new
status would have access to UN agencies & also potentially the ICC. It would be able to
participate in the UNGA debates. It is a global recognition to the relevant territory as a
sovereign state of Palestine. In sum, this is an important move towards Palestinian
statehood, which 132 countries have already recognised.

•Recent Developments:
•Al-Aqsa Mosque & Sheikh Jarrah:
•In May 2021,Israeli armed forces attacked Al-Aqsa Mosquein theHaram esh-Sharif in
Jerusalem,ahead of a march byZionist nationalistscommemorating Israel’s capture of the eastern
half of the city in 1967.
•The threatenedeviction of dozens of Palestinian families in the East Jerusalem neighborhoodof
Sheikh Jarrah escalated the crisis further.
•West Bank Settlement:
•Israel's Supreme Court has rejected a petitionagainst the eviction of more than 1,000 Palestinian
inhabitantsof a rural part of the occupiedWest Bank in an area which Israel has designated for
military exercises.
•The judgment paved the way for thedemolition of eight small villagesin a rocky, arid area near
Hebron known toPalestinians as MasaferYattaand toIsraelis as the South Hebron Hills.
•India’s Stand on the Crisis:
•India in the recent years has beenfollowing a dehyphenation policy between Israel and Palestine.
•India’s policy on the longest running conflict in the worldhas gone from being unequivocally pro-
Palestinefor the first four decades, to atense balancing act with its three-decade-old friendly ties
with Israel.
•In 2017, in an unprecedented move,India’s PM visited only Israeland not Palestine.
•Then, the recent visit of thePrime Minister to Palestine (2018), Oman and the UAEis again a
continuation of similar policy.

THANK
YOU

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