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1. Page 3 Hybrid Cars Classification Limitations, Advantage & Benefits Manufacturers & Cars Specifications

2. Electric Vehicles: Classification

3. Hybrid Vehicle: Basics A hybrid vehicle is one that has at least two different types of power or propulsion systems. Ideally, each of them works to improve the efficiency and performance of the other while minimizing the disadvantages of each. Today’s hybrid vehicles have an internal combustion engine (ICE) and a battery-powered electric motor. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has more than one available power source to propel the vehicle—it uses one or more electric motors and an internal combustion engine. Page 3

4. Hybrid Vehicle: Basics Depending on the design of the system, the ICE may propel the vehicle by itself, act together with the electric motor to propel the vehicle, or drive a generator to charge the vehicle’s batteries. The electric motor may propel the vehicle by itself or assist the ICE while it is propelling the vehicle. A hybrid’s electric motor is powered by batteries, which are continuously recharged by a generator that is driven by the ICE. The battery is also recharged through regenerative braking. Based on the current operating conditions, electronics control the ICE, electric motor, and generator. The system recharges the batteries while driving; therefore plug- in charging is not required.

5. Hybrid Vehicle: Components Internal Combustion Engine Electric Motor Electric Battery Inverter Generator Control Module Page 5

6. Hybrid Vehicle: Classification Based on degree of hybridization Full / Strong Hybrid Mild Hybrid Micro Hybrid Start – Stop Hybrid Based on drive train Series Hybrid Parallel Hybrid Split Hybrid Plug in hybrid Page 6

7. Hybrid Vehicle: Classification based on degree of hybridization Stop- start hybrid A stop- start system shuts off the engine when the vehicle is stationary. An enhanced starter motor is used to support the increased number of engine starts. Micro hybrid A micro hybrid normally employs a stop- start system and regenerative braking which charges the 12-V battery. Mild hybrid Able to help combustion engine with electric torque in addition to micro hybrid features. Full hybrid Able to drive using electric propulsion without engine running but can not be recharged by plugging in.

8. Hybrid Vehicle: Classification based on drive train Series hybrid In a series hybrid, the engine never directly powers the vehicle. Parallel hybrid In a parallel hybrid, the engine, the motor, or both can power the drive wheels. Page 8

9. Hybrid Vehicle: Classification based on drive train Split hybrid A proportion of the engine power is converted to electric power by the alternator and the remainder, together with the motor, drives the wheels.

10. Hybrid Vehicle: Plug in hybrid Plug in hybrid These are full hybrids with larger batteries and the ability to recharge from an electric power grid. They are equipped with a power socket that allows the batteries to be recharged when the engine is not running. When the batteries run low, the engine starts and powers the vehicle and the generator to charge the batteries. Page 10

11. Hybrid Car Manufacturers

12. Hybrid Vehicles in India (List is indicative) Bolero Scorpio Baleno Ciaz Camry Prius XUV 500 Ertiga XL 6 S Cross Vitara Brezza Page 12

13. Vehicle Specification : BMW i8 The mid- mounted 1.5-litre, 3-cylinder engine drives the rear wheels and produces a maximum output of 231BHP and 320Nm. The electric motor drives the front axle and is rated at 130BHP and 250Nm. Altogether, the hybrid system has a combined output of 361BHP and 570Nm. The engine is mated to a 6- speed automatic, while the electric motor is mated to a 2- speed gearbox when driving in full electric mode. The hybrid sports car has an all-electric range in the range of 25- 35km. The BMW i8 can achieve a top speed of up to 120kmph in EV mode.

14. Vehicle Specification : Volvo XC90 T8 Engine: 2.0-litre, turbocharged and supercharged four- cylinder petrol engine that makes 320hp with an 87hp electric motor. Models: Excellence & Inscription Total output stands at 407hp and 400Nm of torque and drive goes to all- four corners through an eight- speed automatic gearbox, with the engine powering the front wheels and the electric motor powering the rear. All electric range of 40km. Page 14

15. Vehicle Specification : Lexus LS500h The LS 500h pairs a V6 3.5-liter direct injection engine with two powerful, self-charging electric motors to deliver 264 kW horsepower with maximum fuel efficiency.        Combined Power & Torque: 354 hp & 353 N.m Engine: 3.5 litre V6 Power & Torque: 295 hp @ 6,600 rpm & 348 N.m @ 4,900 rpm Engine Electric Power & Torque: 177 hp & 300 N.m @ rpm Battery: Lithium-ion (Li- ion) Voltage: 311 V Page 15

16. Vehicle Specification : Toyota Camry Camry comes with a new 2.5 liter 4 cylinder motor featuring D4-S direct injection and a more advanced VVTi-iW variable valve timing system. It comes with a new 6-speed automatic gearbox.        Power & Torque: 131 Kw @ 5,700 rpm & 221 N.m @ 5,200 rpm Engine Electric Power & Torque: 160 Kw Battery: Nickel- metal hydride Voltage: 245 V Motor: Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor Motor Generator: 88 Kw & 202 N.m Page 16

17. SHVS: Smart Hybrid Vehicle by Suzuki Smart Hybrid Vehicle by Suzuki (SHVS) system consists of three main elements. 48V Integrated Starter Generator (ISG), which performs the function of an alternator, electric motor and starter motor. 48V Lithium-ion battery pack positioned under the front passenger seat so as to not hamper the seating or luggage space. Converter that transforms the voltage from 48V to 12V to supply on-board equipment when required. In all, the components of the 48V Smart Hybrid by Suzuki (SHVS) system weigh 45 kg. The capacity of the Lithium-ion battery pack is 8 Ah. The electric motor generates 10 kW (13.6 PS) and 50 Nm of torque. Page 17

18. Limitations of hybrid cars Premium price on purchase due to the use of new technologies and materials. Lifetime on battery unit is around 100,000 Km and batteries are expensive to replace and recycle. Range of travel can be limiting due to the battery requiring recharging every 50–300 kms dependent on vehicle. Performance could be limited on some smaller vehicles due to the size of motors. Page 18

19. Limitations of hybrid cars Weight of the vehicle can be very high due to the weight of the battery & motors. Temperature control of the driver and passengers can impact on the range due to running additional electronic systems, such as air-conditioning compressors to keep passengers cool. Recharging time may impact on the use of the vehicle, as most cars need 4–6 hours. Page 19

20. Advantages of hybrid cars Lower running costs of the vehicle due to less fuel being used and longer service intervals. More reliability due to less stress on engine and transmission parts and the use of non-service electrical motors. Reduced oil consumption due to low fuel usage and high mileage. No or very little pollution through exhaust emissions Quieter due to the vehicle running on electrical motors improving the impact of noise pollution from current production cars. Overnight charging using lower-rate electricity further improving on the costs of travel and impact on power stations Lower overall emissions due to the use of electrical drive, high mileage and lower impact on power stations through overnight charging Page 20

21. Benefits of hybrid cars Constant high torque at low speeds Very high efficiency Instant torque delivery Energy recovery capability Page 21 2 March 2021 Maharashtra State Board of Technical Education

22. Functions of hybrid cars A hybrid electric vehicle performs at least one or more of the following functions: Engine idle stop/start Electric torque assistance (fill and boost) Energy recuperation (regenerative braking) Electric driving Battery charging (during driving) Battery charging (from the grid) Page 22

23. Functions of hybrid cars Page 23

24. Electric Vehicle: Battery Basics The battery in an electric drive vehicle serves a different purpose than a battery in a conventional vehicle. In an internal combustion engine (ICE)-powered vehicle, the battery’s primary purpose is to provide a short, powerful burst of power to start the engine. This type of battery is typically called a starting battery. In electric drive vehicles, however, the batteries provide continuous current to power electric motors for a long period of time. Page 24

25. Electric Vehicle: Battery Basics Electric drive vehicles need high-power, high-voltage batteries. These batteries should also be totally discharged and recharged often. This requirement is called deep cycling, and a battery designed to do this is called a deep cycle battery. These batteries tend to have less instant power than a starting battery but can deliver electrical energy for longer periods of time, as well as go through many deep cycles. Page 25

26. Battery: Types Lithium Ion Sodium Nickel Chloride Sodium Sulphur Fuel Cell Page 26

27. Lithium Ion Battery: Construction Construction is similar to nickel-based batteries and cells. Battery cells do not use lithium metal due to safety issues; instead they use lithium compounds. Anode is a graphite structure and the cathode is layered metal oxide comprised of graphite and a lithium alloy oxide. Page 27

28. Lithium Ion Battery: Working & Specification When the battery is charging, the lithium-ions move from the anode to the cathode and take on electrons. The number of ions therefore determines the energy density. When the battery is discharging, the lithium-ions release the electrons to the anode, and move back to the cathode. Specification: Specific energy : 100 to 120 Wh/kg Energy density : 200 to 250 Wh/L Maximum power : 200 W/kg Charge time : 4 hours Page 28

29. Sodium Nickel Chloride: Construction Developed in 1985 by ZEBRA (the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project) Electrolyte is solid molten salt and inactive at ambient temperature Battery can be stored indefinitely (over 50 years) yet provide full power in an instant when required. Also known as Thermal battery Sodium-Metal Halide Battery Molten Salt Battery ZEBRA Battery Page 29 2 March 2021

30. Sodium Nickel Chloride: Construction Sodium metal : Anode NiCl 2 /FeCl 2 : Cathode A ceramic Na- β”- Al 2 O 3 electrolyte (Na ion conductor) is used to separate the two terminals (anode and cathode). A secondary electrolyte of liquid NaAlCl4 (sodium tetrachloroaluminate) is used in the transportation of sodium ion to the positive electrode. The cell operates at around 300°C in order to benefit from higher diffusivity among solid reactants in the cathode and higher conductivity of the solid electrolyte. Nominal Voltage: 2.58V Page 30

31. Sodium Sulphur: Construction Developed in 1985 by ZEBRA (the Zeolite Battery Research Africa Project) Similar to Sodium Nickel Chloride battery. Also known as Thermal battery Sodium beta-alumina battery A ceramic Na- β”-Al 2 O 3 electrolyte (Na ion conductor) is used to separate the two terminals (anode and cathode). Page 31

32. Sodium Sulphur: Construction The cell operates at around 300°C in order to benefit from higher diffusivity among solid reactants in the cathode and higher conductivity of the solid electrolyte. Nominal voltage of 2V; Specific energy 200–250Wh/kg comparable with Li-ion Life Cycle: of 4,500 Life time of 15–20 years. Page 32

33. Fuel Cell: Introduction A fuel cell is an electrochemical device in which the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen is converted into electrical energy. In simple terms, a fuel cell is a hydrogen-powered battery. Hydrogen is an excellent fuel because it has a very high specific energy when compared to an equivalent amount of fossil fuel. 1 Kg of hydrogen has three times the energy content as 1Kg of gasoline. The chemical reaction in a fuel cell is the opposite of electrolysis. Electrolysis is the process in which electrical current is passed through water in order to break it into its components, hydrogen and oxygen . The only emissions of fuel cell are water vapour and heat, hence called as a Zero Emission Vehicle. Page 33

34. Fuel Cell: Construction There are two electrodes, one located on each side of the membrane. These are responsible for distributing hydrogen and oxygen over the membrane surface, removing waste heat, and providing a path for electrical current flow. Membrane is coated on both sides with a catalyst such as platinum/palladium. The negative electrode (anode) has hydrogen gas directed to it, while oxygen is sent to the positive electrode (cathode). Page 34

35. Fuel Cell: Working Hydrogen is sent to the negative electrode as H 2 molecules, which break apart into H+ ions (protons) in the presence of the catalyst. The electrons (e-) from the hydrogen atoms are sent through the external circuit, generating electricity that can be utilized to perform work. These same electrons are then sent to the positive electrode where they re-join the H+ ions that have passed through the membrane and have reacted with oxygen in the presence of the catalyst. This creates H 2 O and waste heat, which are the only emissions from a fuel cell. Types: PAFC, PEM, MCFC, SOFC Page 35

36. E - V e h i c l e s | G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric (FAME) Vehicles in India Phase I (01.04.2015 – 31.03.2019) & Phase II (01.04.2019 – 31.03.2022) FAME India is a part of National Electric Mobility Mission Plan 2020 (NEMMP). Main thrust of FAME is to encourage E-vehicles by providing subsidies. Under the NEMMP scheme, the government aimed to invest Rs 14000 crore in creating infrastructure a nd p r o m o t i ng t he u s e o f e l e c t r i c v e h i c l e s . Vehicles in most segments – two wheelers, three wheelers, electric and hybrid cars and electric buses obtained the subsidy benefit of the scheme. P ag e 36

37. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I Implementing agency: M i n i s t r y o f H e a vy I ndu s t r i e s & P ub l i c E n t e r p r i s e s Focus Areas Technology development Demand creation P il o t p r o j e c t s C h a r g i ng i n f r a s t r u c t u r e P ag e 37

38. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I National Mission on Electric Mobility (NMEM) under which two apex bodies were set up – National Council on Electric Mobility (NCEM) at the ministerial level & the other National Board on Electric Mobility (NBEM) at the secretary level to formulate the road map (2011). Based on the road map prepared by the DHI, a National Electric Mobility Plan (NEMMP-2020) was released in January 2013 by the then Prime Minister. Target of 6-7 million hybrid and electric vehicles per year by 2020 provided commensurate incentives were extended by the Government for demand and supply creation, technology and R&D projects, creation of public charging infrastructure and pilot projects. Outlay of 795 Crore for the initial two years – Phase I (2015-17). As scheme was extended for two years additional allocation of 100 Crore was made. T o t a l B ud g e t f o r F A M E I : 89 5 C r o r e P ag e 38

39. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I Technology: V e h i c l e s y s t e m i n t e g r a t i on, M o t o r s a nd c on t r o l l e r s a nd po w e r e l e c t r on ic s ; Batteries and battery management system C h a r g i ng i n f r a s t r u c t u r e Number of R&D projects have already been initiated by DHI, for example - development of off-line and real- time simulators for EV systems, design development for light weight vehicles, technology for solid state lithium ion battery and COE for motors etc. Rs.30 Crore released for the creation of necessary testing facilities at ARAI, Pune for testing these new generation EV, within the country. P ag e 39

40. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I I n c e n t i v e : P ag e 40

41. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I I Salient Features: D u r a t i on : 01 . 04 . 201 9 - 3 1 . 3 . 20 2 2 O u t l a y o f R s . 1000 C r Vehicles should meet all the provisions of central motor vehicles rule. Vehicles should have three years comprehensive warranty including battery. Vehicles should have monitoring device to know mileage. Vehicle should display a sticker of FAME II Vehicles should not have lead acid battery. P ag e 41 2 M a r c h 202 1

42. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I I Salient Features: Subsidy will be given to only private 2 wheeler S ub s i dy w il l be g i v e n t o on l y c o m m e rc i a l v e h i c l e ( 3 & 4 Wh ee l e r s ) Support 10 Lakhs e-2W, 5 Lakhs e-3W, 55000 4Ws and 7000 Buses. Demand Incentive: 2,3,4 Wheeler: Rs.10,000 per kWh D e ma nd I n c e n t i v e : B u s : 20 , 00 p e r k W h Only companies that meet the 50% localization threshold will be eligible for the incentives available under the FAME II scheme P ag e 42

43. G o v e r n m e n t o f I nd i a P oli c y | F A M E I I Salient Features: 263 6 c h a r g i ng s t a t i on s i n 6 2 c i t i e s a cr o s s 2 4 S t a t e s /U T s Maharashtra with maximum charging stations: 317 At least one charging station in a grid of 4 Km X 4 km. On highways, charging stations will be established on both sides of the road at an interval of about 25 km each. P ag e 43

44. Page 3 Concept Map: Safety in Automobile Safety Active Safety Active Safety – Passive Safety Integration Passive Safety

45. Automobile Safety Even though vehicle OEM have put in efforts to impart a high level of vehicle safety, more than 1.2 million fatalities still occur each year on roadways worldwide. There remains a need to continue improving vehicle and road safety. New technologies in sensors and electronic control units, and the growing knowledge of car- to- car and car- to- infrastructure technologies have led to a fusion of the previously separated areas of accident avoidance (popularly known as active safety) and mitigation of injuries (popularly known as passive safety) into the newer concept of integrated vehicle safety. This new approach represents a further step toward lowering accident rates. Page 45

46. Automobile Safety System Active Safety System Automatic Emergency Braking Adaptive Cruise Control Electronic Stability Program Anti Collision System Passive Safety System Air Bags Crumple Zone Headrest Seatbelts Page 46

47. Active Safety System Active safety features engage to help prevent or reduce the severity of a crash. Active safety systems only operate when needed. Forward collision warning systems and lane departure warning systems, for example, can activate a warning system when a dangerous situation is detected. Other systems like electronic stability control (ESC), anti- lock braking systems (ABS) and emergency brake assist (EBA) monitor the rotational speed of the vehicle’s wheels, brake system operation and general vehicle stability, for any signs that control is being lost. When an issue is detected, these active safety features work autonomously to correct the situation. Page 47

48. Automatic Emergency Braking Emergency braking systems are among the most effective assistance systems in the car. Bosch has developed a stereo video camera with which an emergency braking system can function based solely on camera data. Normally, this would need a radar sensor or a combination of radar & video sensors. When the camera recognizes another vehicle ahead in the lane as an obstruction, the emergency braking system prepares for action. If the driver does not react, then the system initiates maximum braking. With its light- sensitive lenses and video sensors, the camera covers a 50° horizontal field of vision and can take measurements in 3D at over 50 m. Thanks to these spatial measurements, the video signal alone provides enough data to calculate, for example, the distance to vehicles ahead. Page 48

49. Automatic Emergency Braking Other functions served is road- sign recognition, which keeps the driver informed about the current speed limit. Another is a lane-departure warning system. This vibrates the steering wheel to warn drivers before they unintentionally drift out of lane. AEB comes in three categories: Low speed AEB system – works on city streets to detect other vehicles in front of your car to prevent crashes and non- life threatening injuries. Higher speed AEB system – scans up to 200 metres ahead using long range radar at higher speeds Pedestrian detection system – detects pedestrian, object or animal movement in relation to the path of the vehicle to determine the risk of collision. Few vehicles offer pedestrian safety system (airbags) as well along with AEB. Page 49

50. Adaptive Cruise Control In recent years, vehicle manufacturers have designed an additional function to the conventional cruise control system. The system is known as adaptive cruise control (ACC) and is designed to use a forward looking radar sensor that scans the oncoming road ahead, looking for objects that are moving at a different speed to the vehicle. The system has three main features: Maintain a speed as set by the driver Adapt this speed and maintain a safe distance from the vehicles in front Provide a warning if there is a risk of collision. The driver has the option to set the speed that they want to travel at and can also programme the system via the vehicle multi-function system and the vehicle instrument pack to set the preferred distance. Page 50

51. Adaptive Cruise Control When a target is identified, the ACC system will monitor the time gap between the host and the target vehicle. When that gap falls below a pre- set driver level, the cruise system will intervene, slowing the vehicle down by backing off the throttle and/or applying the brakes in a controlled manner until the correct gap is attained. The radar sensor is normally located within the front bumper or grill area of the vehicle. The sensor transmits a wide beam forward of the vehicle and covers a range of approximately 130 m. The radar module monitors the transmitted signal continuously and calculates the changes in the frequency to identify the oncoming objects. This information is then transmitted back to the instrument panel via warning symbols to notify the driver of the oncoming object or possible change in speed. Page 51

52. Electronic Stability Program Electronic stability program (ESP) is a system designed to help drivers maintain control of their vehicles in situations where the vehicle is beginning to lose control. ESP helps prevent skids, swerves, and rollover accidents. Basically the system applies the brakes at one or more wheels to help correct the steering. In some cases, power to the drive wheels is also reduced. ESP has following functions Helps vehicle directional stability by applying and controlling individual wheel brakes to help bring the vehicle back to the intended direction. Uses sensors to determine when the vehicle is not under control. Uses a steering wheel position sensor to determine the intended direction of the driver. Operates at all vehicle speeds, except at low speeds where loss of control is unlikely. Page 52

53. Electronic Stability Program ESP Sensors: Steering wheel position sensor Vehicle speed sensor Yaw rate sensor Traction control The ESC control unit compares the driver’s intended direction (by monitoring steering angle) to the vehicle’s actual direction (by measuring lateral acceleration, yaw, and individual wheel speeds). If there is a difference between the two, the control unit intervenes by modulating individual front or rear wheels and/or reducing engine power output. Page 53

54. Anti Collision System Due to the reasons like human error, misjudging, driving dynamics, weather, distraction, inexperience, tiredness and alcohol – road accidents are increasing. As a result various anti-collision systems are designed for safety. These systems reduce severity of an accident and lessen loss of lives and/ or severe property damages. Traffic collisions can be classified as follows Head- on Road departure Rear end Side collision Rollovers Anti Collision Systems: Forward collision warning system Lane departure warning system Adaptive cruise control Automatic braking system Electronic stability program Blind spot monitor system Automotive night vision system Page 54