ENVIRONMENTAL-SCIENCE CHAPTER 1,2,3,4,5,6

Here’s a **reviewer summary** based on the images you uploaded — perfect for studying the **Philippine Independence and related historical events**:

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## 🇵🇭 Reviewer: The Declaration of Philippine Independence

### **1. Historical Background**

* **Date & Place:** June 12, 1898, Kawit, Cavite
* **Leader:** General Emilio Aguinaldo
* **Written by:** Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista
* **Event:** Proclaimed the Philippines free after 300+ years of Spanish rule.
* **Flag:** Made in Hong Kong by **Marcela Agoncillo** and companions; raised for the first time.
* **Anthem:** **Julian Felipe’s** *Marcha Nacional Filipina* (now *Lupang Hinirang*) was played.
* **Significance:** Marked the **birth of the First Philippine Republic**, symbolizing unity and desire for independence.

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### **2. Execution of José Rizal**

* **Date:** December 30, 1896, at Bagumbayan (now Luneta).
* **Significance:** His death **ignited Filipinos’ determination** to fight for freedom.
* **Legacy:** Died with calm dignity; symbol of **patriotism and sacrifice**.
* **Writings:** *Noli Me Tangere* and *El Filibusterismo* used as evidence against him.
* **Impact:** Became a **symbol of the struggle for liberty**.

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### **3. The Spanish–American War**

* **Date:** Began April 1898.
* **Cause:** Tensions over Spanish rule in Cuba and **explosion of USS Maine**.
* **Result:** America’s military rise and Spain’s colonial decline.
* **In the Philippines:**

* **Battle of Manila Bay:** U.S. forces led by **Commodore George Dewey** defeated the Spanish fleet.
* **Treaty of Paris (1898):** Spain ceded **Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines** to the U.S.
* **Effect:** End of Spanish rule, **start of American colonization**.

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### **4. Return of Aguinaldo**

* **Date:** May 19, 1898
* **From:** Exile in Hong Kong (after the *Pact of Biak-na-Bato*)
* **Assisted by:** The United States (then at war with Spain)
* **Actions:**

* Mobilized Filipino forces, liberated towns, and inspired revolutionaries.
* Led to **Philippine Independence on June 12, 1898**.
* **Importance:** Revived the revolution and positioned Aguinaldo as the **key figure in the nation’s freedom**.

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### **5. The Declaration**

* **Location:** Kawit, Cavite – June 12, 1898
* **Philippine Flag Symbolism:**

* **Blue:** Peace, truth, and justice
* **Red:** Patriotism and valor
* **White Triangle:** Equality and fraternity
* **Three Stars:** Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao
* **Sun with Eight Rays:** First eight provinces that revolted against Spain

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### **6. The National Anthem**

* **Title:** *Lupang Hinirang*
* **Composer:** **Julian Felipe** (1898, as *Marcha Nacional Filipina*)
* **Lyrics by:** **José Palma** (1899)
* **Meaning:** Reflects love for the homeland and honors heroes’ sacrifices.
* **Tradition:** Sung during **national events**, symbolizing unity, pride, and sovereignty.

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### **7. The Act of Proclamation**

* **Date & Place:** June 12, 1898, Kawit, Cavite
* **Read by:** **

1. IVY D. DUBLIN PREPARED BY: IVY D. DUBLIN

2. An internationally recognized University that provides relevant and innovative education and research for lifelong learning and sustainable development. PSU VISION

3. PSU MISSION Palawan State University is committed to upgrade people’s quality of life by providing education opportunities through excellent instruction, Research and Innovation, Extension, production services and transnational collaborations.

4. PSU Shared Values E - Excellence in service Q - Quality assurance U - Unity in Diversity A - Advocacy for sustainable development L - Leadership by example I - Innovation T- Transparency Y -Youth Empowerment

5. CHAPTER 1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INTRODUCTION 1.The word Environment is derived from the French word “ Environ ” which means “ surrounding ”. Our surrounding includes biotic factors like human beings, Plants, animals, microbes, etc and abiotic factors such as light, air, water, soil, etc. Environment is a complex of many variables, which surrounds man as well as the living organisms.

6. Environment includes water, air and land and the interrelation ships which exist among and between water, air and land and human beings and other living creatures such as plants, animals and micro organisms. Environment consists of an inseparable whole system constituted by physical, chemical, biological, social and cultural elements, which are interlinked individually and collectively in myriad ways. The natural environment consist of four interlinking systems namely, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere.

7. Components of Environment These four systems are in constant change and such changes are affected by human activities and vice versa. Environment has been classified into four major components: Hydrosphere Lithosphere Atmosphere Biosphere.

8. Hydrosphere -2.Includes all water bodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and ocean etc. Hydrosphere functions in a cyclic nature, which is termed as hydrological cycle or water cycle.

9. HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE

10. Lithosphere 5. Lithosphere means the mantle of rocks constituting the earth’s crust. The earth is a cold spherical solid planet of the solar system, which spins in its axis and revolves around the sun at a certain constant distance mainly, contains soil, earth rocks, mountain etc. Lithosphere is divided into three layers-crusts, mantle and core (outer and inner).

11. Atmosphere 6.Atmosphere the cover of the air, that envelope the earth is known as the atmosphere. Atmosphere is a thin layer which contains gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide etc. and which protects the solid earth and human beings from the harmful radiations of the sun. There are five concentric layers within the atmosphere, which can be differentiated on the basis of temperature and each layer has its own characteristics. These8-10 include the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere, the thermosphere and the exosphere.

12. Biosphere 7.It is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea. Biology is concerned with how millions of species of animals, plants and other organisms grow, feed, move, reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in different environments. Its subject matter is useful to other sciences and professions that deal with life, such as agriculture, forestry and medicine. The richness of biosphere depends upon a number of factors like rainfall, temperature, geographical reference etc. Apart from the physical environmental factors, the man made environment includes human groups, the material infrastructures built by man, the production relationships and institutional systems that he has devised. The social environment shows the way in which human societies have organized themselves and how they function in order to satisfy their needs

13. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Deals with the study of our environment either globally or locally, and its living and non-living components. It is a composite entity incorporating the different fields of science such as: 11. Natural Sciences which include biology, chemistry, earth science, physics and medicine Social Sciences- which include economic, political science, sociology, history, philosophy and ethics. Other Sciences such as mathematics, statistics, technology, business and management, law, religion, morality, and aesthetics.

14. MULTIDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physical and biological sciences, (including but not limited to Ecology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Soil Science, Geology, Atmospheric Science and Geography) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes.

15. Multidisciplinary nature of environmental science is illustrated below: Life science ( Biology,Biochemistry , Microbiology Physical science (physic, chemistry, earth science, atmospheric science ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Civil, Chemical, Hydraulics, Nano Economics, Sociology, Law, Education, Management, Mass communication Mathematics, Statistics, computer science Basic and Applied Sciences Technology Management and Awareness Modeling

16. BRIEF HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE The rise of environmental science as a discipline occurred in the last three decades of the twentieth century. Researchers had studied plants and animals, but concepts tended to stay in the academic realms of pure botany or zoology. People thus had little knowledge or interest in the environment. A group of writers were responsible for the eventual change in this situation. The turning point was the publication of a book by  Rachel Carson  called  Silent Spring .  The book highlighted the damage done to the environment by pesticides. The vibrations of Carson's work resounded not only in academia but in the mind of the public as well. Like many movements of the counter-culture during the 1960s and 1970s, the environmental movement was driven by the public.

17. RACHEL CARSON Born on May 27, 1907 on a farm in Springdale, Pennsylvania, Carson was the youngest of Robert and Maria McLean Carson’s three children. A marine biologist and nature writer, Rachel Carson catalyzed the global environmental movement with her 1962 book ’’ Silent Spring ” Outlining the dangers of chemical pesticides, the book led to a nationwide ban on DDT and other pesticides and sparked the movement that ultimately led to the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

18. After a niece died in early 1957, Carson adopted her son and relocated to Silver Spring, Maryland, to care for her aging mother.  A letter from a friend in Duxbury, Massachusetts about the loss of bird life after pesticide spraying inspired Carson to write  Silent Spring . The book primarily focuses on pesticides' effects on ecosystems, but four chapters detail their impact on humans, including cancer. She also accused the chemical industry of spreading misinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically.

19. THOMAS MALTHUS Thomas Malthus was born on Feb. 13, 1766, to a prominent family near Guildford, Surrey An 18th-century British philosopher and economist noted for the Malthusian growth model, an exponential formula used to project population growth. The theory states that the supply of food cannot keep up with the growth of the human population, inevitably resulting in disease, famine, war, and calamity. A noted statistician and proponent of political economy, Malthus founded the Statistical Society of London. Malthus' theories were later used to justify British colonial policies that worsened the human toll of the Irish Potato Famine. His theory is now largely dismissed, as modern farming techniques have allowed food production to scale much faster than Malthus could have anticipated.

20. GARRETT HARDIN Published in 1968, the essay “The Tragedy of the Commons,” by ecologist Garrett James Hardin , argues that human overpopulation will stress ecosystems beyond their limits and cause a resource catastrophe. The essay has greatly influenced environmentalists. Hardin was a politically controversial, award-winning science writer who taught ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara for over 30 years.

21. The opening paragraphs of “The Tragedy of the Commons” serve as an introduction that warns that technical solutions to big problems sometimes make those problems worse. He cites the Cold War development of nuclear weapons, each advance of which brought more danger than safety to the world. Solutions to such dilemmas require advances in human ethics rather than improvements in technology. This principle applies also to the problem of human overpopulation: As technology advances, societies increase in size and begin to overtax their environments.

22. 1960’s-70’s

23. Smog in Los Angeles and New York City Nearly 100 million vehicles filled American roads by 1970, producing more than half of the country’s emissions of hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. In the 1960s, the US did not yet have strong air quality standards, and the emissions of automobiles and industries polluted the air, sometimes resulting in deadly smog. Smog occurs when the compounds that vehicles, power plants, and factories emit interact with sunlight in the atmosphere to create ground-level ozone which can exacerbate respiratory diseases including asthma, bronchitis, and emphysema. Smog production depends on weather conditions but affects those living in cities most severely because of the high density of vehicles and industries found there. In the late 1960s, Los Angeles’s persistent smog problems and deadly smog events in New York City drew public attention to the consequences of air pollution.

24. During the late 1960s, an “environmental crisis” took shape as a series of environmental catastrophes and revelatory books transformed the American environmental consciousness. Soon before the crisis took its final form, several immensely popular books including Rachel Carson’s 1962  Silent Spring  and Ralph Nader’s 1965  Unsafe at Any Speed  pushed the public to question the relationship between the government, tasked with protecting the public interest, and industries, incentivized to act in their own economic interests. Pervasive smog in New York City and Los Angeles, the Santa Barbara oil spill, and the Cuyahoga River fires made headlines and frightened Americans across the country. Paul Ehrlich’s book  The Population Bomb  (1968) connected the dots and helped the public realize that the issues were all related: an exponentially growing population meant an increasing demand for limited resources, which led to unwise decisions about resource use. Driven by fear and empowered with information, the American public was poised to demand change. 

25. EARTH DAY The first  Earth Day , on April 22, 1970, was a milestone event for the planet. An estimated 20 million people took to the streets across the U.S. to raise awareness about the impacts of human activities on the environment.

26. 1970 The "Environmental Magna Carta " The  National Environmental Policy Act of 1969  went into effect the following year, becoming a landmark law that requires every major decision of the federal government to be evaluated for its impact on the environment. This began the era of requiring environmental impact statements for building dams, roads, and other major projects. It has been called the "Environmental Magna Carta " for its wide impact and for the precedent it set in government, both in the U.S. and abroad.

27. 1972 Notorious toxic chemical banned DDT  (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) is a colorless , nearly odorless insecticide that was widely used in the post-war era to increase farm productivity and fight mosquitoes. Although a Nobel Prize was awarded for its discovery, scientists eventually realized that DDT was causing problems in the environment, including thinning the shells of birds' eggs. Rachel Carson popularized this research in the 1962 book  Silent Spring . After DDT was banned, bald eagles, peregrine falcons, and many other endangered bird species returned from the brink of extinction.

28. 1972 Regulating pesticides In 1972, the  Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act  was passed, updating a 1910 law that had required truth in advertising for pesticides. The new law charged regulators with considering the impacts of pesticides on human and environmental health, which at the time was a relatively new concept. The Environmental Protection Agency was given more teeth to police the market and restrict and outlaw toxic chemicals.

29. The Clean Water Act The Clean Water Act was passed in 1972. Its goal was to make all rivers in the United States swimmable and fishable.

30. 1972 Marine sanctuaries created Although governments had been protecting land as wilderness areas for more than a century, the idea took longer to catch on for the ocean. In 1972, the  Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act  started the country's system of marine sanctuaries. These special places now protect priceless biological, historical, and cultural treasures, from the reefs of the Florida Keys to shipwrecks in the Great Lakes. The sanctuaries also gave a boost to the tourism industry.

31. 1972 Saving whales Whales, dolphins, seals, and manatees received strict protection from hunting and harassment in U.S. waters with the  Marine Mammal Protection Act . As a result, their numbers began to slowly recover in the ensuing decades. A robust eco-tourism business followed in their wake.

32. 1973 Saving species The landmark  Endangered Species Act  resulted in substantial protections for listed plants and animals, including bans on harvesting and a framework that protects critical habitat. In some cases, captive breeding and reintroduction programs began in an effort to reverse decades of population declines caused by human activities. Species that showed significant recovery as a result range from the toothy  American crocodile  to the plucky  Delmarva fox squirrel .

33. 1974 Safe(r) drinking water In response to rising concerns and scientific awareness about the impacts of pollution on health, the  Safe Drinking Water Act  set quality standards for all U.S. drinking water systems.

34. 1974 Getting the lead out of gas In 1974, the EPA began a  phaseout of lead from gasoline  in the U.S., a process that completed in 1995. The toxic element was originally added to boost engine performance, but scientists eventually discovered that it was building up in soils and becoming a serious air pollutant. The EPA estimated more than 5,000 Americans died per year from heart disease linked to lead poisoning. Since the ban, the average level of lead in the blood of A mericans has decreased by more than 75%.

35. 1975 Global agreement on endangered species The  Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species  was drafted for signatures in 1973 and went into effect in 1975. Signatory countries agree to ban or restrict trade in endangered species and their body parts. Although black markets arose for such products as tiger skins and elephant tusks, countries have also worked together to combat such trafficking.

36. 1976 Chemical control The  Toxic Substances Control Act  oversees the introduction of new chemicals into the marketplace. Those substances that are found to pose a significant risk to human health or the environment may be restricted or banned. A notable example was the banning of  PCBs  (polychlorinated biphenyls) after 1978. The chemicals were widely used in industrial applications but were found to cause cancer.

37. 1978 Love Canal causes national outcry After hundreds of residents of the  Love Canal  planned community in Niagara Falls, New York, were sickened by leaking toxic waste, a spotlight was shined on the dangers of industrial pollution. Local parent Lois Gibbs organized the community after her son took ill, starting a model for grassroots environmental activism. The neighborhood was eventually demolished and cleaned.

38. 1980 Superfund program launched Outrage over Love Canal helped lead to the passage of the  Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 , commonly known as  Superfund . The goal of the law is cleaning up toxic sites, and the Environmental Protection Agency can try to recover the costs of doing so from the polluters. Love Canal became one of hundreds of sites cleaned up by the program, though many more locations are still awaiting treatment.

39. 1980 Vast Alaskan lands protected Congress passed and Jimmy Carter signed the  Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act in late 1980 , creating a massive series of national parks, reserves, and refuges that protected more than a hundred million acres of wilderness for future generations. Highlights include the national parks Wrangell-St. Elias, Glacier Bay, and Gates of the Arctic.

40. 1982 Saving more whales In 1982, the  International Whaling Commission  finally adopted a moratorium on commercial whaling around the world, in response to more than a decade of protests and pressure from scientists. Although  pirate  and  controversial "scientific" whale hunts  continued, the end of large-scale whaling marked a big turning point for the animals, and most species began a slow recovery from the brink of extinction.

41. 1986 McPackaging improves In 1986,  McDonalds started using biodegradable packaging , in response to criticism from environmentalists over mountains of Styrofoam containers littering roadways and choking landfills. Campaigners declared a major win, and the effort helped usher in a new era of companies both working with advocacy groups and acting on their own to reduce their environmental impact. The effort also helped raise consumer awareness about the impact of their own daily choices.

42. 1986 "A Civil Action" In 1986, the sprawling  Woburn, Massachusetts pollution case  was decided in court. Although the result was mixed for the families who sued polluters over alleged injury to their children, the high-profile case set a big precedent in environmental law and in the court of public opinion. The case was depicted in the 1995 book (and later movie)  A Civil Action .

43. 1987 Saving condors In 1987, wildlife biologists made the tough decision to bring all 27 remaining  California condors  into captivity. They launched a breeding program, which was almost derailed by a tragic fire. But eventually, scientists were able to successfully reintroduce some of the offspring. Combined with efforts to protect the birds in their native habitat, the result has been a slow recovery of the species, which now numbers over 400.

44. 1987 Plugging the ozone hole In 1987, many of the world's nations came together to agree on the  Montreal Protocol , which outlawed a series of chemicals that had been destroying the Earth's protective ozone layer. Most famous among these were  chlorofluorocarbons . Scientists were concerned that the loss of the ozone layer could lead to blistering rates of skin cancer and other problems. The  ozone hole is now healing .

45. 1987 Cleaning up sewage Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama both took steps to preserve ocean waters. See fact 40 for more information. Once industrial pollution was reigned in, regulators turned to another major source of water quality problems: sewage waste. The  Water Quality Act of 1987  created the Clean Water State Revolving Fund, which helped finance the upgrade of water systems across the country.

46. 1988 Cleaning up medical waste In the late 1980s, the public was shocked after waves of medical waste washed up on beaches where children played. The response was the  1988 Medical Waste Tracking Act , which compelled healthcare providers to treat their waste seriously and make sure it gets disposed of properly.

47. 1989 Get the asbestos out In 1989 the  U.S. began a phaseout of asbestos  from many products, after evidence mounted that it could cause a rare form of lung cancer. Asbestos was previously considered a new wonder material thanks to its light weight and resistance to fire.

48. 1990 Clearing the air Although the  Clean Air Act  was originally passed in 1963, it received a major update in 1990, which targeted  acid rain  and  ozone depletion . The law also established a tougher permitting and oversight system for polluters and required cleaner gasoline.

49. 1992 Rio Earth Summit The  United Nations Conference on Environment and Development  was a major event in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, that helped focus the world's attention on big environmental problems. It spurred all kinds of solutions, from government to civil society and business. It was there that countries agreed to start working together to address climate change. Countries also committed to increasing their use of renewable energy and to respecting the needs of indigenous people, efforts that were amplified when the  UN met again in Rio 20 years later .

50. 1991 Saving ferrets In 1991, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service scientists began reintroducing  black-footed ferrets  to the American West. The species was declared extinct in 1979, but a few dozen individuals were later found and entered into a captive breeding program. Now, there are an estimated 1,000 of the animals in several populations in the wild.

51. 1993 Erin Brockovich wins her case Later immortalized in film, determined law clerk Erin Brokovich and her firm Masry & Vititoe scored a  $333 million win against a California utility  accused of poisoning people's groundwater with a toxic chemical. It was the largest settlement ever paid in a direct-action lawsuit.

52. 1993 Green buildings take off In 1993, the  U.S. Green Building Council  was founded, helping kick off a revolution in environmentally friendly design that continues to grow each year. Architects and manufacturers have made big gains in energy efficiency, renewable energy, and sustainable materials, with many of the designs becoming increasingly mainstream. In 1993, the  Convention on Biological Diversity  went into effect after being ratified by enough countries. Nations pledged to work to protect biodiversity around the world, in a decision that is often seen as the foundation for sustainable development. Conservationists hope the next phase of this convention, due in late 2020, will have even more specific goals and results.

53. 1995 Gray wolves reintroduced to Yellowstone After generations of absence,  wolves were returned to an iconic national park . They quickly regained their past position in the web of life, restoring balance to prey species and even changing the course of rivers. Today Yellowstone remains a  critical preserve as well as living laboratory for ecology . 1995 Bald eagle recovery In 1995  bald eagles  were removed from the Endangered Species List, helping prove the power of the law. Eagles retain legal protection from hunting through other laws.

54. 1997 Early climate agreement Solar panels, like these in Germany, have become much more common around the world in recent decades. In 1997 the  Kyoto Protocol  was adopted by some countries (although not the U.S). It marked an early serious attempt by world leaders to address global warming in a coordinated way.

55. 2000 The hybrid revolution Toyota first introduced the Prius in Japan in 1997, but it came to America in 2000. The high-tech car introduced the  hybrid  drivetrain to many consumers, helping kick off a movement toward greater fuel efficiency. Within a few years, almost every car company began offering hybrid models. Green awareness surges - As the old millennium ended, environmental awareness climbed toward an all-time high, spurred by decades of educational and activist campaigns. Few politicians or corporations could afford to overtly ignore the environment any longer.

56. 2001 Roadless areas protected In January 2001, the U.S. Forest Service adopted the  Roadless Area Conservation Rule , which protected 58.5 million acres of pristine forests and grasslands from most road construction and logging. The rule remains controversial to industry but is cheered by conservationists. 2002 California goes solar - In 2002, California passed an aggressive  Renewable Portfolio Standard  in order to help stimulate the clean energy industry. The law put the state on a series of steps toward getting half of its energy from renewables by 2030. Many other states followed with similar laws, with some eventually talking about reaching for one hundred percent renewable in the coming years.

57. 2002  Cradle to Cradle  is published The book  Cradle to Cradle  by William McDonough and Michael Braungart helped introduce the concept of biomimetic, clean design to the public. This helped kick off a new movement to rethink all manmade processes to be more in-line with nature, including the idea of ending the concept of waste and replacing it with the idea that everything can have a use as a material for something else. 2003 Electric cars get cool - Tesla Motors was founded by Elon Musk in 2003, helping make  electric cars  cutting-edge again (after they languished in obscurity for a century). Other manufacturers also pushed forward with a new round of innovation, helping ramp up a technology that many pundits think will be a boon for the environment.

58. 2006 Al Gore's movie Love it or hate it, the documentary  An Inconvenient Truth  helped raise public awareness around the threat of climate change. In 2006 the U.S. started regulating the commercial fishing industry through  catch shares , in an attempt to make fishermen partners in conservation instead of adversaries. The basic idea is that each fisherman is awarded a percent share of the total catch. So the more fish that can be caught, the more each person can benefit. This helps incentivize conservation measures and accelerated the recovery of many declining U.S. fish stocks.

59. 2007 Fuel efficiency improves The  Energy Independence and Security Act  resulted in tougher new fuel economy standards, including the phase-in of standards for SUVs and even large commercial vehicles. Manufacturers had fought the standards for years but eventually worked with the government to meet the standards. Efficiency standards were further improved by the Obama administration in 2012, though the Trump administration  has been pushing to roll some of those back . The rise of walking - Legislation, global accords, and pressure from environmentally-conscious people have all led to increases in energy efficiency and renewable energy. PHOTOGRAPH BY ROBB KENDRICK, NAT GEO IMAGE COLLECTION Walk Score  was founded in 2007, rating cities, neighborhoods , and more for how pedestrian friendly they are. The company helped raise awareness of the growing walking and biking movements, which aim to get people out of cars and into more livable communities.

60. A Big Green Apple Mayor Michael Bloomberg issued  PlaNYC  in 2007, a comprehensive plan to reduce New York City's impact on the planet. It included ambitious goals to take the city toward zero waste (by promoting recycling and composting), and supported energy efficiency, tree planting, green space, biking, and much more. Many other cities around the world have issued similar plans.

61. 2009 A massive marine monument In 2009, President George W. Bush created the  Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument , which protects some of the most pristine waters in the ocean. The monument was expanded by Barack Obama to nearly 490,000 square miles (1.3 million square kilometers ), making it nearly three times the size of California. It protects endemic species of coral and fish, turtles, whales, and much more.

62. 2010 Protecting the Atlantic Coast In 2010, the Department of the Interior  announced a ban on oil and gas drilling in federal waters off the Atlantic Coast  until 2017. This was the latest in a series of efforts to limit development off the ecologically sensitive U.S. coasts. Presidet Trump has  pushed to reopen the waters 2012 Dams come down In 2012,  Washington's Elwha dams were removed , restoring a wild river to Olympic National Park. This was arguably the most high profile dam removal in a  growing movement  that has sought to restore natural rivers and see the return of salmon runs.

63. 2015 A new climate agreement In late 2015, nations came together in Paris and  agreed to a new plan to limit global warming . Each country pledged to reduce their emissions. Many environmentalists remain cautiously optimistic that the agreement represented a global turning point towards concerted action around the problem. 2017 Tougher ozone standards In August 2017, the Trump administration EPA dropped its decision to delay new Obama-era regulations on ozone, a lung irritant that forms when sunlight irradiates emissions from vehicles, power plants, and other sources. In October 2015, the Obama administration  tightened the ozone national standard  from 75 parts per billion to 70 parts per billion, citing ozone’s toll on public health. The Obama administration estimated that the reduction would yield $2.9 to $5.9 billion worth of health benefits in 2025, outweighing its estimated annual cost of $1.4 billion.

64. 2018 Species show recovery In April, the lesser long-nosed bat became the first bat to be  taken off the Endangered Species List . After decades of conservation work, including working with agave growers to harvest tequila in a manner more friendly to the bats, the species has recovered its numbers to an estimated 200,000, up from just a few thousand. In June 2017, Yellowstone’s grizzly bears were removed from the endangered list, while the American wood stork was removed in 2014. These examples show that the Endangered Species Act is working, conservationists say.

65. 2019 Millions of acres are protected In March, President Donald Trump signed a law that extended protections to over  two million acres of land  across the country, touching most states. As part of this package, which had wide bipartisan and stakeholder support, 1.3 million new acres of wilderness lands were designated across the West; new national monuments were announced in Mississippi and Kentucky; hundreds of miles of rivers were protected under the Wild and Scenic Rivers program; and the Land and Water Conservation Fund was extended. The latter program funds a host of conservation efforts around the country with revenues from offshore oil and gas drilling.

66. THE DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS 2.The  natural environment  or  natural world  encompasses all  living  and non-living things occurring  naturally , meaning in this case not  artificial . The term is most often applied to  Earth  or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living  species ,  climate , weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept of the  natural environment  can be distinguished as components: Complete  ecological units  that function as natural systems without massive civilized human intervention, including all vegetation,  microorganisms ,  soil ,  rocks , the  atmosphere , and  natural phenomena  that occur within their boundaries and their nature.

67. MAN-MODIFIED ENVIRONMENT 1. Built environments are where humans have fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural  land conversion , the natural environment is greatly changed into a simplified human environment. Even acts which seem less extreme, such as building a mud  hut  or a  photovoltaic system  in the  desert , the modified environment becomes an artificial one.

68. MAN-MADE ENVIRONMENT

69. Biosphere It is otherwise known as the life layer, it refers to all organisms on the earth’s surface and their interaction with water and air. It consists of plants, animals and micro-organisms, ranging from the tiniest microscopic organism to the largest whales in the sea. Biology is concerned with how millions of species of animals, plants and other organisms grow, feed, move, reproduce and evolve over long periods of time in different environments. Its subject matter is useful to other sciences and professions that deal with life, such as agriculture, forestry and medicine. The richness of biosphere depends upon a number of factors like rainfall, temperature, geographical reference etc. Apart from the physical environmental factors, the man made environment includes human groups, the material infrastructures built by man, the production relationships and institutional systems that he has devised. The social environment shows the way in which human societies have organized themselves and how they function in order to satisfy their needs

70. ECOSYSTEM Is the community of all the different organism living in the area, along with their physical environment. All these interact and affect one another. An ecosystem can be as small as an oasis in a desert, or as big as an ocean, spanning thousands of miles It consists of abiotic (soil, water, air) and biotic parts (flora, fauna). 3.It has no particular size. It can be as large as a desert or as small as a tree.

71. Types of Ecosystem 4.Terrestrial Ecosystem- are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of terrestrial ecosystems distributed around various geological zones Forest Ecosystem Grassland Ecosystem Tundra Ecosystem Desert Ecosystem

72. Forest Ecosystem 5.Forest are regions where trees grow as a result of adequate temperature and minimal precipitation of 75 centimeters or more. Tropical Biomes 1. Tropical Rainforest- the forest with high, fairly constant rainfall and temperature that permit trees to grow throughout the year. Annual rainfall may exceed 400 centimeters . This is the biome with the highest species diversity. The number of species in a given area may have almost 100 different species per hectare.

73. 2. Tropical seasonal forest is also known as monsoon forest. Seasonal rainfall is concentrated during a certain part of the year after which follows an increasingly pronounced dry season. Proportion of deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves for a season) increases as the length of the dry season increases. 3. Tropical savanna consists of grassland dotted with scattered small trees and shrubs such as acacias. Some savannas are entirely grassland; others contain many trees. 4. Tropical thornwood , shrubland and tropical shrub. The proportion of trees depends on the competition between trees and grasses for water. The soil is more fertile than most tropical rainforests, but the rainfall is erratic.

74. B. Temperate Biomes The climate of temperate forest is typically moderate in terms of temperature. This forest occurs in regions of abundant rainfall and contains both deciduous and evergreen trees. There are three major categories of temperate forest: 1. Temperate deciduous forest occurs in moderately humid area where precipitation takes place throughout the year but winters are cold, restricting plant growth to the summers. Most of the trees lose their leaves in autumn. They lose little water by transpiration in winter where their roots could not replace it from the frozen soil. The soil is rich in minerals and organic matter.

75. 2. Temperate evergreen forest occurs where condition favors conifers or broad-leaved evergreen over deciduous trees. It has poor soil condition, frequent droughts and forest fires. The temperate evergreen plants include ponderosa and pine trees. These forests are found in Eastern Asia, Southern Chile, New Zealand and Australia. 3. Temperate rainforest occurs in cold climate near the sea with abundant winter rainfall and summer clouds of fogs. These include the forests of giant trees of the Pacific Coast of North America, and the mixed coniferous forests of Washington, Oregon and California.

76. 4. Temperate woodland occurs where the climate is too dry to support a forest yet provides sufficient moisture to support trees as well as grasses. Dominant trees are conifers, evergreen, flowering trees, or deciduous trees. 5. Temperate shrubland is represented by the Chaparral communities that occurs in all five regions of the world having fairly dry climate with little or no summer rain. Most shrubs have leathery leaves. They often have distinctively aromatic , volatile and flammable compounds in their leaves. Fires are frequent and dominant. The shrubs regions forms the surviving tissues near the ground after fires.

77. 6.Temperate grassland is also known variably as prairie in North America, steppe in Asia, pampasin South America, and veldt in South Africa. This covers extensive areas in the interior of continents where there are enough moisture to support forest or woodland. The grasslands are natural ranges for grazing animals, but they must be treated with care or they degrade into shrubland. Decomposition in grassland is slower than leaffall, so the fertile soil gets deeper and deeper as time goes by, producing the topsoil in the world. The grassland biome is often referred to as the world’s breadbasket for it is best for agriculture.

78. Tundra Ecosystem 6.The tundra is a treeless biome that occurs far north in the Arctic regions where winters are too dry and cold to permit the growth of trees. It is a biome of low-growing plants where water reaches plant roots for only a few months of the year because the soil is frozen for the rest of the year. The soil is thin and plant growth is slow, the vegetation is dominated by sedges, grasses, mosses and dwarf woody shrubs.

79. Grassland ecosystem - are dominated by grasses, and a rich array of deep-rooted, beautifully flowering non-grasses species. They have a few a trees because of inadequate and frequent grass fire that kills woody seedlings.

80. Grassland ecosystem

81. Desert Ecosystem 7.Deserts generally occur in semi-tropical and temperate regions having rainfall of less about 20 cm a year. Climate has the least precipitation , and it is unpredictable from year to year. Precipitation is so slow that in some deserts, evaporation from soil and plant surface are actually exceeds precipitation. There are two kinds of dessert: Cool desert these are dominated by sagebrush, rabbitbrush , and smaller perennial plants Hot deserts these are dominated by creosote, cacti, acacias, agave, and yucca.

82. Desert soil is largely unprotected by vegetation. It is subject to severe erosion from wind and occasional rain. It has a thin top layer of decaying plant materials called humus. Organisms of the desert have both structural and behavioral adaptations to meet their three most critical needs for survival: food, water and heat. Plants with seasonal leaf production have water-storage tissues, and thick epidermal layers which helps reduce waster loss. Animals live in burrows or rocky shelter to escape from the onslaught of daytime heat.

83. Desert Ecosystem

84. Aquatic Ecosystem 8.Aquatic ecosystems  are ecosystems present in a body of water. These can be further divided into two types, namely: Freshwater Ecosystem Marine Ecosystem 9.The freshwater ecosystem is an aquatic ecosystem that includes lakes, ponds, rivers, streams and wetlands. These have little salt content in contrast with the marine ecosystem. Marine Ecosystem 10.The marine ecosystem includes seas and oceans. These have a more substantial salt content and greater biodiversity in comparison to the freshwater ecosystem.

85. Fresh water Ecosystem

86. Marine Ecosystem

87. GOALS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE To develop a sustainable world, a world in which the supply of food, water, building materials, clean air, and other resources can sustain human populations to continue to exist indefinitely with high standard of living and health. To study environmental problems and issues, and priorities regarding acceptable environmental preservation of natural species and habitats, freedom of nations to do as they please, with their own potential boundaries, and issues on the quality of life, fairness and ethics.

88. IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE The environment studies enlighten us, about the importance of protection and conservation of our indiscriminate release of pollution into the environment. Environmental science has become significant for the following reasons: 1.Environment Issues Being of International Importance It has been well recognized that environment issues like global warming and ozone depletion, acid rain, marine pollution and biodiversity are not merely national issues but are global issues and hence must be tackled with international efforts and cooperation.

89. Problems Cropped in the Wake of Development Development, in its wake gave birth to Urbanization, Industrial Growth, and Transportation Systems, Agriculture and Housing etc. However, it has become phased out in the developed World. The North, to cleanse their own environment has fact fully, managed to move ‘dirty’ Factories of South. When the West developed, it did so perhaps in ignorance of the Environmental impact of its activities. Evidently such a path is neither practicable nor desirable, even if developing world follows that. 3. Explosively Increase in Pollution Evidently with 16 per cent of the world's population and only 2.4 per cent of its land area, there is a heavy pressure on the natural resources including land. Agricultural experts have recognized soils health problems like deficiency of micronutrients and organic matter, soil salinity and damage of soil structure

90. Need to Save Humanity from Extinction It is incumbent upon us to save the humanity from extinction. Consequent to our activities Constricting the environment and depleting the biosphere, in the name of development. 5. Need for Wise Planning of Development Our survival and sustenance depend. Resources withdraw, processing and use of the product have all to by synchronized with the ecological cycles in any plan of development our actions should be planned ecologically for the sustenance of the environment and development

91. NATURAL RESOURCES 6.The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based on quantity, quality, re-usability, men’s activity and availability. -Are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. A natural resource’s value rests in the amount of the material available and the demand for it. The term was introduced to a broad audience by E.F. Schumacher in his 1970s book Small is Beautiful

92. Definition of Resource A resource is a physical material that humans need and value such as land, air, and water. 7-8Resources are characterized as renewable or nonrenewable; a renewable resource can replenish itself at the rate it is used, while a nonrenewable resource has a limited supply. Renewable resources include timber, wind, and solar while nonrenewable resources include coal and natural gas.

93. Renewable resource or inexhaustible resources .The renewable resources can maintain themselves or can be replaced if managed wisely. These resources are constantly renewed in nature. The renewable resources are therefore not likely to be lost due to excessive and unwise use. Non-renewable resources or exhaustible resources These resources once used are lost forever, as they are not restored. They include metallic minerals and fossil fuels. At current rates of usage, all the industrial metals may lose for less than a century and those of petroleum and natural gas may exhaust in 15-20 years.

94. Types of Resources Renewable resources are those that are available in an endless quantity and can be used over and over again. Forest, wind, and water. - 9-10 Solar energy -Hydro energy -Tidal energy -Geothermal energy -Biomass Energy Non-renewable resources are restricted in quantity due to their non-renewable nature and their availability may run out in the future. Minerals, fossil fuels, and other natural resources

95. Natural Resources and Associated Problems Human population is growing day-by-day. Continuous increase in population caused an increasing demand for natural resources. Due to urban expansion, electricity need and industrialization, man started utilizing natural resources at a much larger scale. Non-renewable resources are limited. They cannot be replaced easily. After some time, these resources may come to an end. It is a matter of much concern and ensures a balance between population growth and utilization of resources. This overutilization creates many problems.

96. There are many problems associated with natural resources: Forest resources and associated problems Use and over-exploitation. Deforestation. Timber extraction. Mining and its effects on forest. Dams and their effects on forests and tribal people. Water resources and associated problems Use and overutilization of water. Floods, droughts etc. Conflicts over water. Dams and problems.

97. Mineral resource and associated problems 1. Use and exploitation. 2. Environmental effects of extracting and using minerals. Food resources and associated problems World food problems. Changes caused by agriculture and over grazing. Effects of modern agriculture. Fertilizer-pesticide problems. Water logging and salinity

98. Energy resources and associated problems 1. Growing energy needs. Land resources and associated problems Land degradation. Man-induced landslides. Soil erosion and desertification

99. FOREST RESOURCES Forests are one of the most important natural resources and a part of biosphere since these are natural assets on this earth. Forests predominantly composed of trees, shrubs, woody vegetation etc… Approximately 1/3rd of the earth’s total land area is covered by forests. Forests are important ecologically and economically. 11.Ecologically forests are to be considered as earth’s lungs because they consume CO2 and release O2which is required for sustaining the life on this earth. The poisonous gas CO2 is absorbed by the trees of forests and reduces the global warming and helps to continue hydrological cycle, reduce soil erosion. Forest ecosystems are extremely good & hold a good quantity of water. Economically forests provide timber, fodder to grazing animals,

100. USES OF FOREST 1.Watershed protection: • Reduce the rate of surface run-off of water. • Prevent flash floods and soil erosion. • Produces prolonged gradual run-off and thus prevent effects of drought. 2. Atmospheric regulation: • Absorption of solar heat during evapo -transpiration. • Maintaining carbon dioxide levels for plant growth. • Maintaining the local climatic conditions. 3. Erosion control: • Holding soil (by preventing rain from directly washing soil away). 4. Land bank: • Maintenance of soil nutrients and structure.

101. 5.Local use - Consumption of forest produce by local people who collect it for subsistence – (Consumptive use) Food - gathering plants, fishing, hunting from the forest. (In the past when wildlife was Plentiful, people could hunt and kill animals for food. -Now those populations of most Wildlife species have diminished; continued hunting would lead to extinction. • Fodder - for cattle. • Fuel wood and charcoal for cooking, heating. • Poles - building homes especially in rural and wilderness areas. • Timber – household articles and construction. • Fiber - weaving of baskets, ropes, nets, string, etc. • Sericulture – for silk.

102. Apiculture - bees for honey, forest bees also pollinate crops. Medicinal plants - traditionally used medicines, investigating them as potential Source for new modern drugs. 6. Market use - (Productive use) • Most of the above products used for consumptive purposes are also sold as source of income for supporting the livelihoods of forest dwelling people. • Minor forest produce - (non-wood products): Fuel wood, fruit, gum, fiber, etc.which are Collected and sold in local markets as a source of income for forest dwellers. • Major timber extraction - construction, industrial uses, paper pulp, etc.

103. OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS Forest has been known to possess huge potential for human use and they have been exploited since early times for their vast potential. Exploitation of forest has taken place to meet human demands in the following ways: - Due to wood cutting and large scale logging for raw materials like timber, pulp wood, fuel wood etc – Deforestation due to road construction - Clearing of forest to create more agricultural lands to meet the food needs of growing population - Encroachment of forests leading to destruction of about 19.57 thousand hectares (2013)of forest in the country - About 78% of forest area is under heavy grazing - Mining activities leads to clearing of forests - Big hydro electric projects result in large scale destruction of forest

104. DEFORESTATION 12.is the permanent destruction of indigenous forests and woodlands. The term does not include the removal of industrial forests such as plantations of gums or pines. Deforestation has resulted in the reduction of indigenous forests to four-fifths of their pre-agricultural area. Indigenous forests now cover 21% of the earth's land surface. Deforestation refers to the loss of forest cover (or) the aimless destruction of trees. The clearing of forests across the earth has been occurring on a large scale basis for many centuries.

105. CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION Humans have already cut down 40% of the world’s closed-canopy tropical rainforests. About 105,000 square kilometers are destroyed annually. By estimates, present rates of removal will leave only scattered remnants of tropical rainforests by the year 2025. 13-14Slash and Burn Agriculture- much forest destruction can be blamed on slash- and- burn or shifting agriculture. Fire –is used as a tool in slash-and –burn farming ( kaingin system) to dispose of fallen trees and to prevent the invasion of weeds and shrubs in the crop area.

106. Effects of Deforestation Firewood scarcity Climatic change Loss of genetic “pools” Extinction of species

107. 3. Cattle Ranching – large areas of tropical forests are being cleared away for cattle ranching. 4. Gathering Fuel Wood- more than one billion cubic meters of wood are harvested for fuel in the tropics. The wood is either used for firewood. or is converted into charcoal. 5. Industrial logging- commercial logging in tropical regions is frequently wasteful and inefficient . Most clear-cut areas do not become reforested by natural means. The land-starved squatters move in to the eke out their livelihood through slash-and- burn agriculture.

108. BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES- THE MATERIAL CYCLES AND LIFE PROCESS Energy from the sun is constantly entering and passing through the earth’s ecosystem . Our ecosystem have no extraterrestrial source of the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other substances that are required for life. These substances must be continually recycled through the ecosystem if the ecosystem is to persist. Biogeochemical cycle refers to the movement of matter within or between the ecosystem, caused by living (biology), geological forces (geology) and chemical reactions (chemistry).

109. Cycling of Essential elements .Carbon Cycle- is the basic constituent of all the large molecules , the common characteristics of living organisms. Life on earth is “ carbon- based”. Carbon makes life possible. Carbon dioxide is the major reservoir of carbon . This occurs in the atmosphere and in water. Photosynthesis forms the pathway by which carbon as Co2 is withdrawn from the carbon dioxide “pool” and it is used by plants to build carbohydrates and other organic compounds. The carbon moves through a series of food chain.

110. 2. Oxygen Cycle – the element , oxygen makes up 21% of the earth’s atmosphere. The oxygen supply is constantly replenished by green plants , including one-celled organisms called phytoplankton in the sea. Oxygen cycling is intimately linked with carbon cycling through photosynthesis and respiration. Oxygen is used by both plants and animals in the metabolism of foods. It is also used in the decay and combustion of plants, animals and materials. The oxygen’s role is to “clean-up” the liberated electrons and H + ions. It is the final electron acceptor in the energy cascade of respiration.

111. 3. The Nitrogen cycle Organisms do not exist without amino acids , peptides and proteins, the organic molecules that contain nitrogen. Producers ( the plants) form nitrogen atoms into amino acids, peptides and proteins The air is 78% nitrogen by volume in the atmosphere, but plants cannot used thiss nitrogen (N2) gas. Nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle is produced both by biological and non- biological processes. Nitrogen gas is stable, chemically unreactive and found in air, water and soil. Nitrogen fixing bacteria have highly specialized ability to “fix” nitrogen. When nitrogen is combined with hydrogen, it forms ammonium (NH4+)

112. 4. Phosphorus cycle – the amount available phosphorus in an environment can have a dramatic effect on productivity abundant phosphorus lush plant and algae growth which is a major contributor to waste pollution. Phosphorus cycle begins when phosphorus compounds are leached from rocks and minerals over along period of time. Inorganic phosphorus is taken in by producer organisms, incorporated into organic molecules, and then passed on to consumers. It returns to the environment by decomposition.

113. 5. The water cycle On a global scale, the role of living organisms in water cycle (hydrological cycle) is very small compared to the massive interactions of precipitation and evaporation from land and water surfaces. Three- fourths of the surface of earth is covered with water. Plants and animals take in large quantities of water. Some water taken in by green plants is used in photosynthesis , liberating oxygen. Water taken by terrestrial organisms is given back to the environment by evaporation from the body surfaces, such as skins and leaves. Evaporation affects the biome’s water cycling. Animals also lose water vapor from their respiratory surfaces as shown by the “gases entitled as you breath” on a cold day. Animals also return water to environment through their urine and excrement.

114. Plants participate in the water cycle in yet another way as ground cover to reduce evaporation of soil moisture. Vegetation reduces soil erosion, due to run-off , especially on slopes and in areas of heavy rainfall. The long roots draw moisture from deep water sources making it available to soil and surface ecosystem.

115. 6. The Sulfur Cycle Circulation of sulfur in various forms through nature. Sulfur occurs in all living matter as a component of a certain amino acids. It is abundant in the soil and in proteins. Through a series of microbial transformation, it ends up as sulfates usable to plants. Sulfur- containing proteins are degraded into their constituent amino acids by the action of a variety of soil organisms. The sulfur of the amino acids is converted to hydrogen sulfide by another series of soil microbes. . In the presence of oxygen, hydrogen sulfide is converted to sulfur and then to sulfate by sulfur- bacteria Sulfur may enter the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) or as sulfur dioxide (S02). Sulfur dioxide is formed in the combustion of organic materials- leaves, carcasses or coal. It is toxic to animals and plants, and reacts in the atmosphere to form sulfuric acids (H2SO4).