education of ethics/GEC SUBJECT sadasdas

ethics ppt

1. ETHICS

2. INTRODUCTION The word ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos which means characteristic way of acting, habit, or custom. The Latin equivalent is mos , mores which come the word moral and morality.

3. Ethics studies the characteristics behaviour of man as endowed with reason and freewill .

4. The ethos of man is revealed in the following propositions:

5.   He is able to distinguish between good and evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral.  

6. 2. He feels within himself an obligation to do what is good and to avoid what is evil.

7. 3. He feels himself accountable for his actions, expecting reward or punishments for them.

8. In other words, man is endowed by nature with a moral sense . He is self conscious of his dignity and submits to the duty of doing what is good

9. and avoiding what is wrong. This much is expected of man: that he conducts himself according to the dictates of reason.

10.  Definition of Ethics:

11. Ethics is defined as the science of the morality of human acts. And because actions reflect the motives of the doer, ethics is said to be the study of human

12. motivation, and ultimately, of human rational behaviour. The primary interest of ethics is morality.

13. Human acts – are actions done intentionally and freely. They are also called deliberate or intentional actions.

14. Eg . walking, reading, working, playing, shopping, joining a contest. Or even signing a document.

15. – instinctive and involuntary actions. Eg . physiological and psychological movements like breathing, feeling happy, or falling in love. Acts of man

16. Ethics does not study the acts of man in themselves but as factors affecting man’s judgement and violation .

17. Morality - the quality of human acts by which they are constituted as good or bad or indifferent.  

18. – that which is described as good .   Moral

19. – that which is described as bad . Immoral

20. – that which is described as indifferent .     Amoral

21. – the habit or inclination to do good . Virtuous

22. – the habit or inclination to do wrong . Vicious

23. Essential attributes for an act to be considered as a human act:

24. 1. It must be performed by a conscious agent who is aware of what he is doing and its consequences.

25. 2. It must be performed by an agent who is acting freely, that is, by his own volition and powers. 

26. 3. It must be performed by an agent who decides wilfully to perform the act.

27. Kinds of human acts: Human acts are either elicited or commanded acts.

28. – are those performed by the w ill but are not bodily externalized. A. Elicited acts

29. 1. Wish – the tendency of the will towards something, whether this be realizable or not. The object of wishing may include the impossible, or. That which is remotely possible.  

30. 2. Intention – the tendency of the will towards something attainable but without necessarily committing oneself to attain it.  

31. 3. Consent – the acceptance of the will of those needed to carry out the intention.  

32. 4. Election – the selection of the will of those means effective enough to carry out the intention.  

33. 5. Use – the command of the will to make use of those means elected to carry out the intention.  

34. 6. Fruition – the enjoyment of the will derived from the attainment of the thing he had desired earlier.

35. – are the mental and bodily actions performed under the command of the Will. These are either internal or external actions. Commanded acts

36. -are those performed mentally, such as reasoning, recalling, imagining, and reflecting.   Internal actions

37. -are those performed bodily, such as walking, dancing, talking, and writing. External actions

38. Ethical Approaches: 1. Atheistic – it assumes that only matter exists and man is responsible only to the State since there is no God who rules the universe. Morality is an invention of man to suit his requirement and to preserve society.

39.   Matter is the only reality Man is matter and does not have spiritual soul Some of its tenets:

40. 3. Man is free and must exercise his freedom to promote the welfare of the society

41. 4. There is no life after death 5. Man is accountable only to the State

42. 2. Theistic – it assumes that God is the supreme lawgiver. Everything must conform to God’s eternal plan of creation. Man must exercise his freedom in accordance with God’s will.  

43. Its tenets are: God is the supreme creator and lawgiver Man is free and must use his freedom to promote personal interest along with that of others

44. Man has an immortal soul Man is accountable for his actions, both good and evil.

45. Professional Ethics:   Each profession subscribes to a set of moral code. Professional is a person who has the obligation to listen to the “ dictates of reason ”. The need for it is obviously to the advantage of the profession. 

46. Imputability of Human Acts: The imputability of a human act means that the person performing the act is liable for such act. It involves the notion of guilt or innocence. Thus, the actions are either praiseworthy or blameworthy.

47. Voluntariness: Voluntariness comes from the Latin word “ voluntas ”, referring to the will . Voluntariness is essential to an act, without it, an act is a mere act of man.

48. Classifications of voluntariness: Perfect – it is present in a person who fully knows and fully intends the act. Eg . a man who, wanting to get even, takes a gun and shoot his enemy.  

49. 2. Imperfect – it is present in a person who acts without fully realizing the act. Eg . a woman in terror, might jump out of a window without fully intending to kill herself.  

50. 3. Conditional – it is present in a person who is forced by circumstances beyond his control to perform an act which he would not do under normal conditions. Eg . a child who is intimidated by his mother to study the lesson is acting with conditional voluntariness.  

51. 4. Simple – it is present in a person doing an act wilfully, regardless of whether he likes to do it or not.

52. Types of voluntariness:

53.   Direct – it accompanies an act which is primarily intended by the doer, either as an end in itself or as means to achieve something else. Eg . going to school, inviting a friend to a movie, reading a book, or writing a note.

54. 2. Indirect – it accompanies an act or situation which is the mere result of a directly willed act. Eg . getting a failing grade is indirectly voluntary on the part of the student who has willingly neglected to study.  

55. Principle of Double Effect: A human act which two effects may result, one good and one evil, is morally permissible under four conditions. If any of these conditions is violated, then the action is not justifiable and should not be done.  

56. Four Conditions:

57.   1. The action which produces double effect must be good in itself, or at least morally indifferent.   2. The good effect must not come from evil effect.  

58. The motive of the doer must be towards the attainment of the good. The good effect must outweigh the evil result in its importance.

59. Note: this principles and conditions find application in the so-called “ therapeutic abortion ” where the direct intention is the saving of the mother’s life with the accidental result of aborting the fetus .

60. The Modifiers of Human Acts: Factors that influence man’s inner disposition towards certain actions are called “modifiers of human acts”

61.   1. ignorance – the absence of knowledge which a person ought to possess. “ignorance of the law excuses no one” ---this implies that one should not act in the state of ignorance and that one who has done a wrong may not claim ignorance as a defense .

62. 2. Passions - these are tendencies towards desirable objects . 3. concupiscence – tendencies away from desirable or harmful things.  

63. 4. fear – it is the disturbance of the mind of a person who is confronted by an impending danger or harm to himself or loved ones. Distinction is made , however, between an act done with fear and an act done out or because of fear.

64. 5. violence – it refers to any physical force exerted on a person by another free agent for the purpose of compelling said person to act against his will.   

65. 6. Habit – it is a lasting readiness and facility, born of frequently repeated acts, for acting in a certain manner.

66. The Ends of the Human Acts: What we call end is the purpose or goal of an act. It is that which completes or finishes the act.

67. End of the act – the natural termination of an activity. End of the doer – the personal purpose intended by the person performing the act.

68. Kinds of Ends: Proximate end – is the purpose which a doer wishes to accomplish immediately by his action.  

69. 2. Remote end – is the purpose which a doer wishes to accomplish in a series of acts.   The proximate end of eating is the satisfaction of hunger. Its remote end is the promotion of health.

70. 3. Intermediate end – the purpose which is desired as a means for obtaining another thing.   4. Ultimate end – is the purpose which is desired for its own sake and not because of something else,  

71. A student may assign his graduation as an ultimate end. The intermediate end in this case, would consist in all those activities leading towards graduation.  

72. End as something Good: Apparent good – evil viewed as good   Good – that which fits the function  

73. Needs – are those goods which are essential to man as man   Wants - are those goods that an individual requires because of his particular circumstance in life.  

74. Kinds of Good: 1. Essential – it satisfies the need of a person as a human being. Eg . food, clothing, shelter, tools, and education.

75. 2. Accidental – is that which satisfies the want of a person because his particular situations. Eg . expensive clothes, big house, flashy car.

76. 3. Real – is anything which has intrinsic value. Eg . things, activities, relationships, or persons. 4. Apparent – is an evil which is viewed subjectively as something of value. Eg . cigarettes, prohibited drugs, and vices.

77.  5. Perfective – is that which contributes to integral growth or development of a person. Eg . education, virtue, foods, sports, and medicines.  

78. 6. Non-perfective – is anything which merely contribute to the external appearance or convenience of a person. Eg . expensive clothes, money, title, or luxurious car.

79. 7. Perfect – it is a real good endowed with all essential qualities needed to satisfy a need.   8. Imperfect –anything lacking in some qualities.  

80. The Greatest Good: “ summum bonum ” is that which is perfect in itself and capable of satisfying all human desires. It is also the ultimate good, because it is absolutely final thing which is sought for its own sake.  

81. The Meaning of Happiness: Happiness is either objective or subjective. Objectively , happiness refers to something having intrinsic value and capable of satisfying a human need. Subjectively , it is the

82. psychological state of feeling contented resulting from the attainment of that which is good in itself. Eg . the toy (objective) makes the child happy (subjective).

83. Natural and Supernatural Happiness: Natural – is that which is attainable by man through the use of his natural powers.  

84. Supernatural happiness – is that which is attainable by man through his own powers aided by the infusion of grace from God.

85. The Ultimate Purpose: The ultimate purpose of human life is the possession of the absolutely greatest good. For Aristotle, the object of natural happiness is not a single good, but an aggregate

86. of all the goods that fit the nature of man as such. The greatest good in the earthly life consists of all values, both material and spiritual, which contribute to man’s development as a human being.

87. Ethical Theories:

88. 1. Hidonism – is based on the teachings of Epicurus who regards pleasure as the ultimate good of man. According to him, pain is an evil to be avoided. And because some pleasures may also cause pain, one must be choosy about his pleasure.

89. Contrary to the popular notion, Epicurus does not recommend indulgence in sensual pleasures. But the word “hedonist” is a descriptive of a pleasure-seeking individual, a low-life”.

90.   2. Aristotelianism – proclaims the supremacy of reason over man’s lower appetites. Thus, the highest good of man is the contemplation of divine truths.  

91. 3. Thomism – is based on the teachings of St. Thomas of Aquinas. It holds that the ultimate purpose of man consists in the beatific vision of God which, however, is possible only in the next life and only with the aid of supernatural grace.

92. 4. Utilitarianism – defines pleasure as that which gives the greatest number of people. John Stuart Mill, for example, says that pleasure itself is good, but better when it is experienced by the most number of people.

93. 5. Evolutionism – proceeds from the biological theories of Charles Darwin. According to him, the greatest good is the rearing of the greatest number of individuals, with perfect faculties, under given circumstances.  

94. 6. Existentialism – laments the inadequacy of reason to guide man in the complexities of life. The attainment of personal fulfilment which is the ultimate purpose of one’s life depends largely on one’s faith and personal conviction.    

95. Man as Person - Socrates is wise indeed for proposing that the starting point of wisdom is to know oneself.  

96.   Filipinos believe that….   Man is a creature of God Man has an immortal soul   Filipino Beliefs:

97. Man has an assigned destiny in life Man must do good or else be punished by God Man by nature is good but he is morally weak

98. Rational Animal: 

99. Man is an organism composed of a material body and a spiritual soul. He is the whole of his materiality and immateriality, the substantial union ( hylomorphic ) of body and soul, matter and spirit. This essential wholeness is what we call human nature

100. Human nature is made up of man’s biological, psychological, and rational powers:

101. Biological powers – nutrition, locomotion, growth, and development Psychological powers – those of the senses and emotions

102. Rational powers – those of the intellect and the will like comprehension, and volition.

103. Natural Law: all human powers or faculties are operational tendencies towards what is good to man as a rational animal. In this sense, human nature is the natural law because, like the laws of society, it directs man in all his activities.

104. Laws of nature ­– are forces governing the material universe including man.

105. Natural law applies only to man as a rational animal. When we speak of an act as “ contrary to natural law ”, we mean the act to be against human nature or humanity.

106. Moral Being Three characteristics that reveals man’s moral nature:

107. Man by natural insight is able to distinguish good from evil, right and wrong, moral and immoral . All people have an understanding of what is right or wrong, of what is permitted and prohibited behaviour even if they are primitive.

108. Man feels himself obliged to do what is good and to avoid what is evil. He is moved by the inner force of his being demanding that what is good ought” to be done and what is evil ought” to be avoided.

109. 3. Man feels himself accountable for his actions so that his good deeds merit reward, while his evil deeds deserve punishment . Man feels content with himself for doing a good deed, or he feels remorseful for doing an evil deed.

110. Man as a Person

111. Man is born into this world as an individual. We call him thus a person and not a human nature. A person is an individual human nature manifested in the history of time and place.

112. Etymologically, person comes from the Greek word, prosophon which refers to the mask used by stage actors. The Latin personare alludes to the mask which is so constructed that the voice of an actor is projected forcefully. In this sense, we may speak of

113. person as human nature, hidden by mask of individuality, but projected or manifested through it.

114. A person therefore, is an individual, existing separately and independently from others, capable of knowing and loving in an intellectual way, and deciding for himself the purpose or end of his actions.

115. Thomistic philosophers define person as the actual existence of an intellectual substance. Person, Personality, Character:

116. Person – a complete substance, subsisting itself, separate from all else, and endowed with a rational nature.

117. Personality – the sum total of those factors of physique and constitution, and those enduring and underlying tendencies of a person which determine his characteristic behaviour .

118. Character – refers to the person’s choice of values and to his intelligent and free conversion of such values into practical goals.  

119. THE DETERMINANTS OF MORALITY

120. Bonum ex integra , causa malum”ex quocumque defectu ” A thing is good if it has the fullness of its parts…and it is bad when it is deficient in any of its integral parts.

121. An action is good when good in every respect; it is wrong when wrong in any respect - this statement means that good actions must satisfy al three moral determinants: object, circumstance, and intention, that is, they must be in accord with the order of reason, for an action to be considered good.

122. The human body, if it must be good, must have all its parts and functions. It is defective, and therefore bad, when it lacks, say the power of sight or locomotion.

123.   The Act in Itself: An act is a physical tendency towards a definite result. This result is identified as the end of the act (finis operis ) as distinguished from the end of the agent (finis operantis ) which is synonymous with the motive of the doer.

124. The Motive of the Act: The motive of an act is the purpose which the doer wishes to achieve by such action. It comes first in the mind as intention and occurs last in the action as its culmination of fulfilment.

125. “the end does not justify the means ” - it means that the worthiness of purpose does not make an evil good.

126. Effects of the Motive on the Action:

127. An evil act which is done on account of an evil motive is grievously wrong . Eg . a youngster who steals from his parents in order to buy “ shabu ” for himself is committing a grievous wrong to himself and to his parents.

128. A good action done on account of an evil motive becomes evil itself . Eg . the executive who gives a job to a lady applicant in order to seduce her later makes his kindness immoral because of his evil intentions. 

129. A good action done on account of a good purpose acquires an additional merit . eg . The father who foregoes his expensive hobby in order to send his children to school shows a deeper concern for the welfare of his loved ones.

130. An indifferent acts may either become good or bad depending on the motive . Eg . Opening the door of a house is an indifferent act. But the servant who, in connivance with the thieves, opens the door of the house of his master, does a wrongful act. 

131. Circumstances of the Act An act is an event. It happens in a definite time and place. It is accompanied by certain elements which contribute to the nature and accountability of such act. In law, we speak of mitigating or aggravating factors affecting a criminal act. The circumstances are:

132. Who – refers primarily to the doer of the act . at times, it also refers to the receiver of the act. the circumstance includes the age, status, relation, family background,educational attainment, health and socio- economic situation of the persons involved in an act.

133. What – refers to the act itself and to the quality and quantity of the results of such act. the graveness of robbery, for instance, is measured by what is stolen by how much is stolen. Likewise , the relative importance of a murdered victim determines the seriousness of such crime.

134. Where – refers to the circumstance of place where the act is committed. Rape done inside a church is more scandalous than that which is done in the privacy of a house. Murder done before a crowd is more heinous than that which is done on an isolated place.

135. With whom – refers to the companion or accomplices in an act performed. This includes the number and status of the persons involved. The more people are involved in the commission of an act, the greater and more serious is the crime.

136. Why – refers to the motive of the doer. How – refers to the manner how the act is made possible . Was the killing accomplished with deceit? Was it done by use of torture? How an act is performed contributes to the malice of an act.

137. When – refers to the time of act. a murder committed when the victim is sleeping is more offensive than the act done when the victim is wide awake.

138. Conclusion : There is a real distinction between a pile of garbage and a garden of flower . . . . there are good actions and there are evil ones. Their realities do not come from out mind. What is black does not turn itself white because we think of it as white. This is the error of those who think that evil is all the mind.

139. Ang masama ay gawa-gawa na tao lamang , does not mean that evil is Is man’s invention. Rather , it means that man uses his freedom to do wrong. Only man can do something morally wrong, because only man has the power of choosing between what is good and what is evil.

140. The relevance of Laws: Laws mandate some actions as prohibited and others as permitted and required. We may therefore consider laws as determinants of human behaviour. Some people do not do what is good unless they are forced to do it.

141. Society adopts a law to protect its members from themselves or from those who might want to hurt them. By prescribing punishments for transgressions, laws encourage and compel people to act for the good of all. Every one should obey the law or risk being punished. As authorities would put it – “dura lex , sed lex ” , the law is harsh, but it is the law….and every one must obey.

142. Definition of Law: According to St. Thomas, law is an ordinance of reason, promulgated for the common good by one who has charge of society.

143. Ordinance of reason – because they are results of serious study, deliberation, or public debate. Promulgated – because they are made known to the people who are bound to observe them.

144. For the common good ­ – because the purpose of the law is general welfare of the people By who has charge of the society – because only those who have legitimate authority to govern may pass the law.

145. Kinds of Law: Divine positive laws - are those made known to men by God like the Ten Commandments given to Moses.  

146. 2. Human positive laws – are those made by the legitimate human authority, such as the laws enacted by the state or the church. Human positive laws are intended to preserve peace and order and to direct members to work towards the common good.

147. 3 . Affirmative laws – are those that require the performance of an act, like that of giving respect to parents and that of paying taxes when due. 4. Negative laws – are those that prohibit the performance of an act, like the prohibition against smoking in designated public places.

148. The Norms of Morality Norm – it is a standard of measurement; an instrument of which the quality or quantity of a thing is determined.

149. Norms of Morality – the standards that indicate the rightfulness or wrongfulness, the goodness or evilness, the value or disvalue of a thing.   The remote norm of morality is nature law .

150. The proximate norm of morality is conscience . Eternal law – it is the plan of God in creating the universe and in assigning to each creature therein a specific nature.

151. St. Thomas: “the exemplar of divine wisdom as directing all actions and movements” St. Augustine: “ the divine reason or will of God commanding that the natural order of things be preserved and forbidding that it be disturbed”

152. Eternal law provides for the cosmic order where every creature stands different and independent but not apart from the unified purpose of creation. There is harmony in diversity in the universe so that the early Greeks referred to it as “ cosmos” meaning, beautiful.

153. Participation of creatures in Eternal Law :

154. Man on account of rational nature manifests a new dimension in the cosmic order. This is the moral order whereby man becomes self-conscious of natural moral laws binding him to seek the good “fitting” his rational nature.

155. “the light of natural reason, whereby we discern what is good and what is evil, which is function of natural law, is nothing else than an imprint on us of divine light. It is therefore, evident that the natural law is nothing else than the rational creature’s participation of the eternal law” – Summa Theologica : 91;2

156. Natural Law as the Essential Need to become a Person:

157. Nature law is recognized by all men regardless of creed, race, culture, or historical circumstances. Philosophers agree that an inner force compels man towards good and away from evil. In this sense, they speak of morality as being “written ” in the hearts of men.

158. It is worth noting that natural law is precisely our Filipino concept of pagpapakatao which is a moral obligation that arises from human nature, compelling an individual to be true to his nature as tao .When a person debases himself by his immoral actions, he becomes less than a person : masamang tao .

159. On the other hand , one who conducts himself according to his rational demands of his human nature is truly a person : mabuting bata

160. Properties of the Natural Law: It is universal – natural law is a constitutive element of human nature. Therefore, it is true wherever human nature manifest itself. All men are precisely equal because of shared human nature.

161. It is obligatory – natural law is human nature, calling or itself to be actualized, to be “lived” according to its basic and essential “demands”. It is imperative because it is a duty that ought to be fulfilled. It is imperative because it accepts no exemption, since it is nature itself.

162. 3. It is recognizable – it is imprinted in the human nature and man has the light of reason to know it. The scholastic philosophers referred to the light as “ synderesis ” . it enables man to recognize self-evident principles such as : do good and avoid evil, honor your father and your mother, be honest, etcetera.

163. 4. It is immutable or unchangeable – natural law is human nature. It is immutable because man’s essential nature can never be lost as long as man is man. It may be blurred by malice or conditioned by social pressure, but it cannot be destroyed altogether.

164. Contents of the Natural Law : Formal norms – are those that relate to our character , that is to what kind of persons we ought to be.

165. 2 . Material norms – relate to sorts of actions we ought to do. These are the application of the formal norms to individual concrete action, such as, speech, killing , making promises, or using contraceptives. The answer the question : “what should I do? “

166. The Order of Reason

167. Man participates in the eternal law in a way proper to him as a human being. This participation is through reason. ”in a morality based on the order of reason, the human person is not subject to the God – given order of nature in the same way the animals are. The human person does not have to conform to

168. natural patterns as a matter of fate. Rather, nature provides the possibilities and potentialities which the human person can use to make life truly human. Then given physical and biological order not provide moral norms; rather it provides the data and the possibilities for the human person to use in order to achieve human goals”. The task of discovering and

169. interpreting Natural Law in a manner fitting to man belongs to moral conscience .

170. Conscience: It is the proximate norm of morality. It is proximate because it is what directly confronts an action as good or bad. Its function is to examine, to judge, and to pass a “sentence” on all moral actions.

171. The word is derived from latin word “ conscentia ” which means “ trial of oneself ” both in accusation and in defense . It is a “practical judgement” because it is an inference whose conclusion leads to something practicable. The main function of conscience is to determine what

172. ought to be done in a given situation. After the omission of an act, conscience assumes the role of approving or reproaching. A reproving conscience is called guilty conscience .

173. Kinds of Conscience :

174. Correct or true conscience – it judges what is good is good and what is evil as evil. It is correct conscience which tells us that getting the property of another without consent is stealing. It is also correct conscience which judges that we ought to pay our debts.

175. 2. erroneous or false conscience – it judges incorrectly that what is good as evil and what is evil as good. It is erroneous conscience which tells the husband to have a mistress, since it is the macho thing to do.  

176. 3. Certain conscience – it is a subjective assurance of the lawfulness or unlawfulness of a certain act. this implies that the person is sure of his decision.

177. 4. Doubtful conscience – it is a vacillating conscience, unable to form a definite judgement on certain action. A doubtful conscience must first be allowed to settle its doubts before an action is performed.  

178. 5. Scrupulous conscience – it is a rigorous conscience, extremely afraid of committing evil. A scrupulous conscience is meticulous and wants incontrovertible proofs before its acts.

179. 6 . Lax conscience – it is one which refuses to be bothered about the distinction of good and evil . it rushes on and is quick to justify itself. Many Filipinos who act on the impulse of “ bahala na “on matters of morals are acting with this kind of conscience.

180. Education of Conscience:

181. One has the obligation to cultivate a clear and true conscience . This requires that we apply ourselves to the education of our conscience. This we can accomplish by studying and searching for the truths in the laws and in the sciences, since conscience is not independent from the treasury of knowledge available to each individual.

182. Another method of education of education is the cultivation of good habit. This means that the practical truths we discover must be internalized and then externalized in actions. It is useless to appreciate the good in abstract when we despise it in our concrete actions.

183. Another method is to militate against evil, condemning it where we find it. Indifference to evil dulls the spirit. We must learn not only to turn our backs against evil but fight against it.

184. Above all, we must learn how to use our freedom. To use it properly , we must understand it properly. “human freedom” if is true freedom in action, is not submission to the coercive pressure of external force, but self-fulfillment through inner love of the good in accordance with the pattern of the divine holiness which is the eternal law ( lex eternal) reflected in man’s own natures ( lex naturalis ).

185. Human Values and Theories :

186. Human values are ideas , actions , habits, or experiences that contribute to the promotion of human life . Since values are not equal in their worth, the conduct of a person depends largely on his wise choice of values.

187. The self is the first and most fundamental of the values. All others are such in relation to the sublime dignity of the person. Actions, for example, are values because they are the result of the intellect and the will, motivated towards something desirable.

188. Value is intimately related to the search for meaningful when a man has found something capable of arousing his commitment to it ; something deserving of his best efforts, something worth living for and, if need be, worth dying for. It has been said that values are the goal of man’s striving, having as their purpose to render human

189. existence meaningful and to achieve the complete fulfilment of man’s personality as individual and as a community. Values enables man to change, to establish self-control and self-direction.

190. Kinds of values: Biological values . These are necessary to the physical survival of man as an organism. Life and health Food and shelter Work

191. Social values . These are necessary to the sensual needs and fulfilment. Leisure and sex Marriage Family and home Parental authority Education

192. Rational values : a function of the intrinsic sense of right and wrong or ‘morality’ Understanding and control of nature Guide and control of oneself Solidarity with fellowmen Religion

193. Moral Values: Moral values are those that directly pertain to the function of intellect and will. Those choices, decisions, and actions, by which mans rational faculties are involved and perfected.

194. Characteristics of moral values: Intrinsic qualities of desirability Universal Obligatory Religious Cultural Social

195. Choosing our values: Permanent or lasting values must be preferred over temporary or perishable values. Eg . education over courtship.

196. Values favoured by a greater number of people must be preferred over those that appeal only to a few. Eg . discipline over personal freedom Values that are essential must be preferred over those that are accidental. Eg . health over beauty.

197.  Values that give greater satisfaction must be preferred over those that provide short-lived happiness. Eg . marriage over pre-marital

198. Human habits: Man is a creature of habits. He is born with a wide assortment of powers that open up limitless horizons for development. Reason stands at the apex of the vast array of potentialities. Man, if he must integrate all his powers in one wholesome personality, must rely on the powers of reason.

199. Habit – comes from the Latin word habere , meaning, to have. Entitative habit – that which disposes a thing to have a certain nature or quality of being, such as to be beautiful, talented, or to be obese.

200. Operative habit – that which disposes for doing something in a certain manner, such as painting, writing, or talking.

201. The intellectual Virtues: Understanding – which is the habit of the first principle, such as “do good and avoid evil”, “the whole is greater than the sum of any of its parts”.

202. Science – which is the habit of proximate causes, such as being aware from the facts of experience or inference. Art – which is the habit of making or producing things, such as paintings, music, and sculpture.

203. Wisdom – which is the habit of the ultimate causes, such as, being aware that ecosystem binds both man and lower creatures.  Prudence – which is the habit of doing or choosing from alternative nalues , such as saving money for the “rainy days”.

204. The Moral Virtues: These are those that build the character of a person

205. Justice – the virtue that inclines us to render to another what is due to him. Fortitude – the virtue which gives us strength in facing dangers and vicissitudes of life. In Filipino we refer to it as tatag ng kalooban ” so that we can describe a man of fortitude as matibay , matatag , or malakas ang loob .

206. Temperance – the virtue which helps us regulate our passions and our use of earthly goods.

207. The Effects of Vices: A vice is the habit of doing an evil acquired through the repetition of an evil act. one single act of immorality does not constitute an immoral habit. So much for the expression – “we don’t hate the sinner but the sin”.

208. RIGHTS AND DUTIES

209. Notion of Right : Right , objectively taken, is anything which is owed or due. Taken subjectively, that is, residing in a person, right is a moral power, bound to be respected by others, of doing, possessing, or requiring something.

210. Kinds of Rights: Natural rights – are those based on natural law, that is on human nature eg . The right to live; the right to education ; the right to work.

211. Human rights – are those based on human positive laws, either those enacted by the State or a religious sect. Civil rights – are those dependent upon law of the state Ecclesiastical – are those dependent upon the laws of the church or religious sect.

212. Alienable – are those civil or religious which can be surrendered, renounced, or removed, such as the right to travel. Inalienable rights - are those which cannot be surrendered, renounced, or removed, such as the right to decent livelihood.

213. Right of jurisdiction – is the power of lawful authority to govern his subjects and to make laws for them. A father has the right of jurisdiction over his children.

214. Right of property – the power to own, to sell, to barter, to lend, to change, or give away one’s personal possessions. The farmer has property rights to the lands he owns and the produce thereof.

215. Juridical rights – refers to all rights in so far as they based on law. These rights must be respected, allowed, fulfilled, as a matter of strict justice. Non – juridical rights are those which are not founded on laws, either natural or human, but on virtue. Thus , these are also called moral rights. The rights of hungry beggar to be fed is a moral rights, or non- juridical.

216. Characteristics of Rights: Coaction – the power inherent in rights to prevent their violation to exact redress for their unjust violation. eg. A person whose right has been violated may sue the aggressor in court.

217. Limitation – the natural limits or boundary beyond which a right may not be insisted without violating the rights of another. eg . One may not play his radio in a way that would disturb the right of another who wants to sleep.

218.  Collision – the conflict of two rights so related that is not possible to exercise one without violating another. eg . Contraception bill .

219. Civil and Political Rights: Civil – are those which an individual enjoys in his private activities, or in his transactions with others, as protected and granted by law.eg. The right to privacy, the right to travel or change residence, the right to property, the right to worship, and the right to access to a court of justice.

220. Political – are those which an individual enjoys in participation in government affairs. These include the rights to free speech, the right to form associations, the right to assemble and to petition the government for redress of grievances, the right to vote and be devoted upon to public office.

221. Notion of Duty: Duty taken objectively, is anything we are obliged to do or to omit. Taken subjectively, is a moral obligation incumbent upon a person of doing, omitting, or avoiding something.

222. Duty is a moral obligation because it depends upon freewill. As such, it resides on a person. And because duty is defined by law , any wilful neglect of duty makes the person accountable to it.

223. Correlation of Rights and Duty : “one who has rights to something has the duty to act consistent with that right. If a person has the right to life, he is duty bound to look for the means that would sustain that life”.

224. Reciprocity of Rights and Duties : “those who claim their rights, yet altogether forget or neglect to carry out their respective duties, are people who build with one hand and destroy with the others.“

225. Kinds of Duties: Natural – are those imposed by natural law such as, the duty to care for our health.  Positive – are those imposed by human positive law such as, the duty to pay taxes and to observe traffic rules.

226. Affirmative – are those which require the performance of a certain act, such as casting a ballot during election, or, applying for as business license. . .negative duties are those which require the omission of certain act , such as not carrying illegal firearms, or not destroying the property of another.

227. LOVE OF GOD

228. Religion defined : it comes the Latin word “ religare ” which means to bind back. Religion is a bond or a fellowship between man and the Supreme Being (Creator).

229. Subjectively , religion is the habit or inclination of a person to render worship the Supreme being. Thus, man is said to be religious by nature because he feels himself duty bound to adore God.

230. Objectively , religion is a system of beliefs, rituals, moral practices and laws pertaining to the divine worship. In this sense, religion is called a creed or faith.

231. Religion refers also to the community of believers with a hierarchy of officials. In this sense, it is called a church or a sect.

232. Man’s Search for Meaning: Religion expresses man’s yearning to discover the meaning of human existence. He yearns to discover his origin, his nature, and his purpose in life. All religious systems all to teach the faithful the meaning of human life.

233. Acts of Religion: these are human acts pertaining to the practices of religion. They include:

234. Faith – the act of assenting to religious truths. Devotion – the act of obedience to God’s will. Prayer – the act of communicating with God. Adoration – the act of proclaiming the glory of God. Sacrifice – the act of binding oneself in the service of God.

235. Actions contrary to religion : Blasphemy – the act of mocking God. Presumption – the act of believing that God, being all loving, does not punish evil. Fanaticism – the excessive subservience to one’s faith.

236. Sacrilege – the act of desecrating sacred objects. Idolatry – the worship of creatures other than of God.

237. Worship of God It is the proclamation of the glory of God, acknowledging God’s dominion over the created universe. In worship, the faithful elevates his mind and heart to God in respect.

238. Worship is private when done by a person alone and by his own initiative. It is public when done by a group of believers as a communal manifestation of faith.

239. The worship of God consists of the duty to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him: The duty to know God Man tends to know God by the force of his rational nature. In reflecting upon himself, man inevitably discovers the presence of God as Creator and Supreme Lawgiver.

240. Philosophers prove the existence of God by aluding the phenomenon of cause and effect. The universe is proof of God’s presence. Man arrives at the knowledge of God, both by logical deduction or by an act of faith.

241. Faith is not demonstrable by reasoning, but faith is true if it does not contradict rational knowledge of nature. In the realm of conduct, the distinction between what is objectively good and objectively evil points to the existence of a law, which though clarified by men is “not simply made but human thinkers, no matter how wise he may be. (Francis Reilly).

242. The duty to love God We cannot love what we do not know. But knowing God does not necessarily lead to love of God. One may know a person and yet not to be moved to love him. Loving God is our emotional response to the presence of God.

243. The duty to serve God Serving someone is to attend to his needs. God is omnipotent and is everything. God does not need our services in the sense of a master needing a servant to give him something. However, the servant serves the master by simply obeying his wishes.

244. In religion,, the concept of serving God translates to sanctifying oneself, or saving one’s soul from the corruption of sin. Sin is an irrational act and renders the human soul ugly in the eyes of God. Man puts himself in the service of God when he conforms with God”s Will for him not eat “the forbidden fruit” which is sin.

245. Freedom of Religious Worship Our Constitution provides for the freedom of religious worship. This means that the citizen is free to choose his religion. The state should not require a state religion, or pass a law prohibiting the practice of religion. The state may not interfere with the religious

246. activities unless they disturb peace and order or constitute a criminal act. for purposes of governance and to safeguard public order, it is within the authority of the state to regulate the celebration of religious service, rites, or ceremonies.

247.  LOVE OF SELF

248. Love of self is not the same as elfishness. Selfishness is withdrawing to ourselves, putting ourselves ahead and above all others. Love thrives on justice, on what is honest and beautiful. Selfishness is the overflowing of greed and pride. A selfish person sees only himself: a narcissist who adores himself.

249.   Ethics of Self-perfection It is the duty of every person to actualize his potentials. In the biological sense, it means growing up healthy and strong. In the moral sense, it means molding our character. Natural law, which is the law of our nature, requires us to grow and develop physically,

250. intellectually, and spiritually. We need to become “persons in the community of persons”.

251. Duties towards the Self Man is made up of body and soul. It is the duty of a person to preserve his self and cultivate all of his potentials:

252. Biological duties – they include those pertaining to the preservation of life like health, nourishment, personal hygiene, and perform such tasks that contribute to one’s physical well-being.

253. Intellectual duties – it is the duty of everyone to overcome ignorance by learning a skill or acquiring knowledge. An individual must be knowledgeable at least pertaining to his livelihood and citizenship. Knowledge promotes self-reliance, rendering a person useful to himself and to others. However, the ignorant is a burden to himself and to society.

254. Moral duties – are those pertaining to the development of attitude and character. A person must develop a positive outlook in life and conduct his affairs honestly. The cultivation of moral values marks the good and decent person.

255. Basic Rights of the Person The right to life - is the most basic and fundamental. It is the foundation of all human rights. The 1987 Constitution expressly guarantees this right, imposing on the State the primordial duty of safeguarding life against any violation or abuse.

256. The right to property – the right to life implies the right to property. Man’s survival would not be assured if he does not have the means for supporting his life. The right of possession bestows on a person the exclusive dominion over external and material things to the effect that he may acquire and dispose them by his own authority.

257. The right to education – it is driven from the natural law, since man is endowed with intellect and will. Every child is entitled to be educated by his family, by the State, and by the Church. The 1988 Family Code defines support of children as to include schooling or training for some profession, trade or vocation, even beyond the age of majority.

258. BIOETHICS Bioethics comes from the Greek word bio which means life, and ethos which means customs/usage, thus, it deals with the problem of life, health, and death.

259. Bioethics is an interdisciplinary effort which examines the ethical dimension of problems at the cutting edge of technology, medicine, and biology in their application of life ( Thomas A. Shannon, Introduction to Bioethics, 2 )

260. Health Defined: It refers to bodily fitness, consisting in the absence of pain or illness. Health, however, in its holistic sense, include the bodily, psychic, spiritual and religious dimensions of man ( Bernard Haring: 47). A healthy person is one who is physically fit, emotionally balanced, mentally alert, and morally upright.

261. The basic assumption of bioethics is that human life must be preserved and protected by all necessary means. Accordingly, scientists and medical practitioners should seek the promotion if life and health in every way possible, motivated not by monetary gains or fame, but by appreciation of the gift of life.

262. Personal and Social Responsibility Life is precious. It is natural duty for every one to preserve it. Health is a personal responsibility and one is held accountable for the neglect of his body. This requires that we adopt such care and lifestyle that fosters health.  

263. It is immoral to live recklessly, exposing oneself to dangers and sickness without regard to the burden such act may impose on the family and society. Every illness and disease is a social problem. Therefore, for the common good, the State institutes health

264. programs even as it regulates the activities of the individuals to prevent them from harming themselves. The ban on smoking in public places is an effort of the government to curtail a seemingly innocent habit. More so, the State needs to act against gambling, alcoholism, drug-addiction,

265. prostitution, and other activities which are detrimental to the physical, mental, and spiritual well-being of the citizen.

266. Crime against Life Suicide – the intentional killing of oneself by one’s own volition and hands. It is immoral because it contradicts basic instinct. It is contrary to natural law. Life is sacred, a gift from God. Therefore, for the Filipino one must take good care of his life and health as an act of gratitude to God.

267. Euthanasia – also called as mercy killing, is the deliberate extinction of human life to prevent further pain and suffering. It is morally objectionable because it would give the sick and the aged, the right to request the “service” of euthanasia. It would give

268. reason for the State to put to death those it considers useless and a burden to society, such as the aged, the retardates , or the handicapped.

269. Mutilation – it is the cutting off a limb or removal of an organ integral to the human body for commercial purposes. It is morally permissible as a medical process, such as the amputation of a gangrenous leg. It is immoral to sell one’s

270. body parts such as kidney, liver, eyes, etc. moral and legal laws provide that the body, its parts and functions, are not valid objects of contracts.

271. Contraception – it is the method to prevent pregnancy. Artificial contraceptives are those methods and devices invented by man. Christian morality condemns artificial contraception as contrary to natural law. It holds that the natural purpose of the sexual

272. act should be respected and accepted. Artificial contraceptives, besides, lead to promiscuity.

273. Drug addiction – is the state of psychic or physical dependence, or both, on a dangerous drug, arising in a person following the use of drug on a period or continuous basis.

274. Alcoholism – is the state of dependence on the stimulation of wine and liquor. In extreme cases, alcoholism has the same evil effect on health as drug addiction. Alcoholism saps a person’s energy, dull his mind, and destroys his capacity for creative activity. Drinking wine

275. Is not evil in itself. Intoxication, however, is self-degrading and unhealthy. The advice is for people to consume wine moderately.  

276. Abortion – is the intentional expulsion of a fetus which cannot survive by itself outside the womb of the mother. Some countries favour abortion as a method of regulating population. The Philippines is among those countries that punish abortion as a criminal act.

277. 2 kinds of abortion: Indirect or therapeutic abortion – is that which is performed for the purpose of saving the life of the mother. This is morally permissible.

278. Direct or selective abortion – is the expulsion of the fetus by the wilful wishes of the parents for purposes other than saving the life of the mother who is not endangered at all. This type of abortion is not justified for whatever reason, whether to regulate the size of the family, to

279. eliminate an unwanted child, to regulate population, or to maintain one’s social standing in the community.

280.   Pro-life vs. pro-choice Pro-life advocates adhere to the principle calling for the protection and preservation of human life in all its forms.

281. Pro-choice – advocates maintain that the mother, being a human being is not merely a machine of procreation, has the right and the freedom to decide when to continue or terminate pregnancy.

282. Commentary: It is not denied that pregnancy is an intimate personal matter which concerns the woman or the family. But it must be pointed out that such unwanted pregnancy would not be a moral issue if the couples admit to the prior responsibility of conjugal love and

283. sex. Pregnancy is a foreseeable result of the sexual act. hence, couples should exercise prudence in exercising their marital rights. There are available to them morally permissible methods of preventing pregnancy.

284. It is unreasonable for couples to be reckless with the sexual act and arrogate for themselves the “right” to determine whether the off-spring of such act of love should live or die. Plainly in this situation, the parents are the criminals, the judge, and the executioner. The child has no fighting chance.

285. Pregnancy though is a private and intimate event has a social dimension. It cannot be left entirely on the moral decision of the mother and/or the father. It would be tantamount to giving parents the right to commit murder. The State or the Church has the authority to prohibit

286. abortion for the same reason that they have the right to prohibit adultery even if the sexual act is private and consensual affair.

287. Pain and Suffering In Christian ethics, pain and suffering are means of identifying with the sufferings of Christ. Accordingly, while it is morally permissible to minimize pain by means of medicines and medical procedures, using physical suffering as an excuse for suicide

288. or euthanasia is immoral. The sick and dying need more love and attention, not death says Bernard Haring (ibid. 87)

289. PROf.CEDEÑO ’24