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Theory and concepts

1. Chapter 1: Theory, Concepts and Models

2. Learning Objectives Define theory and distinguish between good and bad theory Identify and analyse seven types of theory used in tourism Define the differences between theory, concepts and models Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

3. What is Theory? Cooper and Shindler (2014) - systematically interrelated concepts, definitions and propositions that are advanced to define and predict phenomena. Dann, Nash and Pearce (1988) - the body of logically interconnected propositions that provide an interpretive basis for understanding phenomena. Sarokin (2017) - a well-defined scientific principal that is supported by convincing experimental and observational evidence that has strong explanatory power and helps scientists understand a phenomena and make predictions about future events. Stewart, Harte and Sambrook (2011) - theory is an explanation that offers accounts of how and why things are as they are. Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

4. Theory must have four basic criteria Conceptual definitions where existence and properties are asserted to account for what is observable, that define who or what is included and specifically excluded. Domain limitations which specify the exact setting where the theory can be applied. Relationship-building qualities which logically assemble a causal relationship between items and state how variables are related or unrelated to other variables. The ability to predict relationships and offer internally consistent predictions in the real world. (source: Wacker 1998) Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

5. Characteristics of ‘good’ theory Unique – one theory must be differentiated from another (if 2 theories are identical, then they are really 1 theory) Accurate within its domain Parsimonious - If two theories are similar in most respects, the one making fewer assumptions and requiring fewer definitions is better Conservative, in that it cannot be replaced until a new, competing theory is shown to be superior Generalizable – the more areas a theory can be applied to, the better Fecundity – can be used to expand the area of enquiry into new directions and it should have broad scope with explanations that go beyond those it was initially used to explain Consistent - within itself and with other accepted theories that are related to the same phenomena Simple and make sense of seemingly disparate parts Abstraction – independent in time and space Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

6. Importance of theory A framework for analysis Provides structure where differences of opinion exist  Provides commonality of language An efficient method for field development Reduces errors in problem solving by building on existing knowledge Differentiates between existing theories Clear explanations for the pragmatic world Examples where application occurs Basis for empirical support of rules Advances knowledge in a scientific discipline Guides research toward crucial questions Enlightens the profession of management Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

7. What is NOT theory References are not theory References are sometimes used like a smoke screen to hide the absence of theory. Data are not theory Theory and data each play a distinct role Data describe which empirical patterns were observed Theory explains why Lists of variables or constructs are not theory Theory must also explain why variables or constructs come about or why they are connected   Diagrams are not theory Stage props rather than the performance itself Boxes and arrows rarely explain why the proposed connections will be observed. Hypotheses (or Predictions) are not theory Hypotheses are concise statements about what is expected to occur, not why it is expected to occur. Source: From Sutton and Staw (1995) Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

8. Seven types of theory in tourism (Source: Smith, Xiao, Nunkoo and Tukamushaba 2013) Type of Theory Key Feature Descriptor 1 Theory of the form used in natural sciences Falsifiable hypotheses that have been tested multiple times with positive results Single verifiable ‘truth’ 2 Theory of the form often used in social sciences Two or more valid competing theories Falsifiable hypotheses that have been tested multiple times with positive results  3 Theory equated with statistical analysis No a priori theory – instead test an ad hoc model. (If testing an a priori theory, then it is likely an empirical test of Type 1 or 2 theory) 4 Theory as an untested/untestable verbal or graphic model Models with n o empirical, testable hypotheses 5 Epistemology or a research design presented as theory Self-fulfilling prophecy See the world through the ‘theory’ and shape studies to confirm it 6 Grounded theory Grounded theory - method 7 Theory as a casual term or used as an analogy Analogy – idea cannot be tested Conclude ‘ theoretical’ insights without offering theory Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

9. Does tourism have theory? Smith and Lee (2010) - nascent development of theory in tourism Most tourism theories borrow heavily from theories developed in other disciplines Ritchie et al (2008) - more positive attitude Development of core tourism theory as distinct from theory developed in other disciplines and applied to tourism. Tourism theory lies along a continuum At one end - Core tourism theory is specific to tourism and not readily generalizable to other disciplines Inherently multi-disciplinary for it integrates different disciplinary perspectives to explain tourism and especially to fill in the gaps where one discipline’s perspective is lacking. At the other end - Foundational tourism theory aims to develop generalizations beyond tourism. Single disciplinary focus Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

10. Prof Jafar Jafari, the founding editor of Annals of Tourism Research talks about the disciplinary origins of tourism https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DbY7CkBAie0 Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

11. Concepts Abstractions of ideas The level of abstraction can vary depending on the generalizability of the topic. Something like tourism is a very abstract concept. Can be broad or narrow and can be based on experience or imaginary. Not theories, models or paradigms. Instead, they are mental boxes into which things are thrown that are thought to have things in common. Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

12. Four key features when defining concepts Keep the definitions clear – which can be hard when we use words to describe words Make the definition appropriate – use a definition that is consistent with what is generally meant by the idea Avoid defining concepts with related concepts – try not to define tourism as a concept by describing tourists, another concept Avoid circular arguments Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021 Source: Bosch 2011

13. Models In the social sciences, models are often visual representations that help build or simplify theory and demonstrate its relevance and applicability to real life. Help us better understand real world systems Present a simplified set of relationships that shows some causal direction. Components input process function output Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

14. Two types of models in tourism Theoretical models Descriptive models which define components of the tourism system Explanatory models which show how a system or subsystem works with or without the specification of a causal relationships Predictive models that enable forecasting Process models Subjective types based on a particular dogma or idiosyncratic format Problem solving that follows a sequence Systems theory Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021 Source: Getz 1986

15. Typologies Used primarily for classification and comparison Emphasis on observing factors such as psychological, social, cultural and geographic relationships Based on the results classifications are developed Primarily descriptive in nature Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021

16. How it all fits together Tourism Theories, Concepts and Models by McKercher and Prideaux © Goodfellow Publishers 2021