Educ 1 Learning Module COMPLETED.pdf

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1. LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Educ 1: The Child & Adolescent Learners & the Learning Principles 1


August 2020 Edition
Princes Grace A. Retita, MGC, LPT



LEARNING MODULE
in
Educ 1 -
The Child and Adolescent Learners
and Learning Principles











Prepared by:

PRINCES GRACE A. RETITA
Instructor 1
College of Teacher Education
First Semester, A.Y. 2020 – 2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Cover page 1
All about the Course 3
Module #1 - BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Topic 1.1- Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP) 4
Topic 1.2 - Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches 19
Topic 1.3- The Stages of Development and Development Tasks 31
Topic 1.4- Issues on Human Development 44
Module #2 - DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ON CHILD AND ADOLESCENT
DEVELOPMENT
Topic 2.1- Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Development 54
Topic 2.2- Piaget’s Stages Of Cognitive Development 64
Topic 2.3- Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory 78
Topic 2.4- Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development 87
Topic 2.5- Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development 96
Topic 2.6- Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory 105
Module #3 - DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS STAGES
Topic 3.1- Prenatal Period 112
Topic 3.2- Infancy and Toddlerhood 119
Topic 3.3- Early Childhood (The Preschooler) 131
Topic 3.4- Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler) 141
Topic 3.5- Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler) 147
Topic 3.6- Adolescence (The High School Learners) 154
Module #4 - LEARNING THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
Topic 4.1- Nature of Learning 161
Topic 4.2- Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory (Laws of Learning) 169
Topic 4.3- Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning) 178
Topic 4.4- Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning) 185
Appendix
Certificate of Utilization

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Course Code : Educ 1
Course Descriptive Title : THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
Course Credit : 3 units


Course Description:
This course focuses on child and adolescent development with emphasis on
current research and theory on biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional
dimensions of the development. Further, this includes factors that affects the progress
of development of the learners and shall include appropriate pedagogical principles
applicable for each developmental level.

Course Topic Outline:
Module 1- Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development (4 Topics)
Module 2- Developmental Theories on Child and Adolescent Development
(6 Topics)
Midterm Exam
Module 3- Development of Learners at Various Stages (6 Topics)
Module 4- Learning Theories and Principles (4 topics)
Final Exam


Submission of Outputs for the Learning Module:

NOTE: Outputs maybe written in or sent to the following modes:
Face-to-Face Session Online Mode
1. Spaces provided in the Module.
2. Printed form or handwritten form in
a short-sized bondpaper.
1. [email protected]
2. [email protected] (Google Classroom)
3. FB messenger – Pringle Freud (PRinsesa GRacia)

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MODULE # 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 1.1 : Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
TIME FRAME : 3 hours

INTRODUCTION:
The learner is the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around the
learner. This module introduces you to the fourteen (14) learner-centered principles which
shall be used throughout this course as a guide in determining appropriate pedagogy for
learners at different life stages.
Advance Organizer











OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Classify the 14-learner centered principles in significance to the teaching-
learning process; and
2. Adhere the 14-learner centered principles as keys to understanding
teaching process.
3. Generate ways on how to apply the 14 principles in instruction as a future
teacher based on the researched studies.

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PRE-TEST:
Do this activity before you read about the Learner- Centered Principles.
1. Examine the title, “Learner-Centered Principles”. Quickly jot down at least 10
words that come to your mind.
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2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word can be
associated with LCP.
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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the
American Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain
to the learner and the learning process. They focus on psychological factors that are
primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits
or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external
environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors.
The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of
real-world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of
principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into
those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (2) motivational and affective,
(3) developmental and social, and (4) individual difference factors influencing
learners and learning. Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners -- from

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children, to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to community members
involved in our educational system.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
1. Nature of the learning process.
The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
There are different types of learning processes, for example, habit formation in
motor learning; and learning that involves the generation of knowledge, or cognitive
skills and learning strategies. Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional
processes that students can use to construct meaning from information, experiences,
and their own thoughts and beliefs. Successful learners are active, goal-directed, self-
regulating, and assume personal responsibility for contributing to their own learning.
The principles set forth in this document focus on this type of learning.
2. Goals of the learning process.
The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
The strategic nature of learning requires students to be goal directed. To
construct useful representations of knowledge and to acquire the thinking and learning
strategies necessary for continued learning success across the life span, students
must generate and pursue personally relevant goals. Initially, students' short-term
goals and learning may be sketchy in an area, but over time their understanding can
be refined by filling gaps, resolving inconsistencies, and deepening their
understanding of the subject matter so that they can reach longer-term goals.
Educators can assist learners in creating meaningful learning goals that are consistent
with both personal and educational aspirations and interests.
3. Construction of knowledge.
The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge
in meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between
new information and experiences and their existing knowledge base. The nature of
these links can take a variety of forms, such as adding to, modifying, or reorganizing
existing knowledge or skills. How these links are made or develop may vary in different
subject areas, and among students with varying talents, interests, and abilities.
However, unless new knowledge becomes integrated with the learner's prior
knowledge and understanding, this new knowledge remains isolated, cannot be used
most effectively in new tasks, and does not transfer readily to new situations.

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Educators can assist learners in acquiring and integrating knowledge by a number of
strategies that have been shown to be effective with learners of varying abilities, such
as concept mapping and thematic organization or categorizing.
4. Strategic thinking.
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use strategic thinking in their approach to learning,
reasoning, problem solving, and concept learning. They understand and can use a
variety of strategies to help them reach learning and performance goals, and to apply
their knowledge in novel situations. They also continue to expand their repertoire of
strategies by reflecting on the methods they use to see which work well for them, by
receiving guided instruction and feedback, and by observing or interacting with
appropriate models. Learning outcomes can be enhanced if educators assist learners
in developing, applying, and assessing their strategic learning skills.
5. Thinking about thinking.
Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations
facilitate creative and critical thinking.
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performance goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies or
methods, and monitor their progress toward these goals. In addition, successful
learners know what to do if a problem occurs or if they are not making sufficient or
timely progress toward a goal. They can generate alternative methods to reach their
goal (or reassess the appropriateness and utility of the goal). Instructional methods
that focus on helping learners develop these higher order (metacognitive) strategies
can enhance student learning and personal responsibility for learning.
6. Context of learning.
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture,
technology, and instructional practices.
Learning does not occur in a vacuum. Teachers a major interactive role with
both the learner and the learning environment. Cultural or group influences on
students can impact many educationally relevant variables, such as motivation,
orientation toward learning, and ways of thinking. Technologies and instructional
practices must be appropriate for learners' level of prior knowledge, cognitive abilities,
and their learning and thinking strategies. The classroom environment, particularly the
degree to which it is nurturing or not, can also have significant impacts on student
learning.

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Activity 1: How will you do it, Teacher?
Now that you have classified the six (6) Cognitive and Metacognitive factors, if
you are to apply it in a classroom in the future, how are you going to contextualized or
what activities are you going to conduct every principle? Use the spaces provided for
your answer. (Content-5; Organization of Ideas – 3; Grammar – 2 *rating applicable for every item)
1. Nature of the learning process –










2.

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3.









4.







5.

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6.






Motivational and Affective Factors
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.
What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation. Motivation
to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs,
interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
The rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectations for success
or failure can enhance or interfere the learner's quality of thinking and information
processing. Students' beliefs about themselves as learners and the nature of learning
have a marked influence on motivation. Motivational and emotional factors also
influence both the quality of thinking and information processing as well as an
individual's motivation to learn. Positive emotions, such as curiosity, generally
enhance motivation and facilitate learning and performance. Mild anxiety can also
enhance learning and performance by focusing the learner's attention on a particular
task. However, intense negative emotions (e.g., anxiety, panic, rage, insecurity) and
related thoughts (e.g., worrying about competence, ruminating about failure, fearing
punishment, ridicule, or stigmatizing labels) generally detract from motivation, interfere
with learning, and contribute to low performance.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.
The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of
optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for
personal choice and control.
Curiosity, flexible and insightful thinking, and creativity are major indicators of
the learners' intrinsic motivation to learn, which is in large part a function of meeting
basic needs to be competent and to exercise personal control. Intrinsic motivation is
facilitated on tasks that learners perceive as interesting and personally relevant and
meaningful, appropriate in complexity and difficulty to the learners' abilities, and on
which they believe they can succeed. Intrinsic motivation is also facilitated on tasks

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that are comparable to real-world situations and meet needs for choice and control.
Educators can encourage and support learners' natural curiosity and motivation to
learn by attending to individual differences in learners' perceptions of optimal novelty
and difficulty, relevance, and personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort.
Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner
effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness
to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner energy
and strategic effort, along with persistence over time. Educators need to be concerned
with facilitating motivation by strategies that enhance learner effort and commitment
to learning and to achieving high standards of comprehension and understanding.
Effective strategies include purposeful learning activities, guided by practices that
enhance positive emotions and intrinsic motivation to learn, and methods that increase
learners' perceptions that a task is interesting and personally relevant.
Activity 2: How will you do it, Teacher?
Now that you have classified the three (3) Motivational and Affective factors, if
you are to apply it in a classroom in the future, how are you going to contextualized or
what activities are you going to conduct every principle? Use the spaces provided for
your answer. (Content-5; Organization of Ideas – 3; Grammar – 2 *rating applicable for every item)
1. Motivational and emotional influence on learning –

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2.








3.








Developmental and Social Factors
10. Developmental influences on learning.
As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and constraints
for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and
across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into
account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level
and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way. Because individual development
varies across intellectual, social, emotional, and physical domains, achievement in
different instructional domains may also vary. Overemphasis on one type of
developmental readiness--such as reading readiness, for example--may preclude
learners from demonstrating that they are more capable in other areas of performance.

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The cognitive, emotional, and social development of individual learners and how they
interpret life experiences are affected by prior schooling, home, culture, and
community factors. Early and continuing parental involvement in schooling, and the
quality of language interactions and two-way communications between adults and
children can influence these developmental areas. Awareness and understanding of
developmental differences among children with and without emotional, physical, or
intellectual disabilities, can facilitate the creation of optimal learning contexts.
11. Social influences on learning.
Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and
communication with others.
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and
to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Learning settings that allow for social
interactions, and that respect diversity, encourage flexible thinking and social
competence. In interactive and collaborative instructional contexts, individuals have
an opportunity for perspective taking and reflective thinking that may lead to higher
levels of cognitive, social, and moral development, as well as self-esteem. Quality
personal relationships that provide stability, trust, and caring can increase learners'
sense of belonging, self-respect and self-acceptance, and provide a positive climate
for learning. Family influences, positive interpersonal support and instruction in self-
motivation strategies can offset factors that interfere with optimal learning such as
negative beliefs about competence in a particular subject, high levels of test anxiety,
negative sex role expectations, and undue pressure to perform well. Positive learning
climates can also help to establish the context for healthier levels of thinking, feeling,
and behaving. Such contexts help learners feel safe to share ideas, actively participate
in the learning process, and create a learning community.
Activity 3. How will you do it, Teacher?
Now that you have classified the two (2) Developmental and Social factors, if
you are to apply it in a classroom in the future, how are you going to contextualized or
what activities are you going to conduct every principle? Use the spaces provided for
your answer. (Content-5; Organization of Ideas – 3; Grammar – 2 *rating applicable for every item)
1. Developmental influence on learning –

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2.










Individual Differences Factors
12. Individual differences in learning.
Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents. In
addition, through learning and social acculturation, they have acquired their own
preferences for how they like to learn and the pace at which they learn. However,
these preferences are not always useful in helping learners reach their learning goals.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand or
modify them, if necessary. The interaction between learner differences and curricular
and environmental conditions is another key factor affecting learning outcomes.
Educators need to be sensitive to individual differences, in general. They also need to
attend to learner perceptions of the degree to which these differences are accepted
and adapted to by varying instructional methods and materials.

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13. Learning and diversity.
Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic,
cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
The same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction
apply to all learners. However, language, ethnicity, race, beliefs, and socioeconomic
status all can influence learning. Careful attention to these factors in the instructional
setting enhances the possibilities for designing and implementing appropriate learning
environments. When learners perceive that their individual differences in abilities,
backgrounds, cultures, and experiences are valued, respected, and accommodated in
learning tasks and contexts, levels of motivation and achievement are enhanced.
14. Standards and assessment.
Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
learner as well as learning progress -- including diagnostic, process, and
outcome assessment -- are integral parts of the learning process.
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at
all stages of the learning process. Effective learning takes place when learners feel
challenged to work towards appropriately high goals; therefore, appraisal of the
learner's cognitive strengths and weaknesses, as well as current knowledge and skills,
is important for the selection of instructional materials of an optimal degree of difficulty.
Ongoing assessment of the learner's understanding of the curricular material can
provide valuable feedback to both learners and teachers about progress toward the
learning goals. Standardized assessment of learner progress and outcomes
assessment provides one type of information about achievement levels both within
and across individuals that can inform various types of programmatic decisions.
Performance assessments can provide other sources of information about the
attainment of learning outcomes. Self-assessments of learning progress can also
improve students’ self-appraisal skills and enhance motivation and self-directed
learning.
Application:
The application of the 14 principles will be done as you explore the succeeding
topics. For now, keep the 14 principles in mind s you explore the rest of the module.
Always try to relate these principles to the concepts you will learn. Happy learning!

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Princes Grace A. Retita, MGC, LPT
Activity 4. How will you do it, Teacher?
Now that you have classified the two (2) Developmental and Social factors, if
you are to apply it in a classroom in the future, how are you going to contextualized or
what activities are you going to conduct every principle? Use the spaces provided for
your answer. (Content-5; Organization of Ideas – 3; Grammar – 2 *rating applicable for every item)
1. Individual differences in learning –








2.









3.

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SELF-EVALUATION:
Rubrics for rating: (Content – 5; Organization of Ideas – 3, Grammar – 2)
State your learning in a paragraph form. From the topic on Learner-Centered
Psychological Principles, I realized that… (Use the space provided below for your answer.)
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REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
The 14 LCP are intended to deal holistically with learners in context of real –
world learning situations. They are best understood as an organized set of principles;
no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those
referring to cognitive and metacognitive, motivational and affective, developmental
and social, and individual difference factors influencing learners and learning. Finally,
the principles are intended to apply to all learners -- from children, to teachers, to
administrators, to parents, and to community members involved in our educational
system. These principles emphasize the active and reflective nature of learning and
learners.

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POST-TEST:
Name: ______________________ C/Yr.: ___________ Date: _________
Identify the following principles corresponding on each statement. Just place the
Principle number and its name. Write your answer in the space provided.
_______________ 1. Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology, and instructional practices.
_______________ 2. Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations, and communication with others.
_______________ 3. The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it
is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information
and experience.
_______________ 4. Learning is most effective when differences in learners'
linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account.
_______________ 5. The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation
is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to
personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
_______________ 6. The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning
goals.
_______________ 7. As individuals develop, there are different opportunities and
constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
social domains is taken into account.
_______________ 8. Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.
_______________ 9. What and how much is learned is influenced by the motivation.
Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's
emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of
thinking.
_______________ 10. Learners have different strategies, approaches, and
capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and
heredity.
REFERENCES:
 The learner- centered psychological principles. Retrieved at
https://www.apa.org/ed/governance/bea/learner-centered.pdf on June 22,
2020.
 Learner- centered psychological principles: A framework for school reform
and design. Retrieved at
https://www.sas.upenn.edu/~kimg/mcephome/educ636/lcp.html on June 22,
2020.
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 1.2 : Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches
TIME FRAME : 3 hours

INTRODUCTION:



Why are we the way we are? It’s one of the oldest questions in human
existence. After all, human beings are nothing more than 46 chromosomes, their
genetic instructions duplicated across trillions of cells. Despite the fact that 99.9% of
our DNA is identical, all 7.5 billion people on Earth are unique. We have different
personalities, wants, needs, and likes. How is that possible?
A number of researches on human development have been conducted. A lot
of theories on human development have been forwarded. Researches on human
development continue as existing theories get corrected, complemented or replaced.
Up to the present several issues on human development are unresolved and so the
search for explanations continue.
In this lesson, you will be acquainted with human development as a process,
the developmental tasks that come along with each development stage and relevant
issues that are raised about human development.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Derive the meaning of human development in your own words.
2. Relate developmental changes of learners in light to its educational
implications
3. Distinguish between the traditional and life-span approach of development.





“Measuring human growth and development is not like measuring the reproduction of a
single model on an assembly line. It is a complex system of helping to figure out where a
student is, and how to help them get where they are going.”
- Robert John Meehan

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PRE-TEST:
In 20 to 25 words, write your understanding about human development. Write
your answer on the space provided. (Criteria for Rating: Content – 5; Organization of Idea
– 3; Mechanics (20 to 25 words) – 2)
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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Activity 1: Let’s Develop!

As you read this topic and do the activity, you are undergoing the process
of development. How does this development take place? What do experts say about
development? These are the concerns of this module. For your answers, you may
write it on the space provided every item.
1. Here are the pictures of a seven-year-old Joseph and five-year-old Anna.
Each one is a bundle of possibilities. Describe what they were before
birth (their point of origin) and who they will possibly after birth unto
adulthood. What will they possibly become? Expound your answers.








___________________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________________
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2. When you gave your own predictions as to the of child, adolescent and
adult Joseph and Anna may become and hypothesized on who they
once were, you were referring to human development. What then is
development? Translate the meaning of development in your Mother
Tongue.
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3. Will five-year-old Anna be able to do all that seven-year-old Joseph can
do? Why or why not?
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4. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development of Joseph
and Anna? If yes, what?

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___________________________________________________________________
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5. Will there be difference in their development, e.g. pace or rate of
development? What and why?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________
6. Will the process of development take place very fast or gradually?
Elaborate your answer.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________
7. Do you believe that Joseph and Anna will continue to develop even in
adulthood? Or will they stop developing in adulthood?
_____________________________________________ ______________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________

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What is Human Development?
• It is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the
lifespan.
• This change can be growth or decline/decay.
• GROWTH – refers to positive changes that lead to maturity, that is,
increase in the physical aspects of body’s structures and improvement
of their functions.
• DECLINE/ DECAY – refers to negative changes that lead to deterioration
and degeneration.

• Why there’s a need for development? Because we aim for MATURITY.
• Maturity is characterized by the completion of structural changes and
attainment of the capacity to function physically and mentally in a
manner characteristic to a normal adult.
Two Approaches to Human Development





If you believe that Joseph and Anna will show extensive change from
birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late old age, your
approach to development is traditional. In contrast, if you believe that even in
adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during childhood, your
approach is termed life-span approach.
What are the characteristics of human development from a life-span
perspective? Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives
the following characteristics:
1. Development is lifelong.
It does not end in adulthood. Joseph and Anna will continue
developing even in adulthood. It means that development is not completed
in infancy or childhood or at any specific age; it encompasses the entire
lifespan, from conception to death.
2. Development is plastic.
Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development s possible
throughout the lifespan. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as

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“I am too old for that …” Neither Joseph nor Anna will be too old to learn
something.
Plasticity denotes intrapersonal variability and focuses heavily on the
potentials and limits of the nature of human development. The notion of
plasticity emphasizes that there are many possible developmental
outcomes and that the nature of human development is much more open
and pluralistic than originally implied by traditional views; there is no single
pathway that must be taken in an individual’s development across the
lifespan.
3. Development is multidimensional.
Baltes is referring to the fact that a complex interplay of factors
influence development across the lifespan, including biological, cognitive,
and socioemotional changes. Baltes argues that a dynamic interaction of
these factors is what influences an individual’s development. Development
as a process is complex because it is the product of biological,
cognitive and socioemotional processes (Santrock, 2002).
Biological processes involve changes in the individual’s physical
nature. The brains of Joseph and Anna develop. They will gain height and
weight. They will experience hormonal changes when they reach the period
of puberty, and cardiovascular decline as they approach late adulthood. All
these show common biological processes.
a. Development is relatively orderly. Joseph
and Anna will learn to sit, crawl then walk
before they can run. The muscular control of
the trunk and the arms comes earlier as
compared to the hands and fingers. This is the
proximodistal pattern. During infancy the
greatest growth in always occurs at the top –
the head – with physical growth in size, weight
and future differentiation gradually working its
way down from top to bottom (for example,
neck, shoulders, middle trunk and so on). This
is the cephalocaudal pattern. These development patterns are
common to Joseph and Anna.
b. Development takes place gradually. Joseph and Anna won’t
develop into pimply teenagers overnight. It takes years before
they become one. In fact, that’s the way of nature. The bud does
not blossom suddenly. The seed does not germinate overnight.
While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes
weeks, months or years for a person to undergo changes that
result in the display of developmental characteristics.

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Cognitive processes involve changes in the individual’s thought,
intelligence and language. Joseph and Anna develop from mere sounds to
a word becoming two words, the two words becoming a sentence. They
would move on to memorizing their first prayer, singing Lupang Hinirang in
every flag ceremony to imagining what it would be like to be a teacher or a
pilot, playing chess and solving a complex math problem. All these reflect
the role of cognitive processes in development.
Socioemotional processes include changes in the individual’s
relationships with other people, changes in emotions and changes in
personality. As babies, Joseph and Anna responded a sweet smile when
affectionately touched and frowned when displeased and even showed
temper tantrum when they could not get or do what they wanted. From
aggressive children, they may develop into a fine lady and a gentleman or
otherwise, depending on myriad of factors. They may fall in love and get
inspired for life or may end betrayed, deserted and desperate afterwards.
All these reflect the role of socioemotional processes in development.
These biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes are
inextricably intertwined. While these processes are studied are studied
separately, the effect of one process or factor on a person’s development is
not isolated from the other processes. If Joseph and Anna were
undernourished and troubled by the thought of father and mother about to
separate, they could not concentrate on their studies and consequently
would fil and repeat. As a consequence, they may lose face and drop out of
school, revert to illiteracy, become unskilled, unemployed and son on and
so forth. See how a biological process, affects the cognitive process which
in turn, affects the socioemotional process.
4. Development is contextual.
In Baltes’ theory, the paradigm of contextualism refers to the idea
that three systems of biological and environmental influences work together
to influence development. Development occurs in context and varies from
person to person, depending on factors such as a person’s biology, family,
school, church, profession, nationality, and ethnicity. Baltes identified three
types of influences that operate throughout the life course: normative age-
graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative
influences. Baltes wrote that these three influences operate throughout the
life course, their effects accumulate with time, and, as a dynamic package,
they are responsible for how lives develop.
Joseph’s and Anna’s biological make-up, social and cultural
contexts may vary and therefore make them develop differently from each
other.

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5. Development is multidirectional.
Baltes states that the development of a particular domain does not
occur in a strictly linear fashion but that development of certain traits can be
characterized as having the capacity for both an increase and decrease in
efficacy over the course of an individual’s life.
If we use the example of puberty again, we can see that certain
domains may improve or decline in effectiveness during this time. For
example, self-regulation is one domain of puberty which undergoes
profound multidirectional changes during the adolescent period. During
childhood, individuals have difficulty effectively regulating their actions and
impulsive behaviors. Scholars have noted that this lack of effective
regulation often results in children engaging in behaviors without fully
considering the consequences of their actions. Over the course of puberty,
neuronal changes modify this unregulated behavior by increasing the ability
to regulate emotions and impulses. Inversely, the ability for adolescents to
engage in spontaneous activity and creativity, both domains commonly
associated with impulse behavior, decrease over the adolescent period in
response to changes in cognition. Neuronal changes to the limbic system
and prefrontal cortex of the brain, which begin in puberty lead to the
development of self-regulation, and the ability to consider the consequences
of one’s actions (though recent brain research reveals that this connection
will continue to develop into early adulthood).
Multidirectional development is the development happening in the
physical, biological, cognitive, social factors of an individual. In the case of
Joseph and Anna, their puberty, hormonal changes will occur which helps
in the production of gametes responsible for sexual reproduction. Physical,
emotional and mental changes are exhibited from crude to refined state.
When they become as older adults, they have got much experience on
situations, people, society and handle it wisely, however, they could not
have sufficient physical strength to perform the task.
Principles of Child Development And Learning That Inform
Practice
1. All the domains of development and learning are important.
2. Learning and development follow sequences.
3. Development and learning proceed at varying rates.
4. Development and learning result from a interaction of maturation and
experience.
5. Early experiences have profound effects on development and learning.
6. Development proceeds towards greater complexity, self-regulation and
symbolic or representational capacities.

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7. Children develop best when they have secure relationships.
8. Development and learning occur in and are influenced by multiple and cultural
contexts.
9. Children learn in variety ways.
10. Play is an important vehicle for developing self-regulation and promoting
language cognition and social competence.
11. Development and learning advance when children are challenged.
12. Children’s experiences shape their motivation and approaches to learning.

Activity 2: Let’s Imply!
State the five characteristics of human development from a life-span perspective and
their implications child care, educational and parenting.
Characteristics of human
development from a life-span
perspective
Educational Implication to Child Care,
Educational and Parenting
1. Development is lifelong.



2.




3.




4.




5.

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SELF-EVALUATION:
Answer the following items. Write it on the space provided.
1. “Growth is an evidence of life” or “development is an evidence of life”. What
does this mean? What does this imply to a person’s development?






2. Define development on your own understanding.






3. If your approach to human development is traditional, are the characteristics
of human development from a life-span perspective acceptable? Explain
your answer.



4. Interpret the following quotations in relation to human development.
a. “Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some other
men, no other man.” (Murray, H.A. & C. Kluckhohn)

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b. “Man is an unfinished project. He is always in the process of
becoming.”






5. Differences between the traditional and life-span approaches to human
development.








REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 There are two approaches of human development namely traditional and life-
span development
 Based on Paul Baltes’ concepts of life-span development, he named five
important characteristics of development. These are: Lifelong, plastic,
multidimensional, contextual and multidirectional.
 Under the characteristic of multidimensional, it talks about the
interconnectedness of biological, cognitive and socioemotional processes.
It also follows a relatively orderly development and it takes place gradually.

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POST-TEST:
Put a ✔ check before a correct and an ✖ before a wrong one. If you put ✖,
explain why.
_____ 1. Development is a pattern of change.
_____ 2. Development is either growth or decline.
_____ 3. From both traditional and lifespan perspectives development is lifelong.
_____ 4. In the development process, there are things that hold true to all people.
_____ 5. Individuals develop uniformly.
_____ 6. Development is predictable because it follows an orderly process.
_____ 7. Development is unidimensional.
_____ 8. Development takes place in a vacuum.
_____ 9. Development is one directional process.
_____ 10. The effect of biological process in development is isolated from the effect
of cognitive and socioemotional processes.

REFERENCES:
 The lifespan perspective. Retrieve d from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/the-
lifespan-perspective/ on June 24, 2020.
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 1.3 : The Stages of Development and Development Tasks
TIME FRAME : 3 hours

INTRODUCTION:



Have you ever brought home a new puppy and then watched it grow up?
How did your dog change as it got older? You may have watched your dog grow and
develop from a cute and cuddly puppy, to a bit of a troublemaker, to a confident
companion, and finally to a lazy old dog who sleeps all day. Each of these stages has
different physical and emotional characteristics. Just like dogs, humans go through
different developmental stages in their life, as well.
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task.
What happens when the expected developmental tasks re not achieved at the
corresponding developmental stage? How can you help children achieve these
developmental tasks?
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage.
2. Appreciate stages of life through simple recall of life’s milestones.
3. Compare and contrast Santrock’s and Havinghurst’s concepts in
significance to education.








“There is in every child at every stage a new miracle of
vigorous unfolding.”
- Erik Erikson

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PRE-TEST:
Identify what developmental stage are the following:
_________ 1. A stage that includes the development of embryo and a fetus.
_________ 2. It is considered as the period where rapid growth after birth takes
place.
_________ 3. A stage of life characterized our preschool and middle school years.
_________ 4. It is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall
physical growth spurt and sexual maturation.
_________ 5. The late thirties through the mid-sixties of human life.

LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Think about the life span and make a list of what you would consider the
periods of development. How many stages are on your list? Perhaps you have three:
childhood, adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence,
and adulthood. Developmentalists break the life span into nine stages as follows:
 Prenatal Development
 Infancy and Toddlerhood
 Early Childhood
 Late Childhood
 Adolescence
 Early Adulthood
 Middle Adulthood
 Late Adulthood

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Activity 1: Picture Perfect!
In every stage of life presented above, provide a photo of yours (Personal or
maybe if hard to retrieve, put a searched photo taken from a magazine or online) and
associate ONE WORD that symbolizes that particular stage.
Prenatal stage:





PHOTO





One-word description:
Infancy and Toddlerhood stage:





PHOTO





One-word description:

Early Childhood stage:





PHOTO





One-word description:
Late Childhood stage:





PHOTO





One-word description:

Adolescence stage:





PHOTO






One-word description:

Early Adulthood stage:





PHOTO






One-word description:

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Middle Adulthood stage:





PHOTO








One-word description:

Late Adulthood stage:





PHOTO








One-word description:


This list reflects unique aspects of the various stages of childhood and
adulthood that will be explored in this module. So while both an 8 month old and an 8
year old are considered children, they have very different motor abilities, social
relationships, and cognitive skills. Their nutritional needs are different and their primary
psychological concerns are also distinctive. The same is true of an 18 year old and an
80 year old, both considered adults. We will discover the distinctions between being
28 or 48 as well. But first, here is a brief overview of the stages.
1. Prenatal Period (Conception to birth)
Conception occurs and development
begins. All of the major structures of the body are
forming and the health of the mother is of primary
concern. Understanding nutrition, teratogens (or
environmental factors that can lead to birth
defects), and labor and delivery are primary
concerns.
a) Germinal - fertilization to 2 weeks. The
period of zygote.
b) Embryo - 2 weeks to 2 months. The
period of embryo.
c) Fetal - 2 months to birth. The period of fetus.

Prenatal period involves tremendous growth - from a single cell to an
organism complete with brain and behavioral activities. Referring to prenatal
development, Santrock (2002) asked the following questions succinctly:

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“How from so simple a beginning do endless forms develop and grow and
mature? What was this organism, what is it now, and what will it become? Birth’s fragile
moment arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold between two worlds.”
2. Infancy and Toddlerhood (Birth to 2 years)
The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and
change. A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision is transformed
into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers are
also transformed from someone who manages feeding and sleep schedules to a
constantly moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic child.
This stage is a time of extreme dependence on adults. Many psychological
activities are just beginning – language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination
and social learning.
As newborns, we were not empty-headed organisms.
We cried, kicked, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted.
We slept a lot and occasionally we smiled, although the
meaning of our smiles was not entirely clear. We crawled and
then we walked a journey of a thousand miles beginning with
single step. Sometimes we conformed, sometimes others
conformed to us. Our development was a continuous creation
of complex forms and our helpless kind demanded the
meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two halves:
“me and not me.” And we juggled the need to curb our own will with becoming what
we could will freely. (Santrock, 2002)
3. Early Childhood (3 to 5 years old)
Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool
years consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and
precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the
child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self
and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the
workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not
come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have
initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space
and distance such as fearing that they may go down the
drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by
demonstrating how long something will take by holding out
their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s
fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt
for doing something that brings the disapproval of others. This is also considered as “
toy stage” , questioning age and teachable age. Young children learn to become more

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self-sufficient and to care for themselves, develop school readiness, skills and spend
many hours in play with peers.
In early childhood our greatest untold poem was being only four years
old. We skipped, played and ran all day long, ever in our lives so busy, busy becoming
something we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew our thoughts, which worked up
into small mythologies all our own? Our thoughts and images and drawings took wings.
The blossoms of our heart, no wind could touch. Our small world widened as we
discovered new refuges and new people. When we said “I” we meant something totally
unique, not to be confused with any other.” (Santrock, 2002)
4. Late Childhood (6 to 12 years old)
The ages of six through twelve comprise
middle childhood and much of what children
experience at this age is connected to their
involvement in the early grades of school. Now
the world becomes one of learning and testing
new academic skills and by assessing one’s
abilities and accomplishments by making
comparisons between self and others. Schools
compare students and make these comparisons
public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth rates
slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And
children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction
with friends and fellow students. This is also considered as gang stage or troublesome
age. The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic are mastered. The child
is formally exposed to the larger world and its culture. Achievement becomes a more
central theme of the child’s world and self-control increases.
“In late childhood, we were on a different plane, belonging to a generation and
a feeling properly our own. It is the wisdom of human development that at no other we
are more ready to learn than at the end of early childhood’s period of expansive
imagination. Our thirst was to know and to understand. Our parents continued to cradle
our lives but our growth was also being shaped by successive choirs of friends, we did
not think much about the future or the past, but enjoyed the present.” (Excerpt for a
few words, the paragraph is taken from Santrock, 2002).

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5. Adolescence (13 to 18 years old)
Adolescence is a period of dramatic
physical change marked by an overall physical
growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as
puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as
the adolescent begins to think of new
possibilities and to consider abstract concepts
such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically,
adolescents have a sense of invincibility that
puts them at greater risk of dying from
accidents or contracting sexually transmitted
infections that can have lifelong
consequences. This is the transitional stage
from childhood to adulthood. It can be a time of
both disorientation and discovery. Pursuit of independence
and identity are prominent. Thought s more logical,
abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of the
family.

“In no order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We
clothed ourselves with rainbows and went ‘brave as the zodiac’. Flashing from one
end of the world to the other. We tried on one face after another, searching for a face
of our own. We wanted our parents to understand us and hoped they would give up
the privileged of understanding them. We wanted to fly but found that first we had to
learn stand and walk and climb and dance. In our most pimply and awkward moments,
we became acquainted with sex. We played furiously at adult games but were confined
to a society of our own peers. Our generations were the fragile cable by which the best
and the worst of our parents’ generation was transmitted to the present. In the end,
there were two nut lasting bequests our parents could leave us – one being roots, the
other wings. (Santrock, 2002)
6. Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old)
The twenties and thirties are often thought of as
early adulthood. It is a time when we are at our
physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement
in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of
focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into
making choices that will help one earn the status of a
full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are
primary concerns at this stage of life. It is a time of
establishing personal and economic independence,
career development, selecting a mate, learning to live with someone in an intimate
way, starting a family and rearing children.

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Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, sometimes leaving
little time for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society and
committing to a more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask ourselves
who we are and wonder if it isn’t enough just to be. Ur dreams continue and our
thoughts are bold but at some point we become more pragmatic. Sex and love are
powerful passions in our lives – t times angels of light, at other times of torment. And
we possibly never know the love of our parents until we become parents ourselves.
(Santrock, 2002)
7. Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old)
The late thirties through the mid-
sixties is referred to as middle
adulthood. This is a period in which
aging, that began earlier, becomes
more noticeable and a period at which
many people are at their peak of
productivity in love and work. It may be
a period of gaining expertise in certain
fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency
than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life
previously considered; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and
what is likely. It is a time of expanding personal and social involvement and
responsibility; of assisting the next generation in becoming competent and mature
individuals; and of reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For some of us,
middle age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to discover what we are
running from and to and why. We compare our life with what we vowed to make it. In
middle age, more time stretches before us and some evaluations have to be made,
however reluctantly. As the young/old polarity greets us with a special force, we need
to join the daring of youth with the discipline of age in a way that does justice to both.
As middle-aged adults we come to sense that the generations of living things pass in
a short while and like runners hand on the torch of life. (Santrock, 2002)
8. Late Adulthood (61 years and above)
This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in
industrialized countries. Late adulthood is sometimes subdivided into two or three
categories such as the “young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and
“oldest old”. We will follow the former categorization and make the distinction between
the “young old” who are people between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are
80 and older. One of the primary differences between these groups is that the young
old are very similar to midlife adults; still working, still relatively healthy, and still
interested in being productive and active. The “old old” remain productive and active

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and the majority continues to live independently,
but risks of the diseases of old age such as
arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular
disease increases substantially for this age
group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and
extending active life expectancy are only a few of
the topics of concern for this age group. A better
way to appreciate the diversity of people in late
adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and
examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured
above who is in very good health for his age and continues to have an active,
stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the
same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge
and disease than others of the same age).
It is a time for adjustment to decreasing strength and health, life reviews,
retirement and adjustment to new social roles.
“The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their way to
late adulthood when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth and “suddenly it
is evening”. We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by the winds of time down
to the truth. We learn that life is lived forward but understood backward. We trace the
connections between the end and the beginning of life and try to figure out what this
whole show is about before it is over. Ultimately we come to know that we are what
survives of us (Santrock, 2002)”
Developmental Tasks
In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of
every individual. Robert Havinghurst defines developmental task as one that “arises
at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which leads to happiness
and success with later tasks while failure leads to unhappiness, social disapproval
and difficulty with later tasks.” (Havinghurst, 1972)
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight
(8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havinghurst’s six (6)
developmental stages only that Havinghurst did not include prenatal period.
Havinghurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock mentioned them as
two (2) separate stages. These developmental stages are described more in detail in
the box below.
Stage Tasks
1. Infancy and Early childhood (0-5
years old)
1. Learning to walk.
2. Learning to take solid foods.
3. Learning to talk.

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4. Learning to control the elimination of
body wastes.
5. Learning sex differences and sex
modesty.
6. Acquiring concepts and language to
describe social and physical reality.
7. Readiness for reading.
8. Learning to distinguish right from
wrong and developing a conscience.

2. Late Childhood (6-12 years old) 1. Learning physical skills necessary for
ordinary games.
2. Building a wholesome attitude toward
oneself.
3. Learning to get along with agemates.
4. Learning an appropriate sex role.
5. Developing fundamental skills in
reading writing and calculating.
6. Developing concepts necessary for
everyday living.
7. Developing conscience, morality and
a scale of values.
8. Developing acceptable attitudes
toward society.

3. Adolescence (13 to 18 years old) 1. Achieving mature relations with both
sexes
2. Achieving a masculine or feminine
social role.
3. Accepting one’s physique.
4. Achieving emotional independence of
adults
5. Preparing for marriage and family life
6. Preparing for an economic career
7. Acquiring values and an ethical
system to guide behavior
8. Desiring and achieving socially
responsible behavior

4. Early Adulthood (19 to 29 years old) 1. Selecting a mate
2. Learning to live with a partner
3. Starting a family
4. Rearing children
5. Managing a home
6. Starting an occupation
7. Assuming civic responsibility

5. Middle Adulthood (30 to 60 years old) 1. Helping teenage children to become
happy and responsible adults

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2. Achieving adult social and civic
responsibility
Satisfactory career achievement
3. Satisfactory career achievement
4. Developing adult leisure time
activities
5. Adjusting to aging parent

6. Later Maturity (61 years and above) 1. Adjusting to decreasing strength and
health
2. Adjusting to retirement and reduces
income
3. Adjusting to death of spouse
4. Establishing of relations with one’s
own age group
5. Meeting social and civic obligations
6. Establishing satisfactory living
quarters

Source: Robert Havinghurst, Developmental Tasks and Education, 3
rd
ed. New York: David McKay Co.

Activity 2: Development Matters
Answer the following items. Write your answer on the space provided or you
may use extra sheet for this.
1. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?
______________________________________________ _____________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________
2. Match the descriptions given by Santrock. Are Havinghurst and Santrock saying
the same things?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ ________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________
3. What are the implications of these developmental tasks to your role as a teacher
and or parent? Let’s pay particular attention to each of the developmental

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stages – prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood
and adolescence.
a. Prenatal period – what are pregnant others supposed to do to ensure
the birth of a normal an d healthy baby?
__________________________________________________
b. Infancy – what should mothers and baby sitters do and not do to help
infants develop normally and healthily?
____________________________________________________
c. Early Childhood – what are preschool teachers supposed to do with
preschoolers?
________________________________________________________
________________
d. Late childhood – what are elementary school teachers ought to help their
pupils? What are parents ought to help their children?
______________________________________
e. Adolescence – what should high school teachers ought to help their
student? What should parents ought to help their teenage children?
__________________________________
f. Early Adulthood (College) – what should teachers ought to help their
students? What can parents help for their children who are now young
adults? ________________________
g. Middle Adulthood – what should adults do to obtain satisfaction in their
career? What should schools teach for students to be prepared for
middle adulthood?
________________________________________________________
________________
h. Late Adulthood - In their retirement, adults should
______________________________
How should children relate to their parents in their late
adulthood stage? What should teachers teach to students
on how they should treat and relate to parent,
grandparents in their late adulthood? _______________

SELF-EVALUATION:
Discuss the meaning of the quotation by Erik Erikson from the INTRODUCTION of
this lesson.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________ ____
____________

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REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 There are 8 human development stages narrowed down by Santrock. These
are prenatal period, infancy and toddlerhood, early childhood, late childhood,
adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and late adulthood.
 There are only 6 stages given by Havinghurst equipped with corresponding
developmental tasks. There are Infancy and early childhood, late childhood,
adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood and later maturity.

POST-TEST
Put a check ✔ beside those statements that are correct and an ✖ beside those
that are wrong. If your answer is an ✖, explain why.
______ 1. Developmental tasks are only for the first 3 stages of human development.
______ 2. Failure of achieving developmental tasks in an earlier stage also means
failure for the learner to master the developmental task in the next stage.
______ 3. Preschool age corresponds to early childhood stage.
______ 4. Adolescence is middle and late childhood stage.
______ 5. Teenage is middle childhood.
______ 6. Mastery of fundamental skills is a major concern during early childhood.
______ 7. Play is a great need of children in middle childhood.
______ 8. Preparing children for school readiness is the major concern of middle
childhood.
______ 9. Infancy is the stage of questioning age.
______ 10. Achievement is the critical task in an adolescent’s life.


REFERENCES:
 Periods of development. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
lifespandevelopment2/chapter/periods-of-development/ on June 25, 2020.
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 1 : BASIC CONCEPTS AND ISSUES ON HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 1.4 : Issues on Human Development
TIME FRAME : 3 hours

INTRODUCTION:



Each of us has his/ her own informal way of looking at our own and other
people’s development. These paradigms of human development while obviously
lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework for understanding
ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their own models of human
development. Back up by solid research, they take stand on issues on human
development.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain every issue of development with regards to human development.
2. Justify every issue on development as to how it affects the learner’s behavior.
3. Advocate your stand about human development in light to its processes.

PRE-TEST:
Give your understanding about the following terms:
1. Nature -
2. Nurture -
3. Continuity -
4. Discontinuity -
5. Stability -
6. Change -



“The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that
to ask which is more important, nature or nurture, is like asking
which is more important to a rectangle, height or width.”
- William Greenough

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LEARNING ACTIVITY
Off to Harvard at age 16, Kaczynski was a loner
during his college years. One of his roommates at Harvard
said that he avoided people by quickly shuffling by them and
slamming the door behind him. After obtaining his Ph.D. in
mathematics at the University of Michigan, Kaczynski
became a professor at the University of California at
Berkeley. His colleagues there remember him as hiding
from social circumstances—no friends, no allies, no
networking. After several years at Berkeley, Kaczynski
resigned and moved to a rural area of Montana, where he
lived as a hermit in a crude shack for 25 years. Town
residents described him as a bearded eccentric. Kaczynski
traced his own difficulties to growing up as a genius in a
kid’s body and sticking out like a sore thumb in his
surroundings as a child. In 1996, he was arrested and
charged as the notorious Unabomber, America’s most wanted killer. Over the course
of 17 years, Kaczynski had sent 16 mail bombs that left 23 people wounded or
maimed, and 3 people dead. In 1998, he pleaded guilty to the offenses and was
sentenced to life in prison.
A decade before Kaczynski mailed his first
bomb, Alice Walker spent her days battling racism in
Mississippi. She had recently won her first writing
fellowship, but rather than use the money to follow
her dream of moving to Senegal, Africa, she put
herself into the heart and heat of the civil rights
movement. Walker had grown up knowing the brutal
effects of poverty and racism. Born in 1944, she was
the eighth child of Georgia sharecroppers who
earned $300 a year. When Walker was 8, her
brother accidentally shot her in the left eye with a BB
gun. Since her parents had no car, it took them a
week to get her to a hospital. By the time she
received medical care, she was blind in that eye, and
it had developed a disfiguring layer of scar tissue.
Despite the counts against her, Walker overcame
pain and anger and went on to win a Pulitzer Prize
for her book The Color Purple. She became not only a novelist but also an essayist, a
poet, a short-story writer, and a social activist.

What leads one individual, so full of promise, to commit brutal acts of
violence and another to turn poverty and trauma into a rich literary harvest? If
you have ever wondered why people turn out the way they do, you have asked
yourself the central question we will explore in this lesson.

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Was Ted Kaczynski born a killer, or did his life turn him into one? Kaczynski
himself thought that his childhood was the root of his troubles. He grew up as a genius
in a boy’s body and never fit in with other children. Did his early experiences determine
his later life? Is your own journey through life marked out ahead of time, or can your
experiences change your path? Are experiences that occur early in your journey more
important than later ones? Is your journey like taking an elevator up a skyscraper with
distinct stops along the way, or more like a cruise down a river with smoother ebbs
and flows? These questions point to three issues about the nature of development:
the roles played by nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity and early and
late experience.

1. Nature and Nurture

The nature-nurture issue involves the debate about whether development is
primarily influenced by nature or by nurture (Goodnow, 2010; Kagan, 2010). Nature
refers to an organism’s biological inheritance, nurture to its environmental
experiences. Almost no one today argues that development can be explained by
nature alone or by nurture alone. But some (“nature” proponents) claim that the most
important influence on development is biological inheritance, and others (“nurture”
proponents) claim that environmental experiences are the most important influence.
According to the nature proponents, just as a sunflower grows in an orderly way—
unless it is defeated by an unfriendly environment—so does a person. The range of
environments can be vast, but evolutionary and genetic foundations produce
commonalities in growth and development (Cosmides, 2011; Goldsmith, 2011; Mader,
2011). We walk before we talk, speak one word before two words, grow rapidly in
infancy and less so in early childhood, and experience a rush of sexual hormones in
puberty. Extreme environments—those that are psychologically barren or hostile—can
stunt development, but nature proponents emphasize the influence of tendencies that
are genetically wired into humans (Brooker, 2011; Raven, 2011).
By contrast, other psychologists emphasize the importance of nurture, or
environmental experiences, to development (Gauvain & Parke, 2010; Grusec, 2011;
Kopp, 2011). Experiences run the gamut from the individual’s biological environment
(nutrition, medical care, drugs, and physical accidents) to the social environment
(family, peers, schools, community, media, and culture). For example, a child’s diet
can affect how tall the child grows and even how effectively the child can think and
solve problems. Despite their genetic wiring, a child born and raised in a poor village
in Bangladesh and a child in the suburbs of Denver are likely to have different skills,
different ways of thinking about the world, and different ways of relating to people.

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2. Continuity and Discontinuity
Think about your own development for a
moment. Did you become the person you are gradually,
like the seedling that slowly, cumulatively grows into a
giant oak? Or did you experience sudden, distinct
changes, like the caterpillar that changes into a
butterfly.
The continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the
extent to which development involves gradual,
cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages
(discontinuity). For the most part, developmentalists
who emphasize nurture usually describe development
as a gradual, continuous process, like the seedling’s
growth into an oak. Those who emphasize nature often
describe development as a series of distinct stages,
like the change from caterpillar to butterfly.
Consider continuity first. As the oak grows from
seedling to giant oak, it becomes more oak—its
development is continuous. Similarly, a child’s first
word, though seemingly an abrupt, discontinuous
event, is actually the result of weeks and months of
growth and practice. Puberty, another seemingly
abrupt, discontinuous occurrence, is actually a gradual
process occurring over several years.
Viewed in terms of discontinuity, each person is
described as passing through a sequence of stages in
which change is qualitatively rather than quantitatively
different. As the caterpillar changes to a butterfly, it does not become more caterpillar
but a different kind of organism—its development is discontinuous. Similarly, at some
point a child moves from not being able to think abstractly about the world to being
able to do so. This change is a qualitative, discontinuous change in development, not
a quantitative, continuous change.

3. Early and Later Experience

The early-later experience issue focuses on the degree to which early
experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of
the child’s development. That is, if infants experience harmful circumstances, can
those experiences be overcome by later, positive ones? Or are the early experiences
so critical—possibly because they are the infant’s first, prototypical experiences—that
they cannot be overridden by a later, better environment? To those who emphasize
early experiences, life is an unbroken trail on which a psychological quality can be
traced back to its origin (Kagan, 1992, 2000). In contrast, to those who emphasize
later experiences, development is like a river, continually ebbing and flowing. The
early-later experience issue has a long history and continues to be hotly debated
among developmentalists (Kagan, 2010; McElwain, 2009). Plato was sure that infants
who were rocked frequently became better athletes. Nineteenthcentury New England
ministers told parents in Sunday afternoon sermons that the way they handled their
infants would determine their children’s later character. Some developmentalists argue

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that unless infants and young children experience warm, nurturing care, their
development will never quite be optimal (Finger & others, 2009).
In contrast, later-experience advocates argue that children are malleable
throughout development and that later sensitive caregiving is just as important as
earlier sensitive caregiving. A number of developmentalists stress that too little
attention has been given to later experiences in development (Baltes & Smith, 2008;
Schaie, 2010, 2011; Scheibe & Carstensen, 2010; Staudinger & Gluck, 2011). They
accept that early experiences are important contributors to development, but assert
that they are no more important than later experiences. Jerome Kagan (2000, 2010)
points out that even children who show the qualities of an inhibited temperament,
which is linked to heredity, have the capacity to change their behavior. In his research,
almost one-third of a group of children who had an inhibited temperament at 2 years
of age were not unusually shy or fearful when they were 4 years of age (Kagan &
Snidman, 1991).
People in Western cultures, especially those influenced by Freudian theory,
have tended to support the idea that early experiences are more important than later
experiences (Lamb & Sternberg, 1992). The majority of people in the world do not
share this belief. For example, people in many Asian countries believe that
experiences occurring after about 6 or 7 years of age are more important to
development than are earlier experiences. This stance stems from the long-standing
belief in Eastern cultures that children’s reasoning skills begin to develop in important
ways during middle childhood.

Evaluating the Developmental Issues

Most developmentalists recognize that it is unwise to take an extreme position
on the issues of nature and nurture, continuity and discontinuity, and early and later
experiences. Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or all
discontinuity, and not all early or later experiences. Nature and nurture, continuity and
discontinuity, and early and later experiences all play a part in development through
the human life span. Along with this consensus, there is still spirited debate about how
strongly development is influenced by each of these factors (Blakemore, Berenbaum,
& Liben, 2009; Kagan, 2010). Are girls less likely to do well in math mostly because of
inherited characteristics or because of society’s expectations and because of how girls
are raised? Can enriched experiences during adolescence remove deficits resulting
from poverty, neglect, and poor schooling during childhood? The answers also have a
bearing on social policy decisions about children and adolescents, and consequently
on each of our lives.

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Activity 1: What’s your issue?

Answer the following item. Write it on the space provided.

1. Based on what you read earlier in this chapter, what do you think Ted Kaczynski
would have to say about the early-later experience issue?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ _____
________________________________________________________________
_______________
2. Can you identify an early experience that you believe contributed in important
ways to your development?
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________
3. Can you identify a recent or current (later) experience that you think had (or is
having) a strong influence on your development?
________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________ _________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_______________

Activity 2: Decode Me!
Here is an interesting article titled, “How the First Nine months Shape the Rest
of Your Life” from October 4, 2010 Issue of Time Magazine. Read, analyze then
answer the following questions.
How the First Nine months Shape the Rest of Your Life
By: Annie Murphy Paul
https://www.afritradomedic.com/pdf/our_library/Fetal%20Origins_%20How%20the%20First%20Nine%20Mo
nths%20Shape%20Your%20Life%20--%20Printout%20--%20TIME.pdf
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to be anxious, overweight or
asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to heart attacks, diabetes or high blood pressure?

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There's a list of conventional answers to these questions. We are the way we are because it's in our
genes: the DNA we inherited at conception. We turn out the way we do because of our childhood
experiences: how we were treated and what we took in, especially during those crucial first three
years. Or our health and well-being stem from the lifestyle choices we make as adults: what kind of
diet we consume, how much exercise we get
But there's another powerful source of influence you may not have considered: your life as a fetus.
The kind and quantity of nutrition you received in the womb; the pollutants, drugs and infections you
were exposed to during gestation; your mother's health, stress level and state of mind while she was
pregnant with you — all these factors shaped you as a baby and a child and continue to affect you to
this day. This is the provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose pioneers assert
that the nine months of gestation constitute the most consequential period of our lives,
PERMANENTLY influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as the heart,
liver and pancreas. The conditions we encounter in utero, they claim, shape our susceptibility to
disease, our appetite and metabolism, our intelligence and temperament. In the literature on the
subject, which has exploded over the past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins of
cancer, cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity, mental illness —
even of conditions associated with old age like arthritis, osteoporosis and cognitive decline.
The notion of prenatal influence may conjure up frivolous attempts to enrich the fetus: playing Mozart
to a pregnant belly and the like. In reality, the shaping and molding that goes on in utero is far more
visceral and consequential than that. Much of what a pregnant woman encounters in her daily life —
the air she breathes, the food and drink she consumes, the chemicals she's exposed to, even the
emotions she feels — is shared in some fashion with her fetus. The fetus incorporates these offerings
into its own body, makes them part of its flesh and blood.
Often it does something more: it treats these maternal contributions as information, biological
postcards from the world outside. What a fetus is absorbing in utero is not Mozart's Magic Flute but
the answers to questions much more critical to its survival: Will it be born into a world of abundance
or scarcity? Will it be safe and protected, or will it face constant dangers and threats? Will it live a
long, fruitful life or a short, harried one?
Research on fetal origins — also called the developmental origins of health and disease — is prompting
a revolutionary shift in thinking about where human qualities come from and when they begin to
develop. It's turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: the National Institutes of Health embarked
last year on a multidecade study that will examine its subjects before they're born. It's also altering
the perspective of thinkers outside of biology. The Nobel Prize — winning economist Amartya Sen, for
example, co-authored a paper about the importance of fetal origins to a population's health and
productivity: poor prenatal experience, he writes, "sows the seeds of ailments that afflict adults." And
it makes the womb a promising target for prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-health
scourges like obesity and heart disease through interventions before birth.
1. Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual’s choice are
the factors that contribute to what a person may become? Please elaborate.

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________ _______________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________
2. Read the 4
th
paragraph again, focus your attention on the highlighted word,
PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the issue on Early Experience versus Later
Experience. Does the word PERMANENTLY convince you that we are what
our first experiences have made of us? Explain your answer.
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ____________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ____________________
_____________________

SELF-EVALUATION:
After learning the issues on human development, state in one paragraph your
stand. Is there any changes the way you perceive it or you still have the same
perspective before learning this lesson? (Criteria: Content – 5; Organization of Ideas – 3;
Grammar – 2)

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REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Nature and nurture debate about whether development is primarily influenced
by nature or nurture. The “nature” proponents claim biological inheritance is
the most important influence on development; the “nurture” proponents claim
that environmental experiences are the most important.
 The continuity-discontinuity issue focuses on the extent to which development
involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages
(discontinuity).
 The early-later experience issue focuses on the degree to which early
experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key
determinants of the child’s development.
POST TEST:
Read a research paper or study related to issues on human development. Fill
out the matrix below.












How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________ ____________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________


Source: (bibliographical entry format; APA
format)
____________________________________
____________________________________
Problem Research Methodology
Findings Conclusion

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REFERENCES:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 Santrock, J.W. (2011). Child development. 13
th
ed. McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.

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MODULE # 2 : DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ON CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2.1 : Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Development
TIME FRAME : 2. 5 hours

INTRODUCTION:



Freud’s views about human development re more than a century old. He can
be considered the most well-known psychologist because of his very interesting theory
about the unconscious and also bout sexual development. Although a lot of his views
were criticized and some considered them debunked, (he himself recanted some of
his earlier views). Freud’s theory remains to be one of the most influential in
psychology. His theory sparked the ideas in the brilliant minds of other theorists and
thus became the starting point of many other theories, notable of which is Erikson’s
Psychosocial theory in TOPIC 4.

OBJECTIVES:
In this lesson, you should be able to:
1. Explain Freud’s views about child and adolescent development.
2. Assess oneself’s childhood experiences through recalling life’s experiences.
3. Draw implications of Freud’s theory to education.








“The ego is not master in its own house.”
- Sigmund Freud

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PRE-TEST:
1. Recall a recent incident in your life when you had to make a decision.
Narrate the situation below. Indicate what the decision was about, the factors that were
involved and how you arrived at your decision.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2.What factors influenced you in making your decision? Which of the
following did you consider most in making your decision: what will make you feel
satisfied, what is most beneficial or practical, or what you believed was the most moral
thing to do? Elaborate your answer.
___________________________________________ ________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

LEARNING ACTIVITY:
As a person grows, the personality is also formed. Many psychologists
present different views about how about how personality develops. As mentioned,
Freud presents a very interesting theory about personality, its components and
development. Read and hopefully it will also somehow lead you to understand more
your own personality.
As you read through Freud’s theory, fill out the graphic organizer to highlight
the important concepts:
Activity 1: Meet the O-A-Pha-La-Ge Zone
Fill up the following stages’ erogenous zone, description and fixations.


Erogenous zone – a specific area that becomes the focus of pleasure needs. This may be the mouth, anus
and the genitals.
Fixation – results from failure to satisfy the needs of a particular psychosexual stage.

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EROGENOUS ZONE: __________________________________
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE: __________________________
FIXATIONS: _________________________________________
ORAL STAGE
EROGENOUS ZONE: __________________________________
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE: __________________________
FIXATIONS: _________________________________________ ANAL STAGE
EROGENOUS ZONE: __________________________________
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE: __________________________
FIXATIONS: _________________________________________
PHALLIC
STAGE
EROGENOUS ZONE: __________________________________
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE: __________________________
FIXATIONS: _________________________________________
LATENCY
STAGE
EROGENOUS ZONE: __________________________________
DESCRIPTION OF THE STAGE: __________________________
FIXATIONS: _________________________________________
GENITAL
STAGE

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Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development
Freud is the most popular psychologist that studied the development of
personality, also probably the most controversial. His theory of psychosexual
development includes five distinct stages. According to Freud, a person goes through
the sequence of these five stages and along the way there are needs to be met.
Whether these needs are met or not, determines whether the person will develop a
healthy personality or not. The theory is quite interesting for many because Freud
identified specific erogenous zones for each stage of development. These are
specific “pleasure areas” that become focal points for the particular stage. If needs are
not met along the area, a fixation occurs. As an adult, the person will now manifest
behaviors related to this erogenous zone.
1. Oral stage (birth to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth. During
the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasure (sucking). Too much or
too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral Personality which
is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This type of personality
may be oral receptive or oral aggressive, that is, with a tendency to bite
his or her nails or use curse words or even gossip. As a result, these persons
may become dependent on others, easily fooled, md lack leadership traits.
On the other hand, they may also fight these tendencies and become
pessimistic and aggressive in relating with people.

2. Anal stage (18 months to 3 years). The child’s focus of pleasure in this
stage is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining
feces. Through society’s expectations, particularly the rents, the child needs
to work on toilet training. Let us remember that between one year and a half
to three years the child’s favorite word might be “No!”. Therefore, a struggle
might exist in the toilet training process when the child retains feces when
asked to eliminate, or may choose to defecate when asked to hold feces for
some reason. In terms of personality, fixation during this stage can result in
being anal retentive, an obsession with cleanliness, perfection and control;
or anal expulsive where the person may become messy and disorganized.

3. Phallic stage (ages 3 to 6). The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
During the preschool age, children become interested in what makes boys
and girls different. Preschoolers will sometimes be seen fondling their
genitals. Freud’s led him to believe that during this stage boys develop
unconscious sexual desire for their mother. Boys then see their father as a
rival for her mother’s affection. Boys may fear that their father will punish
them for theses feelings, thus, the castration anxiety. These feelings
comprise what Freud call Oedipus Complex. In Greek Mythology, Oedipus
unintentionally killed his father and married his mother Jocasta.

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Psychoanalysts also believed that girls may also have a similar
experience, developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their father.
This is what is referred to as the Electra Complex.
According to Freud, out of fear of castration and due to the strong
competition of their father, boys eventually decide to identify with them
rather than fight them. By identifying with their father, the boys develop
masculine characteristics and identify themselves as males and repress
their sexual deviances (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak or
confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysts.
4. Latency stage (age 6 to puberty). It’s during the stage that sexual urges
remain repressed. The children’s focus is the acquisition of physical and
academic skills. Boys usually relate more with boys and girls with girls
during this stage.

5. Genital stage (puberty onwards). The fifth stage of psychosexual
development begins at the start of puberty when sexual urges are once
again awakened. In the earlier stages, adolescents focus their sexual urges
towards the opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the genitals.

Freud’s Personality Components
Freud describes the personality structures as having three components,
the id, the ego, and the superego. For each person, the first to emerge is the id,
followed by the ego, and the last to develop is the superego.
1. The Id.
Freud says that, a child is born with the id. The id plays a vital role in
one’s personality because as a baby works so that the baby’s essential
needs are met. The id operates on the pleasure principle. It focuses on
immediate gratification or satisfaction of its needs. So whatever feels good
now is what it will pursue with no consideration for the reality, logicality or
practicality of the situation. For example, a baby is hungry. Its id wants food
or milk… so the baby will cry. When the child is uncomfortable, in pain, too
hot, too cold, or just wants attention, the id speaks up until his or her needs
are met.
Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs. It
is not oriented towards considering reality nor the needs of others. Just see
how babies cry anytime of day and night. Absolutely no regard of whether
mommy is tired or daddy is sleeping. When the id wants something, it wants
it now and it wants it fast!

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2. The Ego.
As the baby turns into a toddler and then into a toddler and then into a
preschooler, he/she relates more with the environment, the ego slowly
begins to emerge. The ego operates using the reality principle. It is aware
that other also have needs to be met. It is practical because it knows that
being impulsive or selfish can result to negative consequences later, so it
reasons and considers the best response to situations. As such, it is the
deciding agent of the personality. Although it functions to help the id meets
its needs, it always takes into account the reality of the situation.
3. The Superego.
Near the end pf the preschool years, or the end of the phallic stage, the
superego develops. The superego embodies a person’s moral aspect. It is
the ideal principle. This develops from what the parents, teachers and
other persons who exert influence impart to be good or moral. The
superego is likened to conscience because its exerts influence on what one
considers right and wrong.

The Three Components and Personality Adjustment
Freud said that a well-adjusted person is one who has strong ego, who can help
satisfy the needs of the id, without goings against the superego while maintaining the
person’s sense of what is logical, practical and real. Of course, it is not easy for the
ego to do all that and strike a balance. If the id exerts too much power over the ego,
the person becomes too impulsive and pleasure-seeking behavior takes over one’s
life. On the opposite direction, one may find the superego so strong that the ego is
overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself and other’s
actions. The person’s best effort to be good may still fall short of the superego’s
expectations.

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The ability of a
learner to be well-
adjusted is largely
influenced by how the
learner was brought up.
His experiences about
how his parents met his
needs, the extent to
which he was allowed to
do the things he wanted
to do, and also how he
was taught bout right and
wrong, all figures to the
type of personality and
consequent adjustment
that a person will make.
Freud believed that the
personality of an
individual is formed early during the childhood years.
Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he
described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of
an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.
Freud (1915) described the conscious mind, which consists of all the mental
processes of which we are aware, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. For
example, you may be feeling thirsty at this moment and decide to get a drink.
The preconscious contains thoughts and feelings that a person is not currently
aware of, but which can easily be brought to consciousness (1924). It exists just below
the level of consciousness, before the unconscious mind. The preconscious is like a
mental waiting room, in which thoughts remain until they 'succeed in attracting the eye
of the conscious' (Freud, 1924, p. 306). This is what we mean in our everyday usage
of the word available memory. For example, you are presently not thinking about your
mobile telephone number, but now it is mentioned you can recall it with ease. Mild
emotional experiences may be in the preconscious but sometimes traumatic and
powerful negative emotions are repressed and hence not available in the
preconscious.
Finally, the unconscious mind comprises mental processes that are
inaccessible to consciousness but that influence judgments, feelings, or behavior
(Wilson, 2002). According to Freud (1915), the unconscious mind is the primary source
of human behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the mind is the part you
Topographical Model or Iceberg Model
Topographical Model (Iceberg Model)

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cannot see. Our feelings, motives and decisions are actually powerfully influenced by
our past experiences, and stored in the unconscious.
Freud applied these three systems to his structure of the personality, or psyche
– the id, ego and superego. Here the id is regarded as entirely unconscious whilst
the ego and superego have conscious, preconscious, and unconscious aspects.
1. The Unconscious.
Freud said that most what we go through in our lives, emotions,
beliefs, and impulses deep within are not available to us a conscious level.
He believed that most of what influence us in our unconscious. The Oedipus
and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were both buried down into the
unconscious, out of our awareness due to the extreme anxiety they caused.
While these complexes are in our unconscious, they still influence our
thinking, feeling and doing in perhaps dramatic ways.

2. The Conscious.
Freud also said that all that we are aware if is stored in our
conscious mind. Our conscious mid only comprises a very small part of who
we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very small part
of what makes up our personality; most of what we re is hidden and out of
reach.

3. The Preconscious.
The last part is the preconscious or subconscious. This is the part
of us that we can reach if prompted but is not in our active conscious. Its
right below the surface, but still “hidden” somewhat unless we search for it.
Information such as telephone number, some childhood memories or the
name of your best childhood friend is stored in the preconscious.
Because the unconscious is so huge, and because we are only
aware of the very small conscious at any given time, Freud used the analogy
of the iceberg to illustrate it. A big part of the iceberg is hidden beneath
the water’s surface.
The water may represent all that we are not aware of, have not
experienced, and that has not been made part of our personalities, referred
to as the nonconscious.

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SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ _______________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is the most well-known and controversial theory
in psychology.
 There are five stages Psychosexual theory, namely: Oral stage, Anal stage,
Phallic stage, Latency stage and Genital stage.
 Freud conceptualized the personality structures as having three components:
the id, ego and superego.
 Freud also illustrated in an iceberg model as the topographical model of the
mind: conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

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POST TEST:
Read a research paper or study related to Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory. Fill
out the matrix below.












How are the findings of this research useful to teachers?
_____________________________________________________ ______________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

REFERENCES:
 Topographical model of the mind. Retrieved from
http://www.angelfire.com/ak5/kalla/topographical.htm on June 30, 2020.
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.




Source: (bibliographical entry format; APA
format)
____________________________________
____________________________________
Problem Research Methodology
Findings Conclusion

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MODULE # 2 : DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ON CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2.2 : Piaget’s Stages Of Cognitive Development
TIME FRAME : 2. 5 hours

INTRODUCTION:




Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory of Development is truly a classic in the field
of educational psychology. This theory fueled other researches and theories of
development and learning. Its focus is on how individuals construct knowledge.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Analyze Piaget’s stages in relation to teaching-learning process.
2. Evaluate learning activities to the learner’s cognitive stage.
PRE-TEST:
Encircle your choice on the corresponding item.
1. According to Piaget, children are ______ in constructing their understanding
of the world.
a. Active
b. Passive
c. Neutral
d. Bystanders
2. Incorporating new information into your existing ideas is a process known
as:
a. Accommodation
b. Appropriation
c. Assimilation
d. Initiation
3. Two containers hold the same amount, but Jane thinks that the taller,
skinnier glass holds more. This is known as:
a. Accommodation
b. Egocentrism
“The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not
simply of repeating what other generations have done – men who are creative, inventive
and discoverers.””
- Jean Piaget

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c. False belief
d. Conservation
4. Piaget believed that children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty
with:
a. Perspective-taking
b. Deductive logic
c. Inductive logic
d. Conservation
5. A schema is a:
a. Category of knowledge that allows us to interpret and understand the
world
b. The process of taking in new information and experiences
c. The process of balancing old knowledge and new information
d. None of the above

LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs
a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed
trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.
Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to
develop French versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became
intrigued with the reasons children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that
required logical thinking. He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important
differences between the thinking of adults and children.
Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive
development. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development,
detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but
ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.
What Piaget wanted to do was not to measure how well children could count,
spell or solve problems as a way of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in
was the way in which fundamental concepts like the very idea of number, time,
quantity, causality, justice and so on emerged. Before Piaget’s work, the common
assumption in psychology was that children are merely less competent thinkers than
adults. Piaget showed that young children think in strikingly different ways compared
to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure
(genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge
are based.

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Basic Cognitive Concepts
1. Schema
Piaget used the term “schema” to refer to the cognitive structures by which
individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment. It is an individual’s
way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mid has
a filing cabinet and each drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had an
experience with.
For instance, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema
of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then “puts this
description of a dog ‘on file’ in his mind”. When he sees another similar dog, he “pulls”
out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at the animal, and says, “four legs,
tail, barks, furry … that’s a dog!”
2. Assimilation
This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously
created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little
smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information
(a different-looking dog) into his schema of a dog.
3. Accommodation
This is the process of creating a new schema. If the same child now sees
another animal that looks a little bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might try to
fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, “Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its
bark is funny too!” Then the mommy explains, “That is not a funny looking dog. That’s
a goat!” With mommy’s further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema,
that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.
4. Equilibration
Piaget believed that people have the natural need to understand how the world
works and to find order, structure, and predictability in their life. Equilibration is
achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our
experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium. This means there is a discrepancy between
what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation
and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.
Cognitive development involves a continuous effort to adapt to the environment
in terms of assimilation and accommodation. In this sense, Piaget’s theory is similar
in nature to other constructivist perspectives of learning like Bruner and Vygotsky.

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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

1. The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening

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 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic
growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually
making new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a
relatively short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only
learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a
great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke
this stage down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the
sensorimotor stage that early representational thought emerges.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an
important element at this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin
to attach names and words to objects.
Substages
As any parent or caregiver can attest, a great deal of learning and development
happens during the first two years of a child's life. The sensorimotor stage can be
divided into six separate sub-stages that are characterized by the development of a
new skill:
Reflexes (0-1 month)
During this substage, the child understands the environment purely through
inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.
Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months)
This substage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example,
a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the
action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

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Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months)
During this substage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins
to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For
example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.
Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months)
During this substage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. The
child may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect. Children begin
exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior
of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin
to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might
realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.
Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months)
Children begin a period of trial-and-error experimentation during the fifth
substage. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of
getting attention from a caregiver.
Early Representational Thought (18-24 months)
Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world
in the final sensorimotor substage. During this time, children begin to move towards
understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.
Object Permanence
According to Piaget, developing object permanence is one of the most
important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object
permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even though they
cannot be seen or heard.
Imagine a game of peek-a-boo, for example. A very young infant will believe
that the other person or object has actually vanished and will act shocked or startled
when the object reappears. Older infants who understand object permanence will
realize that the person or object continues to exist even when unseen.
This is a classic example of how, during this stage, an infant's knowledge of the
world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and motor activities and how
behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli.
2. The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

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 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.
 The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major
hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.
 Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet continue to think very concretely about the world around
them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and
taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding
the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal
pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One
piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake
shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that
piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
Symbolic Function
This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that
represents something else. A drawing, written word, or spoken word comes to be
understood as representing a real object like MRT train.
Egocentrism
This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view. The child cannot
take the perspective of others.
Centration
This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or
event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is presented with two
identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same
amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to an
obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the
taller glass. The child only focused or “centered” only one aspect of the new glass, that
it is a taller glass. The child was not able to perceive that the new glass is also
narrower. The child only centered on the height of the glass and excluded the width in
determining the amount of water in the glass.

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Irreversibility
Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They
can understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5 – 3 is 2.
Animism
This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics
to inanimate objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply,
“Mr. Sun is asleep.”
Transductive reasoning
This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither
inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular i.e., if A
causes B, the B causes A. for example, since her mommy comes home everyday
around six o’ clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the child will
say, “because my mom is already home.”
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid
in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational
state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with
abstract and hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about
how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also
begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

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Decentering
This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects
and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension.
This allows the child to be more logical when dealing with concrete objects and
situations.
Reversibility
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow certain
operations can be done in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the
commutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition. They
can also understand that a ball of clay is shaped into dinosaur can again be rolled
back into a ball of clay.
Conservation
This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass,
volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. Because of
the development of the child’s ability of decentering and also reversibility, the concrete
operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower
container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass. The
children progress to attain conservation abilities gradually being a pre-conserver, a
transitional thinker and then a conserver.
Seriation
This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume or size.
4. The Formal Operational Stage
Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them.

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The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of
the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically
plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities
that emerge during this stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development
as a quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge
to their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a
qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he
did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
Deductive Logic
Piaget believed that deductive reasoning becomes necessary during the formal
operational stage. Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to
determine a particular outcome. Science and mathematics often require this type of
thinking about hypothetical situations and concepts.
Abstract Thought
While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages,
the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational
stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider
possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in
long-term planning.
Problem-Solving
In earlier stages, children used trial-and-error to solve problems. During the
formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and
methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive
development are often able to plan quickly an organized approach to solving a
problem.
Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning
Piaget believed that what he referred to as "hypothetical-deductive reasoning"
was essential at this stage of intellectual development. At this point, teens become
capable of thinking about abstract and hypothetical ideas. They often ponder "what-if"
type situations and questions and can think about multiple solutions or possible
outcomes.
While kids in the previous stage (concrete operations) are very particular in their
thoughts, kids in the formal operational stage become increasingly abstract in their
thinking.

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As children gain greater awareness and understanding of their own thought
processes, they develop what is known as metacognition, or the ability to think about
their thoughts as well as the ideas of others.

Activity 1: I Can Relate!
NAME: ________________________________ Date: _________
Course & Year: ____________ Score: ______
Instruction. This activity focuses on story involving the interaction of the family members. Choose a
story you want to use for this activity. It can be from a story you have read or a movie
or “telenovela” that you watched or plan to watch. Use the matrix below to relate the
characters to Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development.
Title of Story/ Movie: _________________________________
Write a brief summary of the story:








CHARACTER
DESCRIPTION
PIAGETIAN CONNECTION
Father
What is his stage of cognitive development?
Example: Cite instances why you say he is in this stage. (What he thought
of, how he thought, his reactions and attitudes)








Mother What is her stage of cognitive development?

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Example: Cite instances why you say she is in this stage. (What she thought
of, how she thought, her reactions and attitudes)










Children
1.
What is his/ her stage of cognitive development?
Example: Cite instances why you say he/ she is in this stage. (What he/she
thought of, how he/she thought, his/her reactions and attitudes)






2.







3.









Other Characters
What is his/her stage of cognitive development?
Example: Cite instances why you say he/she is in this stage. (What he/she
thought of, how he/she thought, his/her reactions and attitudes)

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SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________ _________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Piaget made several assumptions about children while developing his theory:
o Children build their own knowledge based on their experiences.
o Children learn things on their own without influence from adults or older
children.
o Children are motivated to learn by nature. They don’t need rewards as
motivation
 There are four stages in all:
o sensorimotor stage
o preoperational stage
o concrete operational stage
o formal operational stage
POST TEST: Encircle your answer.
1. At which sensorimotor substage do children begin to develop symbols to
represent events or objects in the world?
a. Primary Circular Reactions
b. Secondary Circular Reactions
c. Tertiary Circular Reactions
d. Early Representational Thought
2. The ability to think abstractly and systematically solve problems emerges
during the:
a. Concrete Operational Stage
b. Sensorimotor Stage
c. Formal Operational Stage
d. Preoperational Stage

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3. Piaget believed that children in the concrete operational stage have difficulty
with:
a. Perspective-taking
b. Deductive logic
c. Inductive logic
d. Conservation
4. A schema is a:
a. Category of knowledge that allows us to interpret and understand the
world
b. The process of taking in new information and experiences
c. The process of balancing old knowledge and new information
d. None of the above
5. Children in the preoperational stage have difficulty taking the perspective of
another person. This is known as:
a. Reversibility
b. Egocentrism
c. Metacognition
d. Constructivism

REFERENCES:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 What Are Piaget’s Stages of Development and How Are They Used? Retrieved
from https://www.healthline.com/health/piaget-stages-of-development on June
30, 2020.
 The 4 Stages of Cognitive Development. Retrieved from
https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-
2795457 on June 30, 2020.

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MODULE # 2 : DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ON CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2.3 : Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
TIME FRAME : 2. 5 hours

INTRODUCTION:



The key theme of Vygotsky’s theory is that social interaction plays a very
important role in cognitive development. He believed that individual development could
not be understood without looking into that social and cultural context within which
development happens. Scaffolding is Vygotsky’s term for the appropriate assistance
given by the teacher to assist the learner accomplish a task.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-cultural” theory.
2. Differentiate Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on cognitive development.
3. Explain how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.

PRE-TEST:
Describe the terms in your understanding:
1. Socio-cultural –
2. Scaffolding –
3. Private speech –
4. Social speech-
5. Tutorial –





“What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/he
will be able to do alone.”
- Lev Vygotsky

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
When Vygotsky was a young boy, he was educated under a teacher who used
Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that
allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of
understanding. This teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language
as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the
Socio-Cultural Theory of Development.
Piaget and Vygotsky
Vygotsky’s worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget’s in between
the 1920’s and 30’s but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive
development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding lesson, it would be
easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky’s.









Activity 1. Lets Recall!
1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually learned well,
through the help of another person (like swimming, riding a bike, playing the
piano, skating, etc.)
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

2. What made you interested to learn that skill?
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________ _____________________

3. Who taught or assisted you?
___________________________________________________________

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4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps or
actions the person did in order to help you learn.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________

Social Influences on Cognitive Development
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believes that young children are curious and actively
involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new
understandings/schema. However, Vygotsky placed more emphasis on social
contributions to the process of development, whereas Piaget emphasized self-initiated
discovery.
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child occurs
through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model behaviors and/or
provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to this as cooperative or
collaborative dialogue. The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions
provided by the tutor (often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information,
using it to guide or regulate their own performance.
Shaffer (1996) gives the example of a young girl who is given her first jigsaw.
Alone, she performs poorly in attempting to solve the puzzle. The father then sits with
her and describes or demonstrates some basic strategies, such as finding all the
corner/edge pieces and provides a couple of pieces for the child to put together herself
and offers encouragement when she does so.
As the child becomes more competent, the father allows the child to work more
independently. According to Vygotsky, this type of social interaction involving
cooperative or collaborative dialogue promotes cognitive development.
In order to gain an understanding of Vygotsky's theories on cognitive
development, one must understand two of the main principles of Vygotsky's work: the
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO) and the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

More Knowledgeable Other
The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it refers
to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner,
with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is
not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children may be the
individuals with more knowledge or experience.

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For example, who is more likely to know more about the newest teenage music
groups, how to win at the most recent PlayStation game, or how to correctly perform
the newest dance craze - a child or their parents?
In fact, the MKO need not be a person at all. Some companies, to support
employees in their learning process, are now using electronic performance support
systems.
Electronic tutors have also been used in educational settings to facilitate and
guide students through the learning process. The key to MKOs is that they must have
(or be programmed with) more knowledge about the topic being learned than the
learner does.
Zone of Proximal Development
The concept of the More Knowledgeable Other is integrally related to the
second important principle of Vygotsky's work, the Zone of Proximal Development.
This is an important concept that relates to the difference between what a child can
achieve independently and what a child can achieve with guidance and
encouragement from a skilled partner.










For example, the child could not solve the jigsaw puzzle (in the example above)
by itself and would have taken a long time to do so (if at all), but was able to solve it
following interaction with the father, and has developed competence at this skill that
will be applied to future jigsaws.
Vygotsky (1978) sees the Zone of Proximal Development as the area where
the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given - allowing the child to
develop skills they will then use on their own - developing higher mental functions.
Vygotsky also views interaction with peers as an effective way of developing
skills and strategies. He suggests that teachers use cooperative learning exercises

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where less competent children develop with help from more skillful peers - within the
zone of proximal development.
Vygotsky and Language
Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for
communication purposes. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a means
for communicating with the outside world.
According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive
development:
1. It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children.
2. Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual
adaptation.
Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social
speech which is external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age
of two); private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and
serves an intellectual function; and finally private speech goes underground,
diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and is transformed into
silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven).
For Vygotsky, thought and language are initially separate systems from
the beginning of life, merging at around three years of age. At this point speech and
thought become interdependent: thought becomes verbal, speech becomes
representational. When this happens, children's monologues internalized to become
inner speech. The internalization of language is important as it drives cognitive
development.

'Inner speech is not the interiour aspect of external speech - it is a function in itself. It
still remains speech, i.e., thought connected with words. But while in external speech
thought is embodied in words, in inner speech words dies as they bring forth thought.
Inner speech is to a large extent thinking in pure meanings.' (Vygotsky, 1962: p. 149)
Vygotsky (1987) was the first psychologist to document the importance
of private speech. He considered private speech as the transition point between social
and inner speech, the moment in development where language and thought unite to
constitute verbal thinking.
Thus private speech, in Vygotsky's view, was the earliest manifestation
of inner speech. Indeed, private speech is more similar (in its form and function) to
inner speech than social speech.
Private speech is 'typically defined, in contrast to social speech, as speech
addressed to the self (not to others) for the purpose of self-regulation (rather than
communication).' (Diaz, 1992, p.62)

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Unlike inner speech which is covert (i.e., hidden), private speech is
overt. In contrast to Piaget’s (1959) notion of private speech representing a
developmental dead-end, Vygotsky (1934, 1987) viewed private speech as:
'A revolution in development which is triggered when preverbal thought and
preintellectual language come together to create fundamentally new forms of mental
functioning.' (Fernyhough & Fradley, 2005: p. 1).
In addition to disagreeing on the functional significance of private
speech, Vygotsky and Piaget also offered opposing views on the developmental
course of private speech and the environmental circumstances in which it occurs most
often (Berk & Garvin, 1984).
Scaffolding
Scaffolding is an instructional technique in which a teacher provides
individualized support by incrementally improving a learner’s ability to build on prior
knowledge. Scaffolding can be used in a variety of content areas and across age and
grade levels. Within education, the social learning theory of Vygotsky is generally
credited with providing theoretical basis for the practice, where he describes the Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD). Scaffolding provide special type of help that assists
learners move towards new concepts, skills, or understandings. Actually, Vygotsky
himself never mentioned the term of scaffolding. It was first introduce by Jerome
Bruner, David Wood, and Gail Ross (1976) while applying Vygotsky's concept of Zone
of Proximal Development (ZPD) to various educational contexts.
Vygotsky defined scaffolding instruction as the “role of teachers and others in
supporting the learners development and providing support structures to get to that
next stage or level” (Raymond, 2000)
Teachers provide scaffolds so that the learner can accomplish certain tasks they
would otherwise not be able to accomplish on their own (Bransford, Brown, &
Cocking, 2000)
The goal of the educator is for the student to become an independent learner and
problem solver (Hartman, 2002)

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Classroom Applications
A contemporary educational application of Vygotsky's theories is
"reciprocal teaching," used to improve students' ability to learn from text. In this
method, teachers and students collaborate in learning and practicing four key skills:
summarizing, questioning, clarifying, and predicting. The teacher's role in the process
is reduced over time.
Also, Vygotsky theory of cognitive development on learners is relevant
to instructional concepts such as "scaffolding" and "apprenticeship," in which a teacher
or more advanced peer helps to structure or arrange a task so that a novice can work
on it successfully.
Vygotsky's theories also feed into the current interest in collaborative
learning, suggesting that group members should have different levels of ability so more
advanced peers can help less advanced members operate within their ZPD.

Activity 2. Unfolding the scaffold!
1. Choose a skill you are good in.
________________________________________
2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who will
benefit from scaffolding.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions you will
do to scaffold.
____________________________________ __________________________
______________________________________________________________

SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________ ____________
REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Vygotsky scaffolding is a teaching method that uses instructors and more
advanced peers to help students learn.
 Vygotsky scaffolding is part of the education concept "zone of proximal
development" or ZPD. The ZPD is the set of skills or knowledge a student can't
do on her own but can do with the help or guidance of someone else. It's the
skill level just above where the student currently is.
 Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence
development. While Piaget's theory stressed how a child's interactions and
explorations influenced development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that
social interactions play in cognitive development.

POST TEST:
Encircle your answer.
1. Vygotsky believed that children construct knowledge.
A. True B. False
2. Vygotsky postulates that learning cannot be seperated from its social context.
A. True B. False
3. Within the Constructivist Theory, language does not place a central role in mental
development
A. True B. False
4. What is MKO?

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A. MKO is the flexibility of a facilitator to produce a conducive social
environment for the learner.
B. MKO refers to anyone who has better understanding or a higher ability level
than the learner, with respect to particular task, process or concept.
C. MKO refers to the ability of children to make use of knowledge.
D. MKO is the abbreviation for, Making Knowledgeable Operations.
5. According to Constructivist Theorist, " Collaborative learning is highly beneficial to
the mental development of a learner.
A. True B. False

REFERENCES:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 Lev Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory . Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/vygotsky.html on June 30, 2020.

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MODULE # 2 : DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ON CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2.4 : Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development
TIME FRAME : 2. 5 hours

INTRODUCTION:



Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are a very relevant, highly
regarded and meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and
trials which help us to grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides and helps to tell us
why.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the 8 stages of life in relation to its importance to education.
2. Formulate at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you
as a future teacher.
PRE-TEST:
Identify what developmental stage are the following. Encircle your answer.
1. Which is an example of the autonomy versus shame and doubt stage?
a. An infant chewing on a teething ring
b. A preschooler insisting on picking out her own clothes, no matter how
mismatched they are
c. A middle-schooler completing a challenging math assignment
d. A teenager trying out new fashions and hairstyles
2. The central theme of Erikson’s theory of psychosocial stages was the
development of:
a. Personality
b. Social Status
c. Psychosocial conflict
d. Ego identity
3. What do people face during each psychosocial stage that can serve as a
turning point in development?
a. Epiphany
b. Conflict
“Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have
integrity enough not to fear death.”
- Erik Erikson

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c. Paradigm shift
d. Turmoil
4. The stage that occurs between birth and one year of age is concerned with:
a. Trust vs. Mistrust
b. Initiative vs. Guilt
c. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
d. Identity vs. Role Confusion
5. If a child struggles to do well in school, what problem might emerge?
a. Struggle with feelings of inferiority
b. Experience a sense of guilt
c. Develop a poor self-identity
d. Begin to mistrust the people around him

LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Erikson’s “psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words –
namely psychological (or the root, “psyche” , relating to the mind, brain, personality,
etc.) and social (external relationships and environment). His theory is largely
influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson extended the theory and incorporated
cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually-oriented theory.
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order
through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood. During
each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have a positive
or negative outcome for personality development.
For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature because
they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the
needs of society (i.e., social). According to the theory, successful completion of each
stage results in a healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues
are characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to
complete further stages and therefore a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.
These stages, however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

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1. Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1.5 years old) - Infancy

Basic question: “Can I trust the world?”
This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age.
During this stage, the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and
looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will
develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they
will be able to feel secure even when threatened. If these needs are not
consistently met, mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety may develop.
If the care has been inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the
infant may develop a sense of mistrust, suspicion, and anxiety. In this situation the
infant will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to
influence events.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense
of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility
that other people will be there as a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue
of hope will lead to the development of fear.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other
relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling
of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson's views on the importance of trust, research by
Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of
attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.

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2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5 - 3 years old) - Early childhood
Basic question: “Is it okay to be me?”
This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years.
According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. If children in this stage are
encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more
confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world.
If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert
themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then
become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their abilities.
What Happens During This Stage?
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, and discovering
that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes,
playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child's growing sense of
independence and autonomy.
For example, during this stage children begin to assert their independence, by
walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices
about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.

What Can Parents Do to Encourage a Sense of Control?
Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits
of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child's clothes a supportive parent should
have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance.
So, the parents need to encourage the child to become more independent while at
the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided.
A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do
everything for the child, but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize
the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training).
The aim has to be “self control without a loss of self-esteem” (Gross, 1992).

3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 years old) – Preschool age
Basic question: “Is its okay for me to do what I do?”
Initiative versus guilt is the third stage of Erik Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. During the initiative versus guilt stage, children
assert themselves more frequently.

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These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According
to Bee (1992), it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may
see as aggressive."
During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting
with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children
with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative and feel
secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control,
children develop a sense of guilt. The child will often overstep the mark in his
forcefulness, and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and
restrict his initiatives too much.
It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for
knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or
embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may
have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit
their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary; otherwise the child would not
know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience.
A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue of purpose, while failure results in a sense of guilt.

4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5 – 7 years old) – School age

Basic question: “Can I make it in this world?”
Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do
sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the
child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and
will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need
to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society
and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments.
If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel
industrious (competent) and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this
initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child
begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or
her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g.,
being athletic) then they may develop a sense of Inferiority.

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Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty.
Again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this
stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (12 – 18 years old) – Adolescence

Basic question: “Who am I?”
During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity,
through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most
important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future
in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to
belong to a society and fit in.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between
childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be
developed by the adult (Erikson, 1963, p. 245)
This is a major stage of development where the child has to learn the roles he
will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine
his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two
identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a
reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate
sex role”. During this stage the body image of the adolescent changes.
Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for
a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will
lead to the virtue of fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one's self to others on the basis of
accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. In response to
role confusion or identity crisis, an adolescent may begin to experiment with
different lifestyles (e.g., work, education or political activities).
Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of
establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity
based upon the outcome of their explorations. Failure to establish a sense of
identity within society ("I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up") can lead to
role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about
themselves or their place in society.

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6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (18 – 40 years old) – Early adulthood

Basic question: “Can I love?”
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 18 to 40 yrs. During this stage, the major conflict centers on
forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
During this stage, we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We
explore relationships leading toward longer-term commitments with someone other
than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can result in happy relationships and a
sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship.
Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation,
loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of love.

7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (40 – 65 years old) – Adulthood

Basic question: “What can I give to the next generation?”
Psychologically, generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through
creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. During middle age
individuals experience a need to create or nurture things that will outlast them,
often having mentees or creating positive changes that will benefit other people.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work,
and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. Through
generativity we develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.
By failing to find a way to contribute, we become stagnant and feel
unproductive. These individuals may feel disconnected or uninvolved with their
community and with society as a whole. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue
of care.

8. Ego Integrity vs. Despair (65+ years) – Maturity/ Old age

Basic question: “How have I done?”
It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop
integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life.
Individuals who reflect on their life and regret not achieving their goals will
experience feelings of bitterness and despair.
Erikson described ego integrity as “the acceptance of one’s one and only life cycle as something
that had to be” (1950, p. 268) and later as “a sense of coherence and wholeness” (1982, p. 65).

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As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down
our productivity and explore life as a retired person.
Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our
past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with
life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a
person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and
also accept death without fear.
Wise people are not characterized by a continuous state of ego integrity, but
they experience both ego integrity and despair. Thus, late life is characterized by
both integrity and despair as alternating states that need to be balanced.

Activity 1. My Semi-MMK Story
Write your own life story using stages of psychological development as
framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to you (most probably, stages
1-5 to 6). Ask information from your parents and other significant persons in your
life. Look at old baby books and photo albums.
You may put this in a powerpoint slides (if you wish to send your output online).
You may encode this and print in a short-sized bondpaper or do a scrapbook type
(handwritten style). For every psychosocial stage include pictures of yourself and
significant persons in your life. Discuss your own psychosocial development using
Erikson’s theory. Consider the crisis, maladaptation/malignancy and the
virtues.

SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory, I learned that …
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ____________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ____________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ ____________________
________________________________________________________________
_________________________________

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REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 “psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words – namely
psychological (or the root, “psyche” , relating to the mind, brain,
personality, etc.) and social (external relationships and environment)
 Erikson’s theory believed that the earlier stages served as the foundation
for the later stages.
 Each stage involves psychosocial crisis of two opposing forces
(versus).
 Is a stage is manage well, we carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial
strength which helps us through the rest of the stages of our lives.
 On the other hand, if we don’t do so well, we may develop
maladaptation and malignancies, as well as endanger all our future
development.
 Malignancy is the worse of the two. It involves too little of the positive
and too much of the negative aspect of the task, such as a person who
can’t trust others.
 Maladaptation is not quite as bad and involves too much of the positive
and too little of the negative, such as a person who trusts too much.
POST TEST:
Give 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be useful for you as a future
teacher.

1. ______________________________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________________________

4. ______________________________________________________________

5. ______________________________________________________________

6. _____________________________________________________________

REFERENCES:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development. Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html on June 30, 2020.

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MODULE # 2 : DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES ON CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2.5 : Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
TIME FRAME : 2. 5 hours

INTRODUCTION:




Individuals, when confronted by situations where they need to make moral
decisions, exercise their own ability to use moral reasoning. Lawrence Kohlberg was
interested in studying the development of moral reasoning. He based his theory on the
findings of Piaget in studying cognitive development. Our ability to choose right from
wrong is tied with our ability to understand and reason logically.

OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the stages of moral development in light to making daily decisions.
2. Analyze a person’s level of moral reasoning based on his responses to
moral dilemmas.
3. Cite how the theory of moral development can be applied to your work as
a teacher later on.

PRE-TEST:
Describe the following terms in your understanding. Do not use any dictionary.
1. Dilemma –
2. Moral development –
3. Punishment –
4. Good boy/ Nice Girl Orientation
5. Justice –

“Right actions tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and
standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole
society.”
- Lawrence Kohlberg

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Lawrence Kohlberg (1958) agreed with Piaget's (1932) theory of moral
development in principle but wanted to develop his ideas further. He used Piaget’s
storytelling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas. In each case,
he presented a choice to be considered, for example, between the rights of some
authority and the needs of some deserving individual who is being unfairly treated.
One of the best known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called
Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe. (Watch the animation on Youtube,
https://youtu.be/5czp9S4u26M).
Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer. Doctors said a new
drug might save her. The drug had been discovered by a local chemist, and the Heinz
tried desperately to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it
cost to make the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and
friends. He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have
the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was
going to make money from it. The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later
that night he broke into the chemist’s and stole the drug.
Kohlberg asked a series of questions such as:
1. Should Heinz have stolen the drug?
2. Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
3. What if the person dying was a stranger, would it make any difference?
4. Should the police arrest the chemist for murder if the woman died?
By studying the answers from children of different ages to these questions,
Kohlberg hoped to discover how moral reasoning changed as people grew older. The
sample comprised 72 Chicago boys aged 10–16 years, 58 of whom were followed up
at three-yearly intervals for 20 years (Kohlberg, 1984).
Each boy was given a 2-hour interview based on the ten dilemmas. What
Kohlberg was mainly interested in was not whether the boys judged the action right or
wrong, but the reasons given for the decision. He found that these reasons tended to
change as the children got older.

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Kohlberg identified three distinct levels of moral reasoning: pre-
conventional, conventional, and post-conventional. Each level has two sub-stages.
People can only pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces
the reasoning typical of the earlier stage. Not everyone achieves all the stages.
Activity 1. Don’t Know What to do?
Read the moral dilemma below.
Ryan, 17, has been saving up money to buy a ticket for this concert or rock
band. His parents have discouraged him from going as the concert will surely be with
a rowdy crowd. The band is notorious for having out-of-control audience who
somehow managed get drunk and stoned during the concert. Ryan agreed not to
watch anymore. But a day before the concert, Nic, 15-year-old brother of Ryan, saw a
corner of what appeared to be a concert ticket showing in the pocket of Ryan’s bag.
Nic examined it and confirmed it was indeed a ticket. Looking at Ryan’s bag, Nic also
found an extra shirt and 2 sticks of marijuana. So he figured Ryan will go to the concert
after all. That night, Ryan told his parents that he was spending tomorrow night at a
classmate’s house for a school requirement. Then later that evening, he told Nic of his
plan to go the concert. Nic didn’t say anything, but he found it difficult to sleep that
night, thinking whether to tell their parents or not.
1. If you were Nic, what would you do?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Why would you choose to do that? What were the things you considered in
deciding what to do?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents
and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or
internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses
largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished;
the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or
intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.
An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child
asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.

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Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but
this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance
in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone,
and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and
important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval
exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus
there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of
society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an
outside force.
Level 3: Post- Conventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms
of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization
that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey
rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions,
their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those
at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may
never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not
promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest
good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision

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and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage
five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and
focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they
are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to
disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if
they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it
is morally right to do so (and not because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is
in their best interest, it is expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although
Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who
consistently operated at that level.
Examine the answers you gave on our Activity 1 for this topic. Compare
it with the responses provided below. In which of these responses is your
answer most similar? Encircle it.
Stage 1
“Yes I will tell our parents. Because if they found out later that I knew, for sure they
will get angry and most likely punish me”
“No, I will not tell because Ryan will make my life difficult and also punish me for
telling.”
Stage 2
“Yes, I will tell my parents because they will reward me for it. I will subtly ask for that
new I Pod that I’m wishing have”
“No, I will not tell,. Ryan will surely grant me a lot of favors for not telling. He’ll not
also squeal on me.”
Stage 3
“Yes. I will tell so my parents will think I am such an honest boy!”
“No I will not tell. Ryan will think of me as a really cool brother!”.
Stage 4
“Yes I will tell because we should follow the rules that our parents say.”
“No. because it’s been our rule to keep each others secrets.”

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Stage 5
“Yes. I will tell because he might be hurt or get trouble and his welfare is top most
priority.”
“No. because he is big enough to question my parents decision not to let him go.”
Stage 6
“Yes, I will tell because lying is always wrong and I want to be true to what I believe
in.
“No, because I believe brothers watch our for each other. If he trusted me with this, I
should stay true to him and not say anything.”

Activity 2. My Moral Reasoning
Since you already learned the moral development’s (3) levels and its (6) stages,
from a given dilemma, state every possible moral reasoning in each stage.
Given Dilemma:
During your midterm exam, you got a chance to tell your teacher that your
seatmate has been cheating on you.
Stage Moral Reasoning
S1 Obedience-and-
Punishment Orientation





S2 Instrumental Orientation




S3 Good Boy, Nice Girl
Orientation





S4 Law-and-Order
Orientation

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S5 Social-Contract
Orientation





S6 Universal-Ethical-
Principal Orientation






SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory, I learned
that …
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget’s work, and set the groundwork for
the present debate within psychology on moral development.
 Like Piaget, he believed that children form ways of thinking through
their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts such
as justice, rights, equality, and human welfare.
 Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three
major levels. Each level represents a significant change in the social -
moral reasoning or perspective of the person.

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POST TEST:
The following are Moral Dilemmas which has given the specific level and
specific stage. State the moral reasoning based on the level and stage asked.
Example:
You caught your classmate cheating since he didn’t have a good review for their exam. (L1, S1)

Answer: I will tell my teacher about it because I fear that my teacher will punish me if she finds
out that I knew from the start that my classmate cheated.


1. You caught your classmate cheating since he didn’t have a good review for their
exam. (L2, S3)
2. You caught your classmate stealing money from your teacher’s bag. (L1,S2)
3. A teacher you noticed who does all the overloaded required tasks given by the
principal. (L3, S5)
4. A teacher whom you discovered to have a relationship that is still a student. (L1,S1)
5. You caught your father/ mother cheating your father/mother with another lady/man.
(L3,S5)
6. You caught your sibling who accidentally broke your television at home. (L2,S4)
7. You as a passerby who witnessed the traffic enforcer asking for money from a
motorist. (L1,S2)
8. You noticed that the cashier stole money from the money box. (L2,S4)
9. You have seen your classmate forged your Instructor’s signature. (L2,S3)
10. Since you lose a game, you were dared by your friends to pay for your ordered
foods. (L1,S1)
REFERENCES:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development . Retrieved from
https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html on June 30, 2020.
 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohl
bergs-stages-of-moral-
development/#:~:text=Lawrence%20Kohlberg%20expanded%20on%2
0the,level%20has%20two%20distinct%20stages on June 30, 2020.

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MODULE # 2 : DEVELOPMENTAL THEO RIES ON CHILD AND
ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
TOPIC 2.6 : Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
TIME FRAME : 2. 5 hours

INTRODUCTION:



Bronfenbrenner came up with a simple yet useful paradigm showing the
different factors that exert influence on an individual’s development. It points out the
ever-widening spheres of influence that shape every individual, from his/ her
immediate family to the neighborhood, the country, even the world!

OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe each of the layers of Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological model.
2. Evaluate factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on one’s
development.
3. Use the bioecological theory as a framework to describe the factors
that affect a child and adolescent development.

PRE-TEST:
Describe the following terms in your own understanding in light to social
influence.
1. Family –
2. Peers –
3. Religion –
4. School –
5. Workplace –



“Children need people in order to become human.
- Urie Bronfenbrenner

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Activity 1. Fill me up!
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood. You may also ask
your parents for some information. Write your answers on the graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
1. When I was 5 years old, my parents
____________________________________.
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were
_____________________________.
3. When I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show
______________________________________________________________
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in
___________________________.
5. I cannot forget my teacher who
_______________________________________.
6. When I was growing up, I was away from
_______________________________.
7. When I was in high school, I was close to
______________________________.
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about
______________________________.
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was
___________________.
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school was
______________________________________________________________

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Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems theory
presents child development within the context of relationship systems that comprise
the child’s environment. It describes multipart layers of environment that has an effect
on the development of the child. Each layer is further made up of different structures.
The term “bioecological” points out that a child’s own biological make-up impacts as a
key factor in one’s development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay between
his immediate family/ community environment and the societal landscape fuels and
steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one layer will ripple throughout
other layers. To study her immediate environment, but also at the interaction of the
larger environment as well.
The Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model
1. Microsystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the microsystem is the smallest and
most immediate environment in which children live. As such, the microsystem
comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group and community environment
of the children.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships
with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers. How these groups or
individuals interact with the children will affect how they grow.
Similarly, how children react to people in their microsystem will also influence
how they treat the children in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions
and relationships will understandably foster they children’s improved development.

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One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his
study of ecological systems is that it is possible for siblings who find themselves in the
same ecological system to experience very different environments.
Therefore, given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, it is not
impossible for the development of them to progress in different manners. Each child’s
particular personality traits, such as temperament, which is influenced by unique
genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he/she is treated by
others.
2. Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems
which children find themselves in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as
such, involves linkages between home and school, between peer group and family,
and between family and community.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s theory, if a child’s parents are actively involved
in the friendships of their child, for example they invite their child’s friends over to their
house from time to time and spend time with them, then the child’s development is
affected positively through harmony and like-mindedness.
However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize
them, then the child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, which will
likely lead to negative development.
3. Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more
settings, one of which may not contain the developing children but affect them
indirectly nonetheless.
Based on the findings of Bronfenbrenner, people and places that children may
not directly interact with may still have an impact on their lives. Such places and people
may include the parents’ workplaces, extended family members, and the
neighborhood the children live in.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an
indifferent boss at the workplace may take it out on his children and mistreat them at
home.
4. Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and
places to the children that still have significant influences on them. This ecological
system is composed of the children’s cultural patterns and values, specifically their
dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems.

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For example, children in war-torn areas will experience a different kind of
development than children in peaceful environments.
5. Chronosystem
The Bronfenbrenner theory suggests that the chronosystem adds the useful
dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and constancy in
the children’s environments. The chronosystem may include a change in family
structure, address, parents’ employment status, as well as immense society changes
such as economic cycles and wars.
By studying the various ecological systems, Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Systems Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on
children’s development. Awareness of the contexts that children are in can sensitize
us to variations in the way children may act in different settings.
For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may
portray the role of a terrified victim at home. Due to these variations, adults who are
concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention to his/her
behavior in different settings, as well as to the quality and type of connections that
exist between these settings.
The Role of Schools and Teachers
Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head Start, the publicly-funded early childhood
program in the US. He concluded that “the instability and unpredictability of family life
is the most destructive force to a child’s development.” Researches tell us that
absence or ack of children’s constant mutual interaction with important adults has
negative effects on their development. According to the bioecological theory, “if the
relationships in the immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the
tools to explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations
that should be present in the child/ parent (or child/ other important adult) relationship
look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies show themselves
especially in adolescence as antisocial behavior, lack of discipline, and inability to
provide self-direction.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their
important role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the home, if there
is a serious breakdown of the basic relationships in a child’s life, what can the school,
the teachers in particular do? This theory helps teachers look into every child’s
environmental systems in order to understand more about the characteristics and
needs of each child, each learner. The schools and the teachers can contribute
stability and long-term relationships, but only to support and not replace the
relationships in the home. He believes that, “primary relationship needs to be with
someone who can provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This

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relationship must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of
the child’s influence.
Schools and teachers’ crucial role is not to replace the lack in the home if
such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment that welcomes
and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that society should value work
done on behalf of children at all levels, and consequently value parents, teachers,
extended family, mentors, work supervisors, legislators.
Activity 2. Let me in!
Write each answer you gave in the Activity 1 on the circle where it
belongs.













SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory, I learned that
…
_______________________________________ ____________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
ME
Family, church, school
Extended family
Culture, subculture, social class

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 The Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in
multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to
understand their development.
 Each of these ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each
other in all aspects of the children’s lives.
 Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model organizes contexts of development into five
levels of external influence. These levels are categorized from the most intimate
level to the broadest.
POST TEST:
Looking at your answers from (Activity 1 and Activity 2) of this lesson, describe
how these people or circumstances have influenced your attitudes, behavior and
habits.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ ________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
REFERENCES:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 What is Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory?. Retrieved from
https://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-ecological-theory/
on June 30, 2020.

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MODULE # 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
TOPIC 3.1 : Prenatal Period
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:



All the developmental theories (Midterm Coverage) which we lengthily
discussed dwelt on the developmental process after birth. None of them was
concerned with what development went on before birth. To make the description of
human development complete, it may be good to understand the beginnings of the
child and the adolescent, the learners.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Trace the course of the prenatal developmental process that you went
through;
2. Explain the most common hazards to prenatal development; and
3. Become more appreciative of the gift of life manifested in an anti-
abortion stand.

PRE-TEST: (Content – 5; Organization of Ideas – 3;
What does Coleridge (Quote from the introduction) means about the
history of man in relevance to development? Use the space provided below for your
answer.







“The history of man for nine months preceding his birth would, probably, be far more
interesting, and contain events of greater moment than all three scores and ten years that
follow it.”
- Samuel Taylor Coleridge

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Activity 1. Life Before Birth
Read the article “Life Before Birth” below then answer the following questions:
Life Before Birth: The Development of The Unborn Child
The development of human life in the womb was once a
mystery, but science and medicine have changed that. Abortion
advocates still try to dehumanize the developing baby in the womb
by speaking of the child as “a blob of tissue” or “uterine contents.”
But ultrasound images, prenatal surgery and other advances in
obstetrics are revealing the beauty and wonder of life in the womb.
Dr. Paul Rockwell, a New York physician, made these
profound observations after his amazing encounter with a tiny
unborn baby boy: “Eleven years ago while I was giving an anesthetic
for a ruptured ectopic pregnancy (at two months gestation), I was
handed what I believe was the smallest living human ever seen. The
embryo sac was intact and transparent. Within the sac was a tiny
human male swimming extremely vigorously in the amniotic fluid,
while attached to the wall by the umbilical cord.
“This tiny human was perfectly developed, with long, tapering fingers, feet and toes. The skin
was transparent and the delicate arteries and veins were prominent to the ends of the fingers.
“The baby swam about the sac with a natural swimmer’s stroke. This tiny human was
obviously alive! “
When the sac was opened, the tiny human immediately stopped moving and died." The point
at which Dr. Rockwell witnessed this unborn baby —eight weeks gestation—is the time when many
abortions are performed.

Guide Questions: (Content- 5; Organization of ideas- 3; Grammar – 2)
1. What are your feelings and reactions about what you read?

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2. Do you agree that which is developing in the womb is a mere “blob of tissue” or
“uterine contents” as abortionists claim? Share your explanation.









The Stages of Prenatal Development
Prenatal development is divided into three (3) periods: germinal, embryonic and
fetal.
1. Germinal Period (First 2 weeks after conception) – this includes the a)
creation of the zygote, b) continued cell division and c) the attachment of the
zygote to the uterine wall. The following are the details of development during
this period:
a. 24 to 30 hours after fertilization – the male (sperm) and female (egg)
chromosome unite
b. 36 hours – the fertilized ovum, zygote, divides into two (2) cells;
c. 48 hours (2 days) – 2 cells become 4 cells
d. 72 hours (3 days) – 4 cells become small compact ball of 16-32 cells
e. 96 hours (4 days) – hollow ball of 64-128 cells
f. 4 – 5 days – inner cell mass (blastocyst) still free in the uterus
g. 6-7 days – blastocyst attaches to the wall of uterus
h. 11-15 days – blastocyst invades into urine wall and becomes in it
(implantation)

In this period, the differentiation of cells already begins as inner and outer layers
of the organism are formed. The blastocyst, the inner layer of cells that develops
during later into the embryo. The trophoblast, the outer layer of cells that develops
also during the germinal period, later provides nutrition and support for the embryo.
2. Embryonic Period (2-8 weeks after conception) – in this stage, the name of
the mass cells, zygote, become embryo. The following development takes
place:

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a. Cell differentiation
i. embryo’s endoderm – inner layer of cells, develops into the
digestive and respiratory systems
ii. embryo’s ectoderm – the outermost layer which becomes the
nervous system, sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose) and skin
parts (nails, hair)
iii. embryo’s mesoderm – the middle layer which becomes the
circulatory, skeletal, muscular, excretory and reproductive
systems.
b. Life-support systems for the embryo develop
i. Placenta – consist of disk-shape group of tissues in which small
blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but do
not join
ii. Umbilical cord – contains two arteries and one vein that connects
the baby to the placenta
iii. Amnion – is a bag or an envelope that contains clear fluid in which
the developing embryo floats
c. Organs appear (organogenesis – process of organ formation)

3. Fetal Period (2 months to 7 months after conception) – growth and
development continue dramatically during this period. The details of the
developmental process are as follows:
a. 3 months after conception – fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs
about 1 ounce; fetus has become active, moves its arms and legs, opens
and closes its mouth, and moves its head; the face, forehead, eyelids,
nose, chin can now be distinguished and also the upper arms, lower
arms, hands and lower limbs; the genitals can now be identified as male
or female.
b. 4 months after conception – fetus is about 6 inches long and weighs 4
to 7 ounces; growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts; prenatal
reflexes are stronger; mother feels arm and leg movements for the first
time.
c. 5 months after conception – fetus is about 12 inches long; weighs close
to a pound; structures of the skin (fingernail, toenails) have formed; fetus
is more active.
d. 6 months after conception – fetus is about 14 inches long and weighs
one and half pound; eyes and eyelids are completely formed; fine layer
of head covers the head; grasping reflex is present and irregular
movements occur
e. 7 months after conception – fetus is about 16 inches long and weighs 3
pounds
f. 8 and 9 months after conception – fetus grows longer and gains
substantial weight, about 4 pounds

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Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development
Teratology is the field that investigates the causes of congenital (birth) defects.
A teratogen is that which cause birth effects. It comes from Greek word “tera” which
means “monster”.
Below are the clusters of hazards to prenatal development:
1. Prescription and nonprescription drugs – one of the examples of
prescriptive drugs is Antibiotic because it can be harmful. Examples of harmful
nonprescriptive drugs are: diet pills, aspirin and coffee.
Have you heard the thalidomide tragedy in 1961? Many pregnant women took
in thalidomide, a tranquilizer, to alleviate their morning sickness that gave rise
to several deformed babies. Cocaine exposure during prenatal development is
associated with reduced birthweight, length and head circumference, impaired
motor development, impaired information processing and poor attention skills.
2. Psychoactive drugs – these include nicotine, caffeine and illegal drugs such
as marijuana, cocaine and heroin. Researchers found that pregnant women
who drank more caffeinated coffee were more likely to have preterm deliveries
and newborns with lower birthweight compared to their counterparts who did
not drink caffeinated coffee (Eskanazi, et al, 1999 quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Heavy drinking by pregnant women results to the so-called fetal alcohol
syndrome (FAS) which is a cluster of abnormalities that appear in children of
mothers who drink alcohol, heavily during pregnancy. These includes facial
deformities and defective limbs, face and heart.
3. Environmental hazards – these include radiation in jobsites and X-rays,
environmental pollutants, toxic wastes, and prolonged exposure to heat in
saunas and bath tubs. Research found that chromosomal abnormalities are
higher among the offspring of fathers exposed to high levels of radiation in their
occupations (Schrag and Dixon, 1985 cited by Santrock, 2002).
4. Other maternal factors such as Rubella (German measles), syphilis, gentitl
herpes, AIDS, nutrition, high anxiety and stress, age (too early or too late,
beyond 30)

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Activity 2. A Letter from Junior
Pretend you are a “Junior”, 4 months old in the womb. Your mother is
concentrating on doing abortion. Write her a letter convincing her that you are a human
being developing contrary to what she and other pro-abortionists are thinking.
Describe to her the development that has already taken place in 4 months. Give your
letter this title, “A Letter from Junior” (or you may want to write your name).

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SELF- EVALUATION: (Content- 5; Organization of Ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
Has any realization from this topic changed your stand on abortion?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________ ____________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
From this topic, you’ve learned how important this stage is especially it’s the
beginning of one’s development. Every parent should be meticulous upon handling
themselves to avoid risk in child’s development.

POST-TEST
1. What are the three (3) stages of prenatal development?




2. Give some hazards of prenatal development.





REFERENCE:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
TOPIC 3.2 : Infancy and Toddlerhood
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:


We have just traced the developmental process before birth. We shall
continue to trace the developmental process by following the infant or the baby who is
just born up to when he reaches age 2. The period that comes after prenatal or
antenatal stage is infancy, which, in turn, is followed by toddlerhood. Infancy and
toddlerhood span the first two years of life.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
4. Trace the physical development that you have gone through as infants
and toddlers;
5. Identify factors that enhance / impede the physical development of
infants and toddlers; and
6. Draw implications of these principles and processes to child care,
education and parenting.
PRE-TEST:
Study the figures below. Look closely the changes in the sizes of the human
body parts as a person grows.








“A baby is God’s opinion that life should go on.”
- Carl Sandburg

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Guide Questions:
1. What do you notice about the size of the head in relation to the other parts of the body as
person grows older?






2. Does physical development begin from the top or below? From the side to the center?
Explain your answer.











LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Cephalocaudal and Proximodistal Patterns
1. Cephalocaudal -- sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the
top, beginning with the head
2. Proximodistal -- sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and
moves toward the extremities
The First Year
 Average North American newborn -- 20 inches long; 7½ pounds
 Most newborns lose 5 to 7 percent of their body weight adjusting to feeding
 They double their birth weight by the age of 4 months; nearly triple it by their
first birthday

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 Infants grow about 1 inch per month during the first year

From Age 1 to 2 Years
 At 2 years of age, children weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds
 gaining a quarter to half a pound per month
 attain about one-fifth of their adult weight
 At 2 years, the average child is 32 to 35 inches tall--nearly half of their
eventual adult height

The Brain
 Cerebral cortex covers the forebrain like a wrinkled cap
 Two halves, or hemispheres, based on ridges and valleys in the cortex
 Four main areas, lobes, in each hemisphere
 frontal lobes, occipital lobes, temporal lobes, parietal lobes
 Lateralization -- specialization of function in one hemisphere or the other

Neuron
Parts of the neuron
 Axon carries signals away from the cell body
 Dendrites carry signals toward it
 Myelin sheath -- a layer of fat cells -- provides insulation and helps electrical
signals travel faster down the axon
 At the end of the axon are terminal buttons, which release chemicals called
neurotransmitters into synapses
 Synapses -- tiny gaps between neurons' fibers


Changes in Neurons
 Chemical interactions in synapses connect axons and dendrites, allowing
information to pass from neuron to neuron
 The pace of myelination also varies in different areas of the brain
 The infant’s brain is waiting for experiences to determine how connections are
made

Changes in Regions of the Brain
 Both heredity and environment influence synaptic overproduction and
subsequent retraction
 “Blooming (development) and pruning” vary considerably by brain region
 Pruning -- unused connections are replaced by other pathways or disappear
 Prefrontal cortex -- the area of the brain where higher-level thinking and self-
regulation occur

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Sleep
 Considerable individual variation in how much infants sleep
 typical newborn sleeps 16 to 17 hours a day

SIDS
 Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) -- condition that occurs when infants
stop breathing, usually during the night, and die suddenly without an apparent
cause
 SIDS is the highest cause of infant death in the United States
 Risk of SIDS is highest at 2 to 4 months of age

Risk Factors for SIDS
 SIDS decreases when infants sleep on their backs
 More common in low birth weight infants
 Infants who are passively exposed to cigarette smoke are at higher risk
 More frequent in infants who sleep in
 soft bedding
 Less likely in infants who use a pacifier when they go to sleep

Benefits of Breast Feeding
 Appropriate weight gain a
 lowered risk of childhood obesity
 Fewer allergies
 Prevention or reduction of diarrhea, respiratory infections, bacterial and
urinary tract infections, and otitis media
 Denser bones in childhood and adulthood
 Reduced childhood cancer and reduced incidence of breast cancer in mothers
and their female offspring
 Lower incidence of SIDS

When Mother Should Not Breast Feed
 If she is infected with AIDS or any other infectious disease that can be
transmitted through her milk
 If she has active tuberculosis
 If she is taking any drug that may not be safe for the infant

Nutritional Needs
 Nutritionists recommend that infants consume approximately 50 calories per
day for each pound they weigh
 This is more than twice an adult’s requirement per pound

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Dynamic Systems Theory
 Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting, which are coupled
together
 When infants are motivated to do something, they might create a new motor
behavior
 Mastering a motor skill requires the infant’s active efforts to coordinate several
components of the skill
 Mastering a New Skill
 The infant is motivated by a new challenge
 Partially accomplishes the task
 “Fine tunes” movements to make them smoother and more effective
 “Tuning” is achieved through repeated cycles of action and perception of the
consequences of that action

Reflexes
 Reflexes -- built-in reactions to stimuli
 Genetically carried survival mechanisms
 automatic
 involuntary
 Allow infants to respond adaptively to their environment

Example reflexes
 Rooting and sucking, Moro or startle reflex, coughing, sneezing, blinking,
shivering, and yawning

Gross Motor Skills
Skills that involve large-muscle activities
 Sitting with support -- 2 months
 Sitting upright without support -- 6 to 7 months of age
 Pull themselves up and hold on to a chair -- 8 months
 Stand alone – 10 to 12 months

 With experience, babies learn to avoid risky situations, integrating perceptual
information with the development of a new motor behavior
 Toddlers become more mobile
13–18 months
 can pull a toy attached to a string
 use their hands and legs to climb up a number of steps
18–24 months
 toddlers can walk quickly or run stiffly
 walk backwards without losing their balance
 stand and kick a ball without falling and stand and throw a ball
 jump in place

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Fine Motor Skills
 Finely tuned movements
 At birth, infants have very little control over fine motor skills
 During the first two years of life, infants refine how they reach and grasp
 Perceptual-motor coupling is necessary for the infant to coordinate grasping
 Experience plays a role in reaching and grasping
Sensory and Perceptual Development
 Sensation occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors -- the
eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin
 Perception is the interpretation of what is sensed
 Our perceptual system can select from the rich information that the
environment provides
 We directly perceive information that exists in the world around us

Studying the Infant’s Perception
 Perception brings us into contact with the environment in order to interact with
and adapt to it
 Visual Preference Method -- Infants look at different things for different
lengths of time
 Orienting response -- to determine if an infant can see or hear a stimulus
 Habituation -- decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated
presentations of the stimulus
 Dishabituation -- is the recovery of a habituated response after a change in
stimulation

Visual Acuity and Color
 Newborn’s vision is estimated to be 20/600 on the well-known Snellan eye
examination chart
 By 6 months of age -- vision is 20/40 or better
 By about the first birthday, the infant’s vision approximates that of an adult
 By 8 weeks, possibly even by 4 weeks, infants can discriminate among some
colors

Perception of Pattern and Depth
 Infants prefer to look at a normal human face rather than one with scrambled
features
 Depth perception -- visual cliff
 Infants develop the ability to use binocular (two-eyed) cues to depth by about
3 to 4 months of age

Hearing, Touch, and Pain
 Prenatally at 7 months, infants can hear sounds such as mother’s voice and
music

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 Immediately after birth, infants cannot hear soft sounds or pitch as well as
adults do
 Newborns respond to touch and feel pain

Smell and Taste
 Newborns can differentiate among odors
 Sensitivity to taste might be present even before birth
 At only 2 hours of age, babies made different facial expressions when they
tasted sweet, sour, and bitter solutions

Language Development
 Language -- a form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—
that is based on a system of symbols
 All human languages have some common characteristics
 Rules describe the way the language works
 Infinite generativity -- the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful
sentences using a finite set of words and rules

Key Milestones in Language Development
 Babies' sounds and gestures go through this sequence during the first year
 Crying: can signal distress, but there are different types of cries that signal
different things
 Cooing: about 1 to 2 months, gurgling sounds that are made in the back of
the throat and usually express pleasure during interaction with the caregiver
 Babbling: In the middle of the first year, babies babble -- strings of
consonant-vowel combinations, such as “ba, ba, ba, ba”
 Gestures: Infants start using gestures, such as showing and pointing, at
about 8 to 12 months of age

Recognizing Language Sounds
 Phonemes -- the basic sound units of a language
 First words occur between 10 to 15 months (average is 13 months)

Two-Word Utterances
 Occurs by the time children are 18 to 24 months of age
 “Big car”
 “Where ball?”
 Telegraphic speech is the use of short, precise words without grammatical
markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives
 “Mommy give ice cream”

Biological Influences
 The ability to use language requires vocal apparatus as well as nervous
system capabilities

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 Brain regions predisposed for language
 Broca’s area -- an area in the left frontal lobe of the brain involved in
producing words
 Wernicke’s area -- a region of the brain’s left hemisphere involved in language
comprehension
 Aphasia -- a loss or impairment of language processing as a result of damage
to brain
 Language Acquisition Device (LAD) -- Humans are biologically prewired to
learn language at a certain time and in a certain way and to detect the various
features and rules of language

Environmental Influences
 Behaviorists opposed Chomsky's LAD hypothesis
 Stated that language was nothing more than chains of responses acquired
through reinforcement
 The behavioral view is no longer considered a viable explanation of how
children acquire language
 Language is not learned in a social vacuum
 Most children learn at a very early age
 Vocabulary development is linked to the family’s socioeconomic status and
the type of talk that parents direct to the child
 Child-directed speech is language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, using
simple words and sentences
 Other strategies include recasting, expanding, labeling
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
 Piaget thought we build mental structures that help us to adapt to the world
 Adaptation involves adjusting to new environmental demands

Processes of Development
 Developing brain creates schemes, which are actions or mental
representations that organize knowledge
 Assimilation -- children use their existing schemes to deal with new
information or experiences
 Accommodation -- children adjust their schemes to take new information and
experiences into account
 Equilibrium and Disequilibrium
 Cognitive conflict -- disequilibrium
 the child is constantly faced with inconsistencies and counterexamples to
existing schemes
 An internal search for equilibrium creates motivation for change
 the child assimilates and accommodates, develops new schemes, and
organizes and reorganizes old and new schemes
 Cognition is qualitatively different in one stage compared with another

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Sensorimotor Stage
 Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory
experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical actions
 Lasts from birth to 2 years
 At the end of this stage, 2-year-olds can produce complex sensorimotor
patterns and use primitive symbols
 Object Permanence
 Object permanence -- understanding that objects continue to exist even when
they cannot be seen, heard, or touched
 One of the infant’s most important accomplishments
 Watch an infant’s reaction when an interesting object disappears. If the infant
searches for the object, it is inferred that the baby knows it continues to exist

Evaluating and Modifying Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
 The infant’s cognitive world is not as neatly packaged as Piaget portrayed it
 Some of Piaget’s explanations for the cause of change are debated
 Piaget's view of sensorimotor development needs to be modified
 Some researchers conclude that infants’ perceptual abilities are highly
developed very early in development

Learning, Remembering, and Conceptualizing
 Infants can learn through operant conditioning
 Attention is the focusing of mental resources on select information and
improves cognitive processing on many tasks
 Joint attention involves individuals focusing on the same object or event and
involves:
 The ability to track another’s behavior
 One person directing another’s attention
 Reciprocal interaction

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Activity 1. Milestone Making
Name: __________________________________ Date: ______________
Come up with a graphic presentation of the milestones of the various aspects
of physical development (proximodistal and cephalocaudal patterns, height, weight,
during infancy and toddlerhood, c ognitive development, socio-emotional
development). For details, refer to the Philippine Early Learning and Development
Standards. Cite implication/s of each milestone to parenting.

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SELF-EVALUATION: (Content -5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
From the topic on Infancy and Toddlerhood, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ ______________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
______________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
Between birth and age three, children rapidly achieve many important
milestones that create the foundation for later growth and development. Children
display developmental landmarks at different times. Children grow rapidly during
infancy and toddlerhood. They accomplish many milestones, including establishing a
sense of trust in the world during infancy and finding their independence in
toddlerhood. Adults have the important task of providing children varied opportunities
to promote their development during infancy and toddlerhood.

POST TEST: Encircle your answer.
1. Which statement on physical development of infants and toddlers is TRUE? –
Analysis
The cephalocaudal growth patterns shows ______.
a. Development of the upper limbs before the lower limbs.
b. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs.
c. Simultaneous development of the upper and lower limbs.
d. Development of muscular control of trunk and arms before the fingers
2. As the normal infant and toddler, which physical development did you go
through? – Application
a. Development of motor skills form the body outward to the center
b. Development of motor skills from the center of the body outward
c. Development of the lower limbs before the upper limbs
d. Simultaneous development of the limbs and trunk body

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3. Which factor according to research can impede the physical development of
infants and toddlers? – Understanding
a. Depressed environment
b. Early brain stimulation
c. Being the only child
d. Being a member of a big family
4. For healthy physical development of a toddler which should parents do? –
Application
I. Encourage your child to sit when eating.
II. Encourage free play as much as possible to develop motor
skills
III. Check toys for loose or broken parts.
a. II and III
b. I and III
c. I, II
d. I, II and III

REFERENCE:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
TOPIC 3.3 : Early Childhood (The Preschooler)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:



The preschooler years is commonly known as “the years before formal
schooling begins.” It roughly covers 3-5 years of age. Although it is known as the years
before formal school, it is by no way less important than the grade school years. The
preschool years is very important as it lays foundation to later development. Ad this
stage, preschoolers achieve many developmental milestones. As such, pre-service
teachers might be interested to tech and care for preschoolers need to be
knowledgeable about them to be truly an intentional and effective teacher.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe preschool children’s physical, cognitive and socioemotional
development;
2. Draw implications of these concepts on child’s development on
teaching preschoolers.
PRE-TEST:
Can you still recall your preschool years? Or you may ask from your family
about the important milestones you have in that stage. Give your insights about it in
relation also to the quote given from the introduction of this topic. (Content -5;
Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)






“A child reminds us that playtime is an essential part of the daily routine.”
- Anonymous

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Big Ideas about the Physical Development of Preschoolers
1. There are significant changes in physical growth of preschoolers.
2. The preschoolers’’ physical development is marked by the acquisition of gross
and fine motor skills.
3. Preschoolers can express themselves artistically at a very early age.
4. Proper nutrition and the right amount of sleep are very important for the
preschoolers.
5. Caregivers and teachers can do a lot in maximizing the growth and
development of preschoolers.
6. Preschoolers with special needs in inclusive classroom can thrive well with the
appropriate adaptations made in the classroom, materials and activities.
Gross and Fine Motor Development
Gross motor development refers to acquiring skills that involve the large
muscles. Theses gross motor skills are categorized into three:
1. Locomotor skills – involve going from one place to another like walking,
running, climbing, skipping, hopping, creeping, galloping and dodging.
2. Non-locomotor skills – those where the child stays in place like
bending, stretching, turning and swaying
3. Manipulative skills – involve projecting and receiving objects, like
throwing, striking, bouncing, catching and dribbling.
Preschoolers are generally physically active. Level of activity is highest
around three and becomes a little less s the preschooler gets older. They should be
provided with a variety of appropriate activities which will allow them to use their large
muscles.
Fine motor development refers to acquiring the ability to use the smaller
muscles in the arm, hands and fingers purposefully. Some of the skills included here
are picking, squeezing, pounding and opening things, holding and using a writing
implement. It also involves self-help skills like using the spoon and fork when eating,
buttoning, zipping, combing and brushing.

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Activity 1. Captured!
Make your own photo essay about the physical development of
preschoolers. Observe preschoolers in action and take their pictures. Describe the
gross and fine motor skills that you saw them. Use the space provided below for
pasting your captured photos. At least two photos.

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Brain Connections in the Preschool Years
Because of the fascinating developments in neuroscience, brain
development of young children has been great interest to the field of early childhood.
Brain research findings point us to more effective ways to care for and teach
preschoolers. From science lessons you had in highschool or even in elementary, you
will remember that our brain is composed of numerous cells called neurons that
connect to each other to function. Cell connections are what we call synapses,
sometimes also referred to as synaptic connections. Did you know that:
 The human brain contains some 50 billion neurons at birth?
 By age 2, children have developed half of the brain cell connections that will be
made during one’s lifetime?
 Around 6 years of age the brain develops for more sophisticated thinking
patterns?
Brain research has also pointed out the crucial role of the environment.
Experts have shown specific areas of brain activity that respond to environmental
stimulation. Therefore, the brain forms specific connections (synapses) that are
different for each person. The quality of these connections depends on the quality of
stimulation and exposure provided by the environment.
Big Ideas about Preschoolers’ Cognitive Development
1. Preschoolers engage in symbolic and intuitive thinking.
2. Brain connections are made when preschoolers interact with the environment.
3. Preschoolers’ language development occurs in four areas: phonology,
semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.
4. Vygotsky believed that language and social interaction are very important to
cognitive development.
5. Preschoolers’ cognitive development is marked by the emergence of a theory
of mind.
Big Ideas about Preschoolers’ Socioemotional Development
1. The development of initiative is crucial to the preschooler.
2. A healthy self-concept is needed for preschoolers to interact with others.
3. Environmental factors influence gender identity in younger children.
4. Preschooler’s social development is shown through the stage of play.
5. The care-giving styles of parents and teachers affect the preschoolers’
socioemotional development.
6. Preschoolers are interested in building friendships.

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Parten’s Six Stages Of Play

1. Unoccupied play. Children are relatively still and their play appears scattered.
This type of play builds the foundation for the other five stages of play.
Unoccupied play looks like babies or young children exploring materials around
them without any sort of organization. This stage allows children to practice
manipulating materials, mastering their self-control and learning about how the
world works.
2. Solitary play. This type of play occurs when children entertain themselves
without any other social involvement. Children in solitary play may not notice or
acknowledge other children. Adults might worry about children playing alone,
but actually solitary play is very normal. When children engage in solitary play,
they are able to explore freely, master new personal skills like new motor or
cognitive skills, and prepare themselves to play with others.
3. Onlooker play. Children who sit back and engagingly watch other children
playing, but do not join in are onlookers. The active part of their play is watching
others. Sometimes it’s easy to think children engaged in onlooker play might be
lonely or scared to engage with other children, when in fact it is a very normal
part of play development. Just as adults “people watch” at the coffee shop,
children learn a lot by watching others. They learn about the social rules of play
and relationships, they explore different ways of playing or using materials and
they learn about the world in general.
4. Parallel play. This occurs when children play next to each other, but are not
really interacting together. For example, two children may drive cars on the
carpet next to each other, but their play does not actually overlap. In this stage,
children are not really engaging in a social exchange. Think of this stage like a
warm up exercise – children work side by side on the same activity, practicing
skills and learning new methods to engage together.
5. Associative play. This type of play signifies a shift in the child. Instead of being
more focused on the activity or object involved in play, children begin to be
more interested in the other players. Associative play allows children to begin
practicing what they have observed through onlooker and parallel play. They
can start to use their newfound social skills to engage with other children or
adults during an activity or exploration.
6. Cooperative play. This is play categorized by cooperative efforts between
players. Children might adopt group goals, establish rules for play. It’s important
to remember cooperation is an advanced skill and can be very difficult for young
children. Ironically, cooperative play often involves a lot of conflict. This is
normal. It is sometimes difficult for young children to share, take turns and
negotiate control in these types of play scenarios. You can support children
engaged in cooperative play by staying close and helping them learn healthy
expression of emotions and teach them problem solving skills.

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Caregiving Styles
Caregiving styles affect socio-emotional development of the children.
Caregivers here refer to both parents and teachers and even other adults that care for
the child. Baumrind gave a model that describes the different types of caregiving
styles. Responsiveness refers to caregiver behaviors that pertain to expression of
affection and communication. It refers to how warm, caring and respectful the adult is
to the child. Demandingness refers to the level of control and expectations. This
involves disciplines and confrontation strategies.
1. Authoritative – High demandingness / high responsiveness.
2. Authoritarian – High demandingness / low responsiveness
3. Permissiveness – low demandingness / high responsiveness
4. Negligent – low demandingness / low responsiveness

Activity 2. What’s Best?
From the four (4) caregiving styles cited by Baumrind, what do you think
is the most appropriate in handling preschoolers? (Content – 5; Organization of ideas
– 2; Grammar – 2)

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SELF- EVALUATION: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 2; Grammar – 2)
From this topic, Early childhood (The Preschooler), I have learned that,
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________ __
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________ ______________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional development are important issues in
a developing early child.
 The role of caregivers is important as they will nurture and help the children to
develop properly.

POST TEST:
Since you already learned the importance of the three development
issues in a preschooler, as a future teacher, what do you think are the proper ways of
teaching a child to learn things? Give at least 3 ways every age.
1. Role of caregivers (parents and teachers) in the Physical development of
preschoolers:
a. For age 3 year-old

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b. For age 4 year-old







c. For age 5 year-old






2. Role of caregivers (parents and teachers) in the Cognitive development (You
may recall Piaget’s theory) of preschoolers:
d. For age 3 year-old







e. For age 4 year-old

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f. For age 5 year-old






3. Role of caregivers (parents and teachers) in the Socioemo tional of
preschoolers:
g. For age 3 year-old







h. For age 4 year-old

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i. For age 5 year-old







REFERENCE:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.
 What is my parenting style? Four types of Parenting. Retrieved from
https://www.brighthorizons.com/family-resources/parenting-style-four-types-
of-parenting on August 17, 2020.

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MODULE # 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
TOPIC 3.4 : Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:


Primary school children undergo many different changes as they go
through this stage of development. Physical, cognitive and socioemotional still takes
place in this stage. It is important that as a future teacher, one should learn the
important milestones and maybe struggles during this period to assist their learning
process.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Describe the primary schoolers’ milestones in terms of physical,
cognitive and socioemotional development;
2. Enumerate ideas on how to apply the concepts in this topic in the
teaching learning process.

PRE-TEST:
When you were still in your early years of elementary level, what are the
most unforgettable accomplishments or achievements you have in terms of physical,
cognitive and socioemotional aspects? (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)








“Children are great imitators. So give them something great to imitate.”
- Anonymous

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Activity 1. Describing ME.
Paste a picture of yourself when you were an early-school age child
(around Grade 1 to 3). Write a description on the given areas.

Height






Weight






Body shape






Activities
you could
do


















PHOTO

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Physical growth during the primary school years is slow but steady.
During this stage. Physical development involves:
1. Having good muscle control and coordination
2. Developing eye-hand coordination
3. Having good personal hygiene
4. Being aware of good safety habits
Primary school age children get fatigued more easily because of physical
and mental exertions both at home and in school. Hence, activities should be
alternated between strenuous one and relaxing or quiet activities (example: storytelling
time after the Math period).
Jean Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage
Concrete operation is the third stage in Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. It spans from age 7 to approximately 11 years old. During this time,
children have better understanding of their thinking skills. children to think logically
about concrete events, particularly their own experiences, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts, thus most of them still have a hard
time at problem solving.

Activity 2. My Ways
Children have varying intelligence profiles. These profiles are based on
influences of learning and achievement. Parents, child care providers and teachers
should be able to recognize these things. Using the provided space below, list down
five (5) ways you will do as a teacher to enhance the cognitive abilities of your pupils
from this stage. (Content – 5; Creativity of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)

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Erik Erikson’s Fourth Stage of Psychosocial Development
Industry vs. inferiority is the psychosocial crisis that children will have to
resolve in this stge. Industry refers to a child’s involvement in situations where long,
patient work is demanded of them, while inferiority is the feeling created when a child
gets a feeling of failure when they cannot finish or master their school work.
In this stage, children, will most likely, have begun going to school.
School experiences become the priority, with children so busy doing school work. The
encouragement of parents and caring educators helps to build a child’s sense of self-
esteem, confidence and ability to interact positively in the world.
Activity 3. My Ways
Primary school children’s socio-emotional competency should be viewed
in the context of the child’s development. Health-care providers, teachers and pare
parents should be able to identify appropriate dealings at this stage. Using the
provided space below, list down five (5) ways you will do as a teacher to improve the
socioemotional skills of your pupils from this stage. (Content – 5; Creativity of ideas –
3; Grammar – 2)










SELF- EVALUATION: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 2; Grammar – 2)
From this topic, Middle childhood (The Primary schooler), I have learned
that,
__________________________________________________ _________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
______________________________________ _____________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional development are important issues in
a developing early child.
 The role of caregivers is important as they will nurture and help the children to
develop properly.

POST TEST:
Name: _________________________________ Date: _____________
Encircle your answer.
1. Why does a primary school aged child looked slimmer than a preschool child?
a. Because the location and accumulation of the body fats shift
b. Because they have less muscle tissues
c. Because their bones are leaner
d. Because their appetite is poor
2. What is the general physical characteristic of a primary school child?
a. Prefers to sit than play.
b. Starts to walk and sit without being supported.
c. Has difficulty balancing and often falls down
d. Are extremely active.
3. Which means that children at the primary school age have difficulty determining
outcome of a specific event using a general principle?
a. Reversibility
b. Inductive logic
c. Deductive logic
d. Discrimination
4. Jacob loves reading comic book series of superheroes. Which cognitive
characteristic is shown here?
a. They can read more words or combination of words
b. Their attention span is longer, hence, they are more involved in serial
stories
c. Their reading orientation is correct – starting from left to right; up and down

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d. Jacob is an emergent reader
5. How can teachers encourage friendships among primary school-aged children?
a. Design group activities during different parts of the lesson.
b. Arrange the classroom seating alphabetically
c. Provide children with opportunities to express their views and opinions
d. Rank them from the ones with highest average rating to the lowest average
ratings.

REFERENCE:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
TOPIC 3.5 : Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:


Late childhood is generally defined as ages 9 through 12. Others, may call
this stage as “preteens”. Physical changes during this stage is fairly unpredictable
among children in this age group. They also begin to have rapid development of mental
skills and at this period, children are spending less time in the home since bulk of their
time is spent outside the home.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Discuss the intermediate school children’s milestones in terms of
physical, cognitive and socioemotional development;
2. Enumerate ideas on how to apply the concepts in this topic in the
teaching learning process.

PRE-TEST:
When you were still in your late years of elementary level, what were the
notable accomplishments or achievements you have in terms of physical, cognitive
and socioemotional aspects? (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)








“There is in every child at every stage a new miracle of vigorous unfolding.”
- Erik Erikson

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Intermediate schoolers have more control over their bodies than they
have when they were in primary school. They become more active and have greater
liberty to choose the hobbies or sports that they want to get involved in.
Children in their late childhood stage always seen to be in a hurry – they
get so busy with their school work, interacting with their friends, exploring other
possible activities, but this period of physical development seems to take on a leisurely
pace.
This may also be the stage when puberty may begin. Puberty is the
period in which the body undergoes physical changes and becomes capable of sexual
reproduction.
These are the factors of physical development during this stage:
a. Early puberty
b. Height, weight and muscle development
c. Motor skills
d. Physical insecurities
Implications to child-care, education and parenting (Physical):
a. Provide ample opportunities at home and in school for physical
exercise and sports
b. Encourage children to participate in varied worthwhile activities until
they are able to discover the ones they are interested in
c. Develop a strong emotional attachment with your children so as to
address any insecurities and social concerns
d. Since children in this stage have more control over their eating habits,
provide them with healthier food choices.
Intermediate school children greatly enjoy the cognitive abilities that they
can now utilize more effectively as compared to their thinking skills during the primary
years. Their school work is now more complicated, reading texts have become longer,
problem solving has become an everyday part of their lives.
Their ability to use logic and reasoning gives them chances to think
about what they want and how to get it. they now become very interested in talking
about the future or even their potential careers. They develop special interest in
collections, hobbies and sports. They are even capable of understanding concepts
without having direct hands-on experiences.
These are the factors of cognitive development during this stage:
a. Reading

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b. Attention
c. Creativity
d. Impact of media
Implications to child-care, education and parenting (Cognitive):
a. Being an eager participant in children’s growth and development
b. Understanding how to use the children’s natural curiosity to help
make the appropriate developmental leaps in their skills and abilities;
and
c. Creating an atmosphere where risks can be taken and discoveries
made while children remain safe.
The same with other areas of development, children in this stage, show
improved emotional understanding, increased understanding that more than one
emotion can be experienced in a single experience. They may also show greater ability
to show or conceal emotions, utilize ways to redirect feelings and a capacity for
genuine empathy.
Another milestone in this stage is the development of the children’s
emotional intelligence (EQ), which involves the ability to monitor feelings of oneself
and others to guide and motivate behavior. Emotional Intelligence has four main areas:
1. Developing emotional self-awareness
2. Managing emotions (self-control)
3. Reading emotions (perspective taking)
4. Handling emotions (resolve problems)
These are the factors of socioemotional development during this stage:
a. Building friendships (peers)
b. Family
c. School
Implications to child-care, education and parenting (Socioemotional):
a. Give understanding of their child’s socioemotional strengths
b. Encouraging children to talk about their feelings without doing it
forcefully
c. Provide opportunities for children to build relationships with teachers
and fellow classmates
d. Remind children that friendships have their ups and downs and that
occasional conflicts and arguments can be healthy
e. Design activities that allow children to work on their own and discover
activities and hobbies that they enjoy
f. Model healthy relationships

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Activity 1. Discuss It
Answer the following guide questions: (Content-5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
1. Based on the insights that you wrote, what do you think are the general
physical characteristics of children aged 9 to 12 years?







2. What are the common physical activities these children do to help them to
develop physically?







3. In what aspect do girls and boys in the late childhood stage differ?

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4. As a teacher, write some concrete steps that you can do in the classroom to
encourage your students to make reading a habit.











5. As a teacher, write some ways of providing opportunities for intermediate
children to build relationships with teacher and classmates?

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SELF- EVALUATION: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 2; Grammar – 2)
From this topic, Late childhood (Intermediate schooler), I have learned
that,
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________ ___
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ _______________

POST TEST:
Name: _________________________________ Date: _____________
Encircle your answer.
1. Children in the intermediate school age may experience early signs of puberty.
How parents best handle a situation like this?
a. Encourage them to mingle with the opposite sex
b. Be on the lookout for physical changes and report them to their children’s
pediatrician
c. Connect with their friends and ask them to tell you what changes are
happening to their children
d. Provide children with accurate resources that they need to be able to
gain information about sex, drugs, and changes that they experience.
2. What can teachers do when children get teased for their physical appearance?
a. Teach the child being teased to fight back
b. Let the teasing slide and continue with the class activity
c. Have a private talk with the offending student and figure out why he is
teasing
d. Bring the offending student to the Guidance Counselor
3. When children tell you what they want to be in the future, which is the
appropriate response?
a. “Don’t be ambitious. Be realistic.”
b. “Don’t you think it’s still too early for you to plan your future?
c. “That’s nice. But I want you to become someone better.”
d. “I’m so happy to her that. I will support you all the way!”

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4. Where does the responsibility lie when it comes to limiting the media exposure
of intermediate school-age children?
a. Only the parents
b. Parents and teachers
c. Parents, teachers and the whole community
d. The children themselves
5. How can parents ensure industry when it comes to homework?
a. Assign a homework time and work on their home work together.
b. Let the children be responsible for their homework and just make
corrections when necessary.
c. Do the homework for them and let them figure out why the answers re
correct.
d. Confer with teachers and request for no homework

REFERENCE:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 3 : DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEARNERS AT VARIOUS
STAGES
TOPIC 3.6 : Adolescence (The High School Learners)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:



Adolescence is a stage of human development that coincides with
puberty, a biological development occurring at the average age of 11 for girls and 12
for boys. There are factors, however, which contribute the early puberty and delayed
puberty. These factors include heredity, diet, exercise and socio-environmental
influence.
Physical early and late maturation in adolescence accompany the
cognitive and socioemotional development of adolescents. In this situation, the
teacher must be an understanding teacher who can provide guidance and support to
adolescent learners in their high school years.

OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify physical, cognitive and socioemotional changes in
adolescence.
2. Explain the consequences of the adolescent’s three (3) developments
on their behavior.
3. Draw implications of these three development concepts to high school
teaching-learning and parenting.

PRE-TEST: (Content – 5; Organization if ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
1. What were significant experiences during your adolescent years in highschool?



“Adolescents are not monsters. They are just people trying to learn how to make it among
the adults in the world, who are probably not so sure themselves.”
- Virginia Satir

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2. Did your physical features affect your physical self-esteem?





3. Was/ were your parent/s particularly aware of how you were developing
physically?






LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Adolescence is a period of transition in terms of physical, cognitive ad
socioemotional changes. The period of adolescence begins with the biological
changes of puberty. The specific ages for this period vary from person to person but
(i) early adolescence characterized by puberty may come to the ages of 11 and 12 (ii)
middle adolescence may meet identity issues within the ages of 14 and 16, and (iii)
late adolescence marks the transition into adulthood ages 17 and 20.
Physical Development
a. Physical appearance
b. Rapid rate of growth (next to the speed of growth of the fetus in the uterus)
known as growth spurts
c. Resultant feeling of awkwardness and unfamiliarity with bodily changes
d. Alterations in sleeping habits and parent-adolescent relationship possibly
accompanying puberty.

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Implications for child care, education and parenting (Physical):
a. Parents need to be aware of manifestations of behavioral patterns that require
closer communication, guidance and support.
b. Teachers need to be aware of the possible drop in self-esteem among
adolescent learners.
Cognitive Development
a. There is a decrease in egocentric thoughts
b. Piaget’s Formal Operational thinker which means an adolescent go beyond the
sensible and concrete in order to dwell on what is abstract, hypothetical, and
possible.
i. Propositional thinking – making assertions outside visual
evidence, and stating that may be possible in things not seen by
the eyes (example: whether an unseen object is red or green, big
or small, flat or round)
ii. Relativistic thinking – subjectively making an opinion on facts –
involving one’s own bias, prejudice of distortion of facts – which
may be either right or wrong (example: arguing for or against the
superiority of races, whether white, brown, yellow or black)
iii. Real versus possible – examining a situation and exploring the
possible in terms of situations or solutions (example: possible
success in implementing a student project or school policy)
c. Siegler’s information processing skills:
i. Increased thinking speed
ii. Increased complexity
iii. Increased volume
d. Metacognition – ability to identify one’s own thinking processes and strategies
inclusive of perception, memory, understanding, application, analysis,
assessment and innovation.
e. Overachievement – can achieve very high academic grades
f. Underachievement - adolescent may perform below the standards set
Implications for child care, education and parenting (Cognitive):
a. Activities at home – e.g. asking teenage children suggestions on family
matters --- house physical arrangements, things to buy, places to go to
for family outing, etc.
b. Allowing more independence – e.g. use of school allowances, choice on
what to wear, etc.
c. Activities in school that allow participation, such as projects, field trips
joint internet research, etc., and
d. Develop reading skills through magazine articles, internet blogs.

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Socioemotional Development
Generally, emotions are commonly known as human feelings that are
manifested by varied conscious or unconscious moods. The unique patterns of
emotions are:
a. Event that is strong or important
b. Physiological changes in heart pulse rate, brain activity, hormone
levels and body temperature
c. Readiness for action often described as “fight or flight”
d. Dependence of the emotion on how the stimulus is appraised
Positive emotion - like interest and joy motivate the individual to continue his/ her
behavior
Negative emotion – may cause withdrawal from what may be perceived as bad or
dangerous.
Implications for child care, education and parenting (Socioemotional):
a. Emotional skills influence the adolescent learner’s success in class work.
b. Learners who are able to regulate their emotions tend to be happier, better liked
and better able to pay attention and learn.
c. Interventions by the teacher and the school can reduce learner’s emotional
distress, while raising test scores and grades
d. The teacher plays a most important role in promoting positive changes for the
adolescent.
e. As the teen is susceptible to peer pressure, the negative influence of social
media, drug use and addiction, early romantic sexual adventurism, the teacher
and the school can conduct interventions to assist the youths with focus on risky
and inappropriate behavior while promoting positive development among
adolescents.

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Activity 1. Fill up your responses
Write the appropriate responses as a teacher or a parent in significance
to different conditions of an adolescent.
Conditions Responses either by Teacher or Parent
1. For self-esteem issues
because of puberty changes
experienced








2. For overachievers and further
inducement to self-value, goal
orientation, positive
interrelations, etc.









3. Underachievers and parental/
teacher encouragement and
support









4. Aggressive who tend to be
disruptive, if not rebellious









5. idealism and adolescents
being possibly discouraged by
painful realities of life e.g.
conflicts at home, challenges in
school work, etc.

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SELF- EVALUATION: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 2; Grammar – 2)
From this topic, Adolescence (The High School Learners), I have learned
that,
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________ ________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________ ____________________________
___________________________________________________________________

POST TEST:
Name: _________________________________ Date: _____________
Encircle your answer.
1. Which is a characteristic of adolescence?
a. Stunted growth
b. Growth spurt
c. Slow physical growth
d. End of physical growth
2. One cognitive advancement in adolescence is metacognition. What does
metacognition mean?
a. Ability to identify one’s own thinking processes and strategies
b. Ability to recall and explain
c. Ability to analyze and synthesize
d. Ability to do problem solving
3. One behavioral tendency which accompanies cognitive growth during
adolescence is egocentrism. How does the adolescent show egocentrism?
a. Imaging the far-fetched and less, ideal situations at home, school and in
society
b. Enjoyment of group dynamics like role ply, discussion, debate
c. Being unmindful of what others will say
d. Tendency to think too much of themselves.
4. Teacher Laddie is helping Juris to overcome her unnecessary anger and
outburst over unexpected events. Teacher Laddie wants to develop Juris’
a. Emotional beliefs
b. Emotional values

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c. Emotional ideas
d. Emotional competence
5. Are girls more skilled in regulating than boys?
a. Yes
b. No
c. Sometimes yes, sometimes no
d. More hard data are needed

REFERENCE:
 Corpuz, B. B., et.al. (2018). Child and adolescent learners and learning
principles: Lorimar Publishing, Inc., Quezon City.

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MODULE # 4 : LEARNING THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
TOPIC 4.1 : Nature of Learning
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:


When we hear the word, “learning”, the first thing that comes to our mind is
studying subjects or courses like mathematics, science, and language in school. In a
broader sense though, learning extends much more beyond the confines of the
classroom or the school. People learn everyday of their in various places and
conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly form a major
part of the experiences for you who re studying to become teachers. As such, it is
important for you to understand the nature of learning, because you play a major role
in the students’ learning. Knowing and understanding learning-related concepts will
enable you to better develop teaching methodologies and other interventions meant
to improve, enhance and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students the population at
large. Learning connotes observed changes in a person as result of environmental
events and interventions. The process of education is a deliberate effort to ensure that
as students go up the educational ladder, developmental changes in there is
personality are effected. This has to do with improved and enhanced physical,
emotional, social and cognitive skills, and knowledge and other personality behaviors.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Synthesize the meaning of learning based from the different learning views.
2. Explain the nature of theories of learning in the context of classroom setting.
3. Discuss the different behavioral learning theories in light to the implication to
education.




“The learner should be actively involved in the learning process.”
- Malcom Knowles

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PRE-TEST: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
1. What is learning?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. What is learner-centered approach?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Activity 1. Concept mapping
Create a concept map about learning. Use the space provided below.

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NATURE OF LEARNING
Generally, learning is defined as any change in the behavior of the learning.
The change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse, correct or
incorrect and conscious or unconscious (Mayer, 2011; and Schunk, 2012 in Woolfolk,
2013). To qualify for learning, the change should be brought about by experience or
by interaction of the person with the environment. It is not learning if the change is
brought about by maturation like getting taller or hair turning gray. Temporary changes
due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not also included s examples of learning.
While the definition any generally connote change wither in the direction of the
positive or negative, it should be borne in mind that for our purposes in education, it
means a conscious and deliberate effort to effect behavioral changes among learners
in the positive direction. Thus, we should be thinking about improving and enhancing
learners’ knowledge, abilities, skills and values, quantitatively and qualitatively
speaking. Toward this end, we should look to the goals and objectives of education as
our guide to successfully effect the desired learning outcomes.
Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental
experiences and influences for acquiring enriching or modifying one’s knowledge,
skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views.
Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in behavior
with behavior including both observable activity and internal processes such as
thinking, attitudes and emotions.
Santrock (2012) defined learning is a relatively permanent influence on
behavior, knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about through experience.
Santrock goes further to say that it is a long-term change in mental representations or
associations as a result of experience. For example, as a result of experience, children
will change from being unable to operate a computer into individuals who can.
However, not everything that an individual knows or is able to do is the result of
experience. There are some things an individual can do due to inherited capacities.
An example of this is swallowing or blinking of the eyes. If, however, an individual
develops new methods of study, works harder to solve problems, asks better
questions, then these are learning as a result of experience.
The definition of learning covers the following elements:
a. It is a long-term change (though it does not necessarily last forever).
b. The change is brought about by experience.
c. It does not include changes that are physiological like maturation, mental
illness, fatigue, hunger or the like.
d. It involves mental representation or association, presumably, it has its basis in
the brain.

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Woofolk (2016) asserts that “learning occurs when experience (including
practice) causes a relatively permanent change in an individual’s knowledge, behavior
or potential for behavior.” For Ormrod (2015), “learning is a long-term change in mental
representations or associations as a result of experience.”
Learning is also defined as “any relatively permanent change in behavior that
occurs as a result of practice and experience. From the definitions, learning has three
important elements: a) a change in behavior, better or worse; b) change takes place
through practice or experience, (not changes due to growth or maturation); and, c)
behavior change must be relatively permanent and last for a fairly long time. All
learning involve activities learned by the individual refer to types of learning, as for
example, habits, skills, facts (Learning: Meaning, Nature, Types and Theories of
Learning” n.d.)
TYPES OF LEARNING
There are types of learning resulting from engagement or participation in
classroom activities. these types of learning are basic ingredients to success in school.
These are what schools desire of students to develop.
a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go through daily
life activities as for example, walking, running, driving, climbing and the like.
These activities involve motor coordination.
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken language as well as the
communication devices used. Signs, pictures, symbols, words, figures, sounds
are tools used in such activities.
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of higher-order
mental processes like thinking, reasoning, and analyzing. It involves two
processes: abstraction and generalization.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to differentiate between stimuli and
responding appropriately to these stimuli. An example is being able to
distinguish the sound of horns of different vehicles like bus, car, and
ambulance.
e. Learning of Principles. It is learning principles related to science,
mathematics, grammar and the like. Principles show the relationship between
two or more concepts, some examples of which are formulas, law s,
associations, correlations and the like.
f. Problem Solving. This is a higher-order thinking process. This learning
requires the use of cognitive abilities – such as thinking, reasoning, observation,
imagination, and generalization.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is a predisposition which determines and predicts
behavior. Learned attitudes influence one’s behavior towards people, objects,
things or ideas.

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NATURE OF THEORIES OF LEARNING
The nature of learning or the changes occurring within an individual is difficult
to visualize and understand because it is an internal process. Hence it is not easy to
present, or explain in concrete terms what this complex process is all about. Thus,
there is a need to look at theories of learning to enable one to better conceptualize
and operationalize what learning is all about.
Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers a wide
range of activities which cannot be explained with a limited framework. This may be
the reason why there is available wide range of theories of learning, each propounding
and focusing on a particular perspective or view to explain what learning is.
A learning theory is an organized set of principles explaining how individuals
acquire, retain, and recall knowledge. Learning theories try to explain how people learn
and why they learn. They also try to explain the phenomenon of learning – its nature,
and the conditions under which learning best occurs. The explanations are, however,
considered as tentative. Be as it may, these statements are not result of guesswork.
Instead, they are well studied or seriously thought out, and in many cases, the result
of scientific study. These theories especially guide teachers to have better
understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn.
The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used differently
by different theories. As theories of learning evolved over time, definitions of learning
shifted from changes that occur in the mind or behavior of an individual, to changes in
participation in ongoing activities with other individuals, to changes in a person’s
identity within group.
DEFINING “LEARNER-CENTERED”
Lately, there has been a strong advocacy and push for learner-centeredness in
educational practice, especially in curriculum development and teaching methodology.
This means that policy, planning and implementation of educational practice should
have the learner as its focus. It is therefore expected that theories of learning and their
applications should be learner-centered.
Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual learners – their
heredity, experiences, perspectives, backgrounds, talents, interests, capacities and
needs, with a focus on learning – the best available knowledge about learning and
how it occurs, and about teaching practices that are most effective in promoting the
highest levels of motivation, learning and achievement for all learners.
For a better understanding of the term learner-centered, following are learner-
centered principles meant to provide a framework for developing and incorporating
new strategies and designs of teaching.

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These are main ideas of these principles:
a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.
b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the control of
the learner.
c. They deal with external or contextual factors that interact with the internal
factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be viewed in
isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive, motivational,
affective, developmental, social and individual difference factors related to
learning.
f. These principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved in the
educational system, s for example, teachers, administrators, parents, staff, and
guidance counselors.

SELF-EVALUATION: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
From the topic on Nature of Learning, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________ __________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________ ______________________
___________________________________________________________________

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 There are lot of perspectives towards learning that are useful in
facilitating the learners.
 Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental
experiences and influences for acquiring enriching or modifying one’s
knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behavior and world views.
 Along with the nature of learning, there are different learning theories
also that can be used to deeply understand every learner.

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POST TEST:
Name: _________________________________ Date: _________
Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied inside the
classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning activity and why you think
so.
LEARNING ACTIVITIES AND PRACTICES TYPE OF LEARNING
1. The teacher assigned the students to memorize
the multiplication table.

2. The trainer showed a ten-minute video about an
effective teacher to a group of teacher-trainees.

3. The teacher gave five algebra problems to solve.
4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a topic on
Philippine history, after which he asked the students
to answer the recall questions.

5. The teacher invited one resource person to give
a lecture on developing habits of cleanliness and
hygiene. After the lecture, the students were
encouraged to ask questions to the resource
speaker.



REFERENCE:
 Brawner, D.G. & Leus, M.J. (2018). Facilitating learner-centered
teaching. Adriana Publishing Co., Inc. Cubao, Quezon City, Manila,
Philippines.

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MODULE # 4 : LEARNING THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
TOPIC 4.2 : Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory (Laws of Learning)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:



Elaine is a new teacher, and she recently read a book on teaching that
suggested that people's success in school is closely tied to what happens around
them. If a student is rewarded for learning, he or she is likely to continue to learn, for
example. Elaine is learning about connectionism, an educational philosophy that says
that learning is a product of the relationship between stimulus and response.
That may sound pretty technical, so let's break down connectionism a little
further. A stimulus is something that causes a reaction, and a response is just a
reaction to a stimulus. Think about what happens when a big piece of chocolate cake
is put in front of you. The sights and smells of the cake are the stimulus, and they are
very likely to produce a response in you that involves drooling and maybe even a
growling stomach.
Connectionism was Thorndike's main philosophy. He said that learning is about
responding to stimuli. Believe it or not, much of his theory is still used in classrooms
today, almost a hundred years later! In this topic, let's look closer at the laws of
connectionism and how they might appear in a classroom.

OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define Connectionism.
2. Identify the key concepts of connectionism.
3. Initiate classroom principles using the concept of connectionism.

PRE-TEST:
Why do you think students are so motivated to finish their task when they
know that there’s a reward waiting for them? (Content- 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar
– 2)


“Just as the science and art of agriculture depend upon chemistry and botany, so the art of
education depends upon physiology and psychology.”
- Edward Thorndike

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949) was a professor of American
Psychology, a disciple of William James who developed a series of laws about trial
and error learning. Thorndike's theories are considered as the precursors of American
behaviorism that would find its maximum exponent in the figure of Skinner, father of
operant conditioning.
In Thorndike’s view, learning is the process of forming associations or
bonds, which he defined as “the connection of a certain act with a certain situation and
resultant pleasure” (p. 8). His work leading up to 1898 provided “the beginning of an
exact estimate of just what associations, simple and compound, an animal can form,
how quickly he forms them, and how long he retains them” (p. 108).
https://principlesoflearning.wordpress.com/dissertation/chapter-3-literature-review-2/the-behavioral-perspective/connectionism-edward-l-
thorndike-%E2%80%93-1898/
The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original Stimulus-
Response framework of behavioral psychology: Learning is the result of associations
forming between stimuli and responses. Such associations or “habits” become
strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The
paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses come
to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral
theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without referring to any
unobservable internal states.
Connectionism was based on the concept, that elements or ideas become
associated with one another through experience and that complex ideas can be
explained through a set of simple rules.
Connectionism, today defined as an approach in the fields of artificial
intelligence, cognitive psychology, cognitive science and philosophy of mind which
models mental or behavioural phenomena with networks of simple units, is not a theory

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in frames of behaviourism, but it preceded and influenced behaviourist school of
thought. Connectionism represents psychology’s first comprehensive theory of
learning. It was introduced by Thorndike, the most commonly cited connectionist.
Connectionism is the theory that all mental processes can be described as the
operation of inherited or acquired bonds between stimulus and response. A theory that
proposes that all learning consists primarily of the strengthening of the relationship
between the stimulus and the response. http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=543

Fundamental concepts
 Type of learning- The trial and error learning
 Connection- Stimulus-response connection, the basic unit of learning
according to behaviorist learning theory.
 Stimulus- Stimulus can be an object effecting the senses or an idea/ thought.
Its nature is purely individualistic that means it differ from organism to organism
from time to time from situation to situation and from place to place
 Response-. The Reaction is always in the form of Attraction or Repulsion.
Response can be positive or negative, weak or strong, overt or hidden, right or
wrong.
 Bond- Bond represents the connection in between the stimulus and response.
It is denoted by (–)
 Strength of connection- The strength of the connection depends upon the
reaction time. (The time taken by an organism in giving response after receiving
stimulus) the strength of the bond/ connection is inversely proportional to the
reaction time. The less the reaction time the more will be the strength of the
bond/ connection or vice-versa.

Primary Laws of Learning
Law of Readiness
The Law of Readiness means a person can learn when physically and
mentally adjusted (ready) to receive stimuli. Individuals learn best when they are ready
to learn, and they will not learn much if they see no reason for learning. If students
have a strong purpose, a clear objective and a sound reason for learning, they usually
make more progress than students who lack motivation. When students are ready to
learn, they are more willing to participate in the learning process, and this simplifies
the teacher's job. If outside responsibilities or worries weigh heavily on students' minds
or if their personal problems seem unsolvable, they may have little interest in learning.

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Law of Exercise
The Law of Exercise stresses the idea that repetition is basic to the
development of adequate responses; things most often repeated are easiest
remembered. The mind can rarely recall new concepts or practices after a single
exposure, but every time it is practiced, learning continues and is enforced. The
instructor must provide opportunities for students to practice or repeat the task.
Repetition consists of many types of activities, including recall, review, restatement,
manual drill and physical application. Remember that practice makes permanent, not
perfect unless the task is taught correctly.
Law of Effect
This law involves the emotional reaction of the learner. Learning will
always be much more effective when a feeling of satisfaction, pleasantness, or reward
accompanies or is a result of the learning process. Learning is strengthened when it
is accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling and that it is weakened when it is
associated with an unpleasant experience. An experience that produces feelings of
defeat, frustration, anger or confusion in a student is unpleasant. Teachers should be
cautious about using negative motivation. Usually it is better to show students that a
problem is not impossible, but is within their capability to understand and solve.

Activity 1. Let’s Implement the Primary Laws!
Fill up the matrix below. For every education level, provide at least three
(3) actual classroom activities or strategies on how to implement or strengthen the
primary laws of learning.
Law of Readiness Law of Exercise Law of Effect
Preschool

1.














1.

1.

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Grade school
(elementary)
1. 1. 1.




















Highschool
1. 1. 1.

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Secondary Laws of Learning
Law of Primacy
This law states that the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost
unshakeable impression. For the teacher, this means that what they teach the first
time must be correct. If a subject is incorrectly taught, it must be corrected. It is more
difficult to un-teach a subject than to teach it correctly the first time. For the student’s
first learning experience should be positive and functionally related to training.
Law of Intensity
The principle of intensity states that if the stimulus (experience) is real, the
more likely there is to be a change in behavior (learning). A vivid, dramatic or exciting
learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. A trainee will
learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. Demonstrations, skits, and
models do much to intensify the learning experiences of trainees.
Law of Recency
Things most recently learned are best remembered, while the things
learned some time ago are remembered with more difficulty. It is sometimes easy, for
example, to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it is usually
impossible to recall a telephone number dialed a week ago. Review, warm-ups, and
similar activities are all based on the principle that the more recent the exercise, the
more effective the performance. Practicing a skill or new concept just before using it
will ensure a more effective performance. Instructors recognize the law of recency
when they plan a lesson summary or a conclusion of the lecture. Repeat, restate, or
reemphasize important matters at the end of a lesson to make sure that trainees
remember them instead of inconsequential details.
Activity 2. Let’s Implement the Secondary Laws!
Fill up the matrix below. For every education level, provide at least three
(3) actual classroom activities or strategies on how to implement or strengthen the
primary laws of learning.
Law of Primacy Law of Intensity Law of Recency
Preschool

1.








1.

1.

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Grade school
(elementary)
1. 1. 1.




















Highschool
1. 1. 1.

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REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Thorndike was a pioneer not only in behaviorism and in studying learning, but
also in using animals in clinical experiments
 He believed that the association between stimulus and response was solidified
by a reward or confirmation. He also thought that motivation was an important
factor in learning.
 His laws of learning or Connectionism have 3 primary laws (Readiness,
Exercise, Effect) and 3 secondary laws (Primacy, Intensity, Recency).

SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Thorndike’s Connectionism, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

POST-TEST:
True or False.
_______1. Law of Exercise is strengthened with practice and weakened when
practice is discontinued.
_______2. Law of Primacy means the learner must be ready and want to learn the
task being presented and must possess the requisite knowledge and skill.
_______3. Law of Intensity is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling, and weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling.
_______4. Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation
teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience is all about law
of readiness.

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_______5. Things most recently learned are best remembered. The instructor should
repeat, restate, or reemphasize important points at the end of a lesson to
help the learner remember them. This is law of primacy.

REFERENCE:
 Thorndike and the Laws of Learning . Retrieved from
https://www.flightliteracy.com/thorndike-and-the-laws-of-learning/ on October
7, 2020.
 McLeod, S. A. (2018, January 14). Edward Thorndike. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/edward-thorndike.html

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MODULE # 4 : LEARNING THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
TOPIC 4.3 : Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:


Ever tried being expectant to your teacher’s behavior in classroom? Ever tried
being prompt for a quiz whenever you teacher arrives by just looking to what he/ she
is holding even without giving a quiz announcement earlier? How about when you see
a person eating an unripe mango, are you salivating? You are not alone. You are just
classically conditioned.
In this topic, you will know the stages of this “Pavlovian conditioning” which will
give you better understanding of students’ behavior.

OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define classical conditioning.
2. Identify the key concepts of classical conditioning in reference to classroom
setting.
3. Initiate classroom principles using the concept of classical conditioning.

PRE-TEST:
Why do you think its important to set rules and regulations in the first day of
class?






“Don’t become a mere recorder of facts, but try to penetrate the mystery of their origin.”
- Ivan Pavlov

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Pavlov’s Dogs
In the early twentieth century, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-
winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive
processes, he stumbled upon a phenomenon he labeled “psychic reflexes.” While an
accidental discovery, he had the foresight to see the importance of it. Pavlov’s dogs,
restrained in an experimental chamber, were presented with meat powder and they
had their saliva collected via a surgically implanted tube in their saliva glands. Over
time, he noticed that his dogs who begin salivation before the meat powder was even
presented, whether it was by the presence of the handler or merely by a clicking noise
produced by the device that distributed the meat powder.
Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli
such as the ringing of a bell. After the meat powder and bell (auditory stimulus) were
presented together several times, the bell was used alone. Pavlov’s dogs, as
predicted, responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell
began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation).
However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response,
the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov
therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the
basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his
career further exploring this finding.
In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a
neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell
becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR)
of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.
(Source: (https://www.learning-theories.com/classical-conditioning-pavlov.html)

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Definition, Key Concepts and Stages
Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning
through association. In simple terms, two stimuli are linked together to produce a
new learned response in a person or animal.
Stage 1: Before Conditioning
In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned
response (UCR) in an organism.
In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a
behavior / response which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural
response which has not been taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been
learned yet.
For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea
(UCR). In another example, a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness
or desire (UCR).
This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and
is called the neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc.
The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until
it is paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

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Stage 2: During Conditioning
During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is
associated with the unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as
the conditioned stimulus (CS).
For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain
food such as chocolate (CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific
person (CS).
For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur
before the unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during the same time. Thus,
the conditioned stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus.
Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number
of occasions, or trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can
happen on certain occasions when it is not necessary for an association to be
strengthened over time (such as being sick after food poisoning or drinking too much
alcohol).
Stage 3: After Conditioning
Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned
stimulus (UCS) to create a new conditioned response (CR).
For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS)
is now found attractive (CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person
was sick with a virus (UCS) now produces a response of nausea (CR).

Activity 1. Creating Classical Conditioning Situations
Now that you learned the fundamental concepts of a classical conditioning,
create your own examples or actual situations. List here at least 10 examples and
identify the UCS, UCR, NS, CS and CR through underlining the phrase or enclosing it
in a parenthesis (depending on your convenience on how to identify it.
1.

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REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning)
refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food)
is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell).
 It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which
the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually
similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus.
 Classical conditioning differs from operant or instrumental conditioning: in
classical conditioning, behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli
as described above, whereas in operant conditioning behaviors are modified by
the effect they produce (i.e., reward or punishment).

SELF-EVALUATION:
From the topic on Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________ ___________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________ _______________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

POST-TEST:
1. Which is true of how conditioned responses were discovered?
a. The scientist Pavlov worked for years to figure it out.
b. Scientists found notes after Pavlov's death.
c. Pavlov discovered it by accident.
d. Pavlov theorized but never proved his theory.
2. What is the definition of a conditioned response?
a. Jerking your hand back when you accidentally hurt it.
b. Climbing a tree when you see an unfriendly dog running at you.
c. Looking for spare change when you hear the bell of an ice cream truck
on the next block.
d. Being startled when hearing a lion roar.
3. What school of psychology was founded based on conditioning?

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a. Foundation theory
b. Response theory
c. Pavlovianism
d. Behaviorism
4. What is the definition of a conditioned response?
a. Learning to associate a neutral stimulus with a potent stimulus after
they have been paired one or more times.
b. Learning to associate one potent stimulus with another stimulus after
they have been paired one or more times.
c. Learning to associate a neutral stimulus to a potent stimulus without
any pairing of the two events.
d. Knowing innately how to respond to stimuli without having to be taught.
5. One morning, a car runs a red light and hits Jenny at a prominent intersection
on her normal route. After that, every time she approaches the intersection,
Jenny's hands begin to sweat and her heart races. Which of these is the
conditioned stimulus in the case of Jenny?
a. Her heart racing
b. The wreck
c. The intersection
d. Her car

REFERENCE:
 McLeod, S. A. (2018, August 21). Classical conditioning. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html
 McLeod, S. A. (2018, October 08). Pavlov's dogs. Simply Psychology.
https://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html

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MODULE # 4 : LEARNING THEORIES AND PRINCIPLES
TOPIC 4.4 : Skinner’s Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Conditioning)
TIME FRAME :

INTRODUCTION:



Have you noticed someone or yourself being motivated to do things or avoiding
to do things because of rewards or punishments that might be received? All of us has
great tendencies to do so.
In this topic, you will be practically oriented to the other from of conditioning
aside from the classical conditioning. Here, you will understand the essence of giving
rewards and punishments to increase desired behavior or decrease undesired
behavior.
OBJECTIVES:
In this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define operant conditioning.
2. Identify the key concepts of operant conditioning in reference to classroom
setting.
3. Initiate classroom principles using the concept of operant conditioning.
PRE-TEST:
Why do you think it’s important to give rewards or punishments in a classroom
setting? (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar- 2)







“A failure is not always a mistake. It may simply be the best one can do under the
circumstances. The real mistake is to stop trying.
- B.F. Skinner

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LEARNING ACTIVITY:
Operant Conditioning
By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other
behaviorists were becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than
classical conditioning. Perhaps the most important of these was Burrhus Frederick
Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.
Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913).
Skinner believed that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more
productive to study observable behavior rather than internal mental events.
The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too
simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that
the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its
consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning.
Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was
based on Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is
followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by
unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect. He called it
Reinforcement. A behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e.,
strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished
(i.e., weakened).
Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using
animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle
box.

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Operant conditioning is sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning. It
is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through
operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a
consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior.
Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.
• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor
decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a
behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.
• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a
behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive
a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive
a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is
on and avoid the red light.
But operant conditioning is not just something that takes place in experimental
settings while training lab animals. It also plays a powerful role in everyday learning.
Reinforcement and punishment take place in natural settings all the time, as well as in
more structured settings such as classrooms or therapy sessions.










We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by
reinforcers and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and
learned from their consequences.
For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the
chief consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out

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with, you would have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to
repeat the behavior.
If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned,
suspended from school and your parents became involved you would most certainly
have been punished, and you would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.


Components of Operant Conditioning

There are several key concepts in operant conditioning:

Reinforcement in Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement is any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it
follows. There are two kinds of reinforcers. In both of these cases of reinforcement,
the behavior increases.

1. Positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after
the behavior. In positive reinforcement situations, a response or behavior is
strengthened by the addition of praise or a direct reward. If you do a good job
at work and your manager gives you a bonus, that bonus is a positive reinforcer.
2. Negative reinforcers involve the removal of an unfavorable events or
outcomes after the display of a behavior. In these situations, a response is
strengthened by the removal of something considered unpleasant. For
example, if your child starts to scream in the middle of a restaurant, but stops
once you hand them a treat, your action led to the removal of the unpleasant
condition, negatively reinforcing your behavior (not your child's).

Activity 1. Creating Positive and Negative Reinforcement Situations
Now that you learned the fundamental concepts of positive and negative
reinforcements, create your own examples or actual situations. List here at least three
(3) examples for each reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement:
1.


2.


3.

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Negative reinforcement:
1.


2.


3.


Punishment in Operant Conditioning
Punishment is the presentation of an adverse event or outcome that causes a
decrease in the behavior it follows. There are two kinds of punishment. In both of these
cases, the behavior decreases.

1. Positive punishment, sometimes referred to as punishment by application,
presents an unfavorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it
follows. Spanking for misbehavior is an example of punishment by application.
2. Negative punishment, also known as punishment by removal, occurs when a
favorable event or outcome is removed after a behavior occurs. Taking away a
child's video game following misbehavior is an example of negative
punishment.

Activity 2. Creating Positive and Negative Punishment Situations
Now that you learned the fundamental concepts of positive and negative
punishments, create your own examples or actual situations. List here at least three
(3) examples for each punishment.

Positive punishment:
1.


2.


3.


Negative punishment:
1.

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2.


3.

Here is the illustration summary of Operant Conditioning for Reinforcement and
Punishment:

Source: http://www.differencebetween.net/science/psychology/difference-between-social-learning-theory-and-operant-conditioning/

Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement is not necessarily a straightforward process, and there are a
number of factors that can influence how quickly and how well new things are learned.
Skinner found that when and how often behaviors were reinforced played a role in the
speed and strength of acquisition. In other words, the timing and frequency of
reinforcement influenced how new behaviors were learned and how old behaviors
were modified.
Skinner identified several different schedules of reinforcement that impact the
operant conditioning process:

1. Fixed-ratio schedules are a type of partial reinforcement. Responses are
reinforced only after a specific number of responses have occurred. This
typically leads to a fairly steady response rate.
2. Fixed-interval schedules are another form of partial reinforcement.
Reinforcement occurs only after a certain interval of time has elapsed.

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Response rates remain fairly steady and start to increase as the
reinforcement time draws near, but slow immediately after the reinforcement
has been delivered.
3. Variable-ratio schedules are also a type of partial reinforcement that
involve reinforcing behavior after a varied number of responses. This leads
to both a high response rate and slow extinction rates.
4. Variable-interval schedules are the final form of partial reinforcement
Skinner described. This schedule involves delivering reinforcement after a
variable amount of time has elapsed. This also tends to lead to a fast
response rate and slow extinction rate.

Examples of Operant Conditioning
We can find examples of operant conditioning at work all around us. Consider
the case of children completing homework to earn a reward from a parent or teacher,
or employees finishing projects to receive praise or promotions. More examples of
operant conditioning in action include:

 After performing in a community theater play, you receive applause from the
audience. This acts as a positive reinforcer, inspiring you to try out for more
performance roles.
 You train your dog to fetch by offering him praise and a pat on the head
whenever he performs the behavior correctly. This is another positive
reinforcer.
 A professor tells students that if they have perfect attendance all semester, then
they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam. By removing an
unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students are negatively reinforced to attend
class regularly.
 If you fail to hand in a project on time, your boss becomes angry and berates
your performance in front of your co-workers. This acts as a positive punisher,
making it less likely that you will finish projects late in the future.
 A teen girl does not clean up her room as she was asked, so her parents take
away her phone for the rest of the day. This is an example of a negative
punishment in which a positive stimulus is taken away.

In some of these examples, the promise or possibility of rewards causes an
increase in behavior. Operant conditioning can also be used to decrease a behavior
via the removal of a desirable outcome or the application of a negative outcome. For
example, a child may be told they will lose recess privileges if they talk out of turn in
class. This potential for punishment may lead to a decrease in disruptive behaviors.

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. Activity 3. Creating Reinforcement Schedule Situations
Now that you learned the fundamental concepts of reinforcement schedule,
create your own examples or actual situations. List here at least three (3) examples
for each reinforcement.

Fixed-ratio schedule:
1.


2.


3.


Fixed-Interval:
1.


2.


3.

Variable-Ratio:
1.


2.


3.

Variable-Interval:
1.


2.


3.

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Here is the illustration summary for Reinforcement Schedule:

REVIEW OF CONCEPTS:
 Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a type of
associative learning process through which the strength of a behavior is
modified by reinforcement or punishment.
 Although operant and classical conditioning both involve behaviors controlled
by environmental stimuli, they differ in nature. In operant conditioning, stimuli
present when a behavior that is rewarded or punished, controls that behavior.

SELF-EVALUATION: (Content – 5; Organization of ideas – 3; Grammar – 2)
From the topic on Skinner’s Operant Conditioning, I learned that …
___________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________ ___________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________ _______________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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POST TEST:
Name: _________________________________ Date: _________
Identify the best answer.
1. A___________is anything that increases behavior.
a. Punishment
b. Response
c. Reinforcer
d. Negative punishment
2. The addition of something unpleasant.
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Positive punishment
c. Negative reinforcement
d. Neutral stimulus
3. Removal of something pleasant.
a. Positive reinforcement
b. Positive punishment
c. Negative reinforcement
d. Neutral stimulus
4. Negative reinforcement is ______.
a. The removal is something unpleasant
b. The addition of something unpleasant
c. The removal of something pleasant
d. The addition of something pleasant
5. Provides a reinforcement after a set NUMBER of responses.
a. Fixed-ratio
b. Fixed-interval
c. Variable-ratio
d. Variable- interval

REFERENCE:
 McLeod, S. A. (2018, January, 21). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply
Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
 Cherry, K. (2020, June 4). What Is Operant Conditioning and How Does It
Work?. https://www.verywellmind.com/operant-conditioning-a2-
2794863#:~:text=Operant%20conditioning%2C%20sometimes%20referred%
20to,or%20positive)%20for%20that%20behavior.

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