Essential nutrients-functions and deficiency symptoms, manures, fertilizers and biofertilizers

Essential nutrients

1. Department of Soil Science Submitted By: Utkarsh Kumawat (A-2015-30-070) Essential nutrients for plant growth & development, their functions & deficiency symptoms, Manures, Fertilizers and Biofertilizers

2. INTRODUCTION Plants require elements found in nature to properly grow and develop. Some of these elements are utilized within the physical plant structure, namely carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). These elements, obtained from the air (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O ), are the basis for carbohydrates such as sugars and starch, which provide the strength of cell walls, stems & leaves and are also sources of energy for the plant and organisms that consume the plant.

3. There are 17 elements that are essential for the growth and full development of higher green plants according to the criteria laid down by Arnon and Stout (1939) which was refined by Arnon (1954). These criteria are: A deficiency of an essential nutrient makes it impossible for the plant to complete the vegetative or reproductive stage of its life cycle. Criteria of essentiality :

4. 2 Such deficiency is specific to the element in question and can be prevented or corrected only by supplying this element. 3 The element is involved directly in the nutrition and metabolism of the plant.

5. Essential nutrients : According to Arnon & Stout there are 17 essential nutrients for plants. Nickel (Ni) is the 17 th essential nutrient known in 1987 . Essential nutrients are classified in 2 types: ( 1) Macro nutrients : These are absorbed in large amount from soil and fertilizers. ( 2) Micro nutrients : These are required in small amount from soil and fertilizers.

6. Macro nutrients Micro nutrients Essential nutrients (17) (9) (8) Primary nutrients Secondary nutrients (6) (3)

7. Macro nutrients : There are 9 macro nutrients required for the growth and development of plants. These are further sub divided in 2 groups- (A) Primary nutrients: 1) Carbon (C) 2) Hydrogen (H) 3) Oxygen (O) 4) Nitrogen (N) 5) Phosphorus (P) 6) Potassium (K) (B)Secondary nutrients: 7) Calcium (Ca) 8) Magnesium (Mg) 9) Sulphur (S) Basic nutrients

8. Micro nutrients : There are 8 micro nutrients required for the growth and development of plants. These are- Boron (B) Manganese (Mn) Copper (Cu) Zinc (Zn) Molybdenum (Mo) Chlorine ( Cl ) Iron (Fe) Nickel (Ni) Nickel (Ni) is the 17 th essential nutrient known in 1987.

9. Functions and deficiency symptoms of nutrients

10. NITROGEN Major component of plant cells and cell wall. Cell cytoplasm and organelles contain nitrogen in combination with C, H, O, P and S. Necessary for formation of amino acids , the building blocks of protein. Essential for plant cell division, vital for plant vegetative growth. Integral part of chlorophyll Necessary component of vitamins Improves the quality of leafy vegetables Affects energy reactions in the plant

11. Deficiency symptoms : Lower leaves become yellow firstly and dries Tillering is poor in cereals Stunted growth In case of cabbage, there is no formation of heads ‘V’ shaped chlorosis on older leaves

12. PHOSPHORUS Great role in energy storage and transfer in the form of ATP and ADP. So it is also called as “ Energy currency ” Essential constituent of nucleic acid, phytin and phospho -lipids Involved in photosynthesis, respiration, cell division and enlargement Promotes early root formation and growth Improves quality of fruits, vegetables, and grains Vital to seed formation Excess of P can cause deficiency of certain micro-nutrient like Zn and Fe

13. Deficiency symptoms : Deficiency symptoms are appears first on older leaves Deficiency imparts dark green colour in leaves Bronzing or red purple coloration on leaves due to synthesis of anthocyanin development of lateral buds is suppressed

14. POTASSIUM Most essential function of potassium is stomata regulation Increases water-use efficiency Provides disease resistance Formation and translocation of sugars Increases photosynthesis Activates enzymes and controls their reaction rates Improves quality of seeds and fruit Improves winter hardiness In plants K+ also reduced the transpiration rate and increase photosynthetic rate

15. Deficiency symptoms : Scorching or burning of margins of older leaves Weakning of straw in grain crops reduction in turgidity of cells Spots of dead tissues at tips Keeping quality of fruits and vegetables is reduced

16. CALCIUM Constituent of cell wall (as Ca- pectate ) Helps to maintain membrane permeability and stability Retards abscission and senescence of leaves Important for growth of meristems and functioning of root tips Neutralizes the charge on acidic molecules of phosphoric acid and other organic acids i.e. citric acid, malic acid, oxalic acid which are injurious to plant growth

17. Plays a important role in germination and growth of pollens Increase nodulation in legumes Required for cell division and cell elongation

18. Deficiency symptoms : Deficiency symptoms first appear on younger leaves. Its deficiency is manifested by failure of terminal buds and apical roots to develop. Thus the growth of plant ceases. Deficiency of Ca leads to- Tip burn of cabbage, cauliflower Black heart of celery Blossom end rot of tomato and ber Bitter pit of apple

19. Blossom end rot of Tomato Bitter pit of Apple

20. MAGNESIUM Key element of chlorophyll production Improves utilization and mobility of phosphorus Activator and component of many plant enzymes Directly related to grass tetany Increases iron utilization in plants Influences earliness and uniformity of maturity Required for the reaction involving phosphate transfer from ATP .

21. Deficiency symptoms : May occur on acid soils, sandy soils or soils with high K levels. Deficiency symptoms first appear on older leaves. Deficiency symptoms manifests themselves in terms of interveinal chlorosis. Grass tetany is a nutritional disorder common in cattles grazing on Mg-deficient pastures. Cattle consume low Mg forages may suffer from hypomagnesaemia, which is abnormally low level of blood Mg. Sand drawn disease in tobacco

22. SULPHUR Required for S containing amino acids i.e. Cysteine , Cystine , Methionine S is required for the synthesis of volatile compounds responsible for characteristic taste and smell in plants of mustard and onions. Pungency in onion : due to Allyl propyl disulphide Pungency in mustard oil : due to Allyl isocyanates Improves the oil quality of oilseeds crops Improves the baking quality in cereals grains Necessary in chlorophyll formation (though it isn’t one of the constituents)

23. Deficiency symptoms : First appears on younger growths as it is immobile in plants. Fading of normal green colour in young leaves, followed by chlorosis is the most common deficiency symptom. Older leaves become puckered with inward raised areas between the veins. In brassicas , which are most susceptible to S-deficiency, the leaves are narrow, show cupping (curling of leaf margins) and arresting the growing points.

24. Fig: Deficiency symptoms of N, P and K

25. Micronutrients The micronutrients are boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc and nickel. These plant food elements are used in very small amounts, but they are just as important to plant development and profitable crop production as the major nutrients. Especially, they work "behind the scene" as activators of many plant functions .

26. BORON Boron is the only non-metal element among the micro nutrients Essential of germination of pollen grains and growth of pollen tubes Necessary for sugar translocation Essential for seed and cell wall formation Promotes maturity Taste in cauliflower is due to presence of boron

27. Deficiency symptoms : Browning of cauliflower Top sickness of tobacco Fruit crcking in tomato Hard fruit of citrus Hen and chicken disease of grapes Hollow stem of cauliflower

28. CHLORINE Plays a important role in osmo -regulation Chlorine in abundance supress the plant diseases Regulate the turgor potential of leaves Co-factor in Mn containing water splitting enzymes photosystem II

29. COPPER Component of plastocyanin Catalyzes several plant processes (i.e. desaturation and hydrolysis of fatty acid) Essential for photosynthesis Enhances the fertility of male flowers Imparts disease resistant to plants Improves flavour of fruits and vegetables

30. Deficiency symptoms : Sterility of male flowers Chlorosis of younger shoot tissues, necrosis and leaf distortion are the characteristic deficiency symptoms Reclamation disease of citrus Die back of citrus Gummosis and xanthomenia disease of citrus

31. IRON Promotes synthesis of chlorophyll Acts as an oxygen carrier ( leghaemoglobin ) Reactions involving cell division and growth Acts as an enzyme activator

32. Deficiency symptoms : Complete interveinal chlorosis Scorching of leaf margins Growth of plant is poor, dry matter accumulation is adversely affected.

33. MAGANESE Functions as a part of certain enzyme systems Aids in chlorophyll synthesis Increases the availability of P and C Required for maintenance of chloroplast structure

34. Deficiency symptoms : More severe on middle leaves than on younger leaves On dicot plants interveinal chlorosis and on monocot plants greenish grey spots and stripes on basal leaves Deficiency of Mn leads to- Pahala blight of sugarcane Grey specks of oats Marsh spots of peas Speckled yellow of sugarbeet Toxicity of Mn leads to Crinkle leaf of cotton .

35. MOLYBDENUM Required to form the enzyme " nitrate reductase " which reduces nitrates to ammonium in plant Aids in the formation of legume nodules Needed to convert inorganic phosphates to organic forms in the plant Mo is required for sweetness in carrot and raphanus Whiptail of cauliflower is due to deficiency of Molybdenum

36. ZINC Zn is constituent of 3 enzymes i.e. carbonic anhydrase, alcoholic dehydrogenase and superoxide dismutase. Aids plant growth hormones and enzyme system Influence translocation and transport of P Important for synthesis of tryptophan , a component of some proteins Necessary for chlorophyll production Aids in seed formation

37. Deficiency symptoms : First appears on younger leaves In many plants its deficiency produces a symptom known as ‘ Rossette ’ in which the growth of main shoot is drastically reduced while the secondary shoots come up in large number. Deficiency of Zn leads to- Khaira disease of rice White bud of maize Little leaf of cotton

38. The table below lists the essential elements and their uptake forms : Nutrient Uptake form Carbon CO 3 -2 , H 2 CO 3 Hydrogen H + , OH - Oxygen OH - Nitrogen NO 3 - , NH 4 + Phosphorus HPO 4 2- , H 2 PO 4 - Potassium K + Chlorine Cl -

39. Nutrient Uptake form Calcium Ca 2+ Magnesium Mg 2+ Sulfur SO 4 2- Boron H 3 BO 3 , H 2 BO 3 - Manganese Mn 2+ Copper Cu 2+ Zinc Zn 2+ Molybdenum MoO 4 2- Iron Fe 2+ , Fe 3+ Nickel Ni 2+

40. Manures Manures may be defined as materials which are organic in origin, bulky and concentrated in nature and capable of supplying plant nutrients and improving soil physical environment having no definite chemical composition with low analytical value produced from animal, plant and other organic wastes and by products. Organic manures are included well rotten farm yard manure(FYM) compost, green manures, oil cakes etc.

41. Organic manures are of 2 types: Bulky organic manures Concentrated organic manures Bulky organic manures : It is mainly derived from animal, plant and other organic wastes and green plant tissues. They generally contain less amount of plant nutrients as compared to COM. Eg. FYM, compost (from farm and town refuses etc.), green manures ( eg . Dhaincha , glyricidia , sunhemp , other leguminous crops etc.). Concentrated organic manures : It is mainly derived from raw materials of animal or plant origin. Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrients than bulky organic manures. Eg. Oil cakes, blood meal, meat meal, bone meal etc.

42. Fertilizers Fertilizers may be defined as materials having definite chemical composition with a higher analytical value and capable of supplying plant nutrients in available forms. Usually fertilizers are inorganic in nature. Classification of fertilizers : Straight fertilizers: May be defined as fertilizers which contains only one major (primary) nutrient element. Eg. Urea, ammonium sulphate Binary fertilizer: Contains two major nutrients eg . Potassium nitrate

43. Ternary fertilizer: Contains three major nutrients eg . Ammonium potassium sulphate Compound/ complex fertilizers: This may be defined as fertilizer material which contains more than one major nutrients produced by the process of chemical reactions. Eg. DAP, ammonium phosphate. Mixed fertilizers: When straight fertilizers are blended together physically to permit application in the field in one operation, it is called as mixed fertilizers. Such fertilizers supply two or three major nutrients in a definite proportion (grade). Eg. Nitrophosphate with potash 15:15:15, 12:32:16

44. Complete fertilizer : Complete fertilizer is referred to a fertilizer material which contains all three major nutrients viz. N, P, K. Incomplete fertilizer : Contains any two major nutrients. Low analysis fertilizers: Fertilizer having less than 25% of the primary nutrients eg . SSP ( 16% P2O5), Sodium nitrate ( 16% N). High analysis fertilizer : Fertilizers having more than 25% of the primary nutrients eg . Urea ( 46% N), anhydrous ammonia ( 82%N) etc.

45. There are 3 types of fertilizers: Nitrogenous fertilizers : Eg. Urea (46% N), ammonium nitrate (33% N), sodium nitrate (16% N), potassium nitrate (13% N), ammonium sulphate (20.6% N), calcium ammonium nitrate (26% N). Phosphatic fertilizers: Eg. SSP (16% P 2 O 5 ), DSP (32% P 2 O 5 ), TSP (48% P 2 O 5 ), DAP (46% P 2 O 5 ), Dicalcium phosphate (33-40% P 2 O 5 ), Basic slag (14-18% P 2 O 5 ), Rock phosphate (20-40% P 2 O 5 ), Raw bone meal (20-25% P 2 O 5 ). Potassic fertilizers: Eg. Muriate of potash (KCl) 60% K 2 O, Sulphate of potash (K 2 SO 4 ) 48% K 2 O, Potassium nitrate 44% K 2 O.

46. Biofertilizers Biofertilizers are defined as preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate solubilizing or celluloytic micro organisms used for application to seed, soil or composting areas with the objectives of increase soil fertility and help plant growth by increasing their numbers and biological activities. Biofertilizers are of 3 types: N-fixing biofertilizers Phosphate solubilizing biofertilizers Cellulolyte or organic matter decomposer

47. N fixing biofertilizers P solubilizing biofertilizers Biofertilizers Organic matter decomposers For legumes Eg. Rhizobium For non legumes Eg. Azotobacter, azospirillum , BGA, Azolla PO 4 -3 solubilizer Eg. Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Aspergillus PO 4 -3 absorber Eg. VAM Cellulolytic organisms Eg. Cellulomonas, Trichoderma spore Lignolytic organisms Eg. Anthrobacter , Agaricus

48. A simple form of classification of biofertilizers is given below: 1) For Nitrogen Rhizobium for legume crops. Azotobacter l Azospirillum for non legume crops. Acetobacter for sugarcane only. Blue -Green Algae (BGA) and Azolla for low land paddy. 2) For Phosphorous Phosphatika for all crops to be applied with Rhizobium, Azotobacter, VAM(Vesicular- arbuscular mycorrhiza ). 3) For Enriched Compost Cellulolytic fungal culture. Phosphotika and Azotobacter culture

49. The fertilizer preparation with Rhizobium culture is known as “ Nitrogin ” and the bacterial fertilizer Azotobacter Chroococcum is known as “ Azotobacterin ”. In addition to nitrogen economy in soils, several soil bacteria like Pseudomonas and Bacillus and fungi like Penicillium and Aspergillus have the ability to bring insoluble phosphates in soil into soluble forms by secreting various organic acids viz. formic, acetic etc. These acids lower the pH and bring the dissolution of bound forms of phosphates. Cultures of both Azotobacter and Azospirillum are used for non-leguminous crops for the nutrition of nitrogen.

50. Culture of blue green bacteria (cyanobacteria) and Azolla are used for the low land rice cultivation as algal bio-fertilizers. The application of soil based algal mixed culture @10-15 kg/ha is generally recommended for rice. Azolla can also be used as a bio-fertilizer and some important species are Azolla pinnata , A. mexicana, A. carolinian and A. microphylla of which Azolla pinnata is the most common in India. The application of 10t/ha fresh azolla is as efficient as basal application of 25-30 kg N/ha.

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