FOOD CROP FARMING presntation slies 2021.pdf

student

1. FOOD CROP
FARMING
BHND 1203
YEAR 1, SEMESTER 2

2. COURSE DESCRIPTION
Thiscourseistoprovidethestudentwithappliedknowledgeincrop
husbandry,withemphasisonfoodcrops.
Suchskillsandknowledgefacilitatethelinkbetweenthefoodproduction
processes,foodandnutritionsecurity,&sustainabilityofadequatefoodsupply.
BHND 1203 : FOOD CROP FARMING

3. COURSE SUMMARY
DevelopmentofAgriculture,nutritionalandeconomicvalueoffoodcrops,
foodcropdistribution&croppingsystem,commercialvssubsistencefood
cropproduction,Basicsoilscienceanditsimplicationonthequalityof
foodcrops,soilconservation,Plantpropagationtechniques,Nurseryand
fieldpractices,specialisedcrophusbandrymethods,harvestandpost
harvesthandlingoffoodcrops

4. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE
ManacquiredfoodbygatheringitfromthewildinformofWildplantsand
fungi.
Changesinclimate,greaterpopulationdensity&Changingtechnology
influencedagradualtransitionawayfromahunter-gathererlifestyletoward
cultivatingcropsandraisinganimalsforfood.
Foodproductionisveryimportantintheeconomiesofcountriesand
agricultureprovidesthemeanstoincreasefood,feedsandfibre.
Therefore,agriculturehasevolvedinresponsetohumanneedfor
increasedfoodproductionforagrowingpopulation.

5. CROPPING SYSTEMS
Individualcropsarethecomponentsofagivencroppingpattern/system.
Weshalllookatcroppingsystemsintemporalandspatialdimensions:
◦Spatialdimension:-SolecroppingversusIntercropping
◦Temporaldimension:-MonocultureversusCroprotation
In practice, intercropping and crop rotation are preferred.

6. Intercropping
Referstogrowingtwoormore
typesofcropssimultaneouslyon
thesamefield.
Canbepracticedas:
i)MixedIntercropping(mixedcropping)-Growingtwoormorecropssimultaneouslywithno
distinctrowarrangement.
ii) Row Intercropping-Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are
planted in rows.

7. Principles of Intercropping
▪The associating crop should be complimentary to the main crop.
▪The subsidiary crop should be of shorter duration and of faster growing habit
▪The component crops should require similar agronomic practices.
▪Erect growing crops should be intercropped with cover crop.
▪Erosion permitting crop should be intercropped with erosion resisting crop.
▪The component crops should have different rooting pattern and depth of
rooting

8. Advantages of intercropping
▪Higher productivity per unit area per unit time with stability in production.
▪Efficient and better use of growth resources
▪Efficient management of weeds, pest and diseases
▪Erosion control by providing continuous ground cover
▪Insurance against complete crop failure due to aberrant conditions
▪Mobility of essential nutrients to other component crops. E.gLegumes in
the mixture help in nitrogen fixation. Etc.

9. Disadvantages of intercropping
▪Createsobstructionforfreeusageoffarmimplementsand
machineryforvariousculturaloperations
▪Hindrancetochemicalweedmanagement
▪Fertilizersarewastedonevenlessprofitablecropsinthemixture.
▪Itisdifficulttoestablishthecorrectplantpopulation

10. Crop rotation
Refers to the repetitive cultivation of an orderly succession of different crops
and fallow on the same land.
Advantages of crop rotation
▪Helps in maintaining of soil fertility and recycling of plant nutrients
▪Soil resources are utilized more evenly and effectively
▪Some crop pests and diseases are controlled by breaking life cycles
▪Parasitic weeds such as witch weed are starved of host
▪Soil structure is improved and erosion controlled by planting grasses
during the fallow period

11. Principles of Crop Rotation
▪The deep rooters should be followed by shallow rooters
▪Crops with high nutrient demand (heavy feeders) be planted first in virgin land
▪Crops with erect growth habit should be alternated with cover crops
▪Crops of the same family should not be grown in succession because they act
as alternate hosts for insect pests and diseases
▪Alternate cropping of erosion promoting and erosion resisting crops
▪Land should be rested at the end of rotation cycle.

12. Note:
Most tropical agricultural systems are in a state of transition.
Thegradualchangesinclude:
▪Shortfallowperiodtopermanentlanduse
▪Rainfedtoirrigatedfarming
▪Naturalregenerationofsoilfertilitytointensivemanures&fertilizersuse
▪Manualtomechanizedoperations
▪Naturalgrazingtocultivatedforage
▪Individualtocommunalorcorporatefarming
▪Indigenouscropvarietiestomodernimprovedvarieties,etc.

13. FOOD CROP DISTRIBUTION
Cropshaveadaptationstoenabletheirgrowthinspecificareas.
Adaptationmaybedefinedasanyfeatureofanorganism,whichhas
survivalvalueundertheexistingconditionofitshabitat.
Suchfeature(s)mayallowtheplantstomakefulleruseofnutrients,water,
orlightavailableormaygiveprotectionagainstadversefactorssuchas
temperatureextremes,harmfulinsectsanddiseases.

14. The factors that influence food crop distribution include;
▪Climaticconditions
▪Topography
▪Altitude
▪Natureofsoils,
▪Prevalenceofpestsanddiseases,
▪Marketavailabilityandprices,
▪Knowledge&skillspeoplehave,
▪Cultureofthepeople,etc

15. The value of food crop farming
•Proteins
•Lipids
•Vitamins
•Carbohydrates, etc
Nutritional
value
•Income
•Raw material
•Feed of livestock
•Market for industrial products, etc
Economic
value

16. BASIC SOIL SCIENCE
Soilsaremadeupofminerals,decayingplantandanimalmatter,andliving
organisms,allvitalcontributorstotheprocessthroughwhichterrestrialplantsgrow,
flower,andbearfruit.Withinthesoilporesisthemoisture(water)and/orsoilair.
Thesoiltexture,structure,profilecharacteristics,pHandcompositiondeterminethe
stateofthesoilenvironmentandsubsequentlyinfluencethecropyield.

17. Soil composition

18. Soilwater-itisimportantfordissolvingsoilnutrientsbeforeuptakebyplantroots,facilitating
germinationofplantedseeds,sustainingplantphysiologicalprocesseslikephotosynthesis,
transpiration,andmaintainingturgidityofleavesandyoungstems,etc.Thesourcesofthis
waterareprecipitationandirrigation.
Soilair-itismainlyimportantforprovidingoxygenthatisusedfor;respirationofplantroots
andothersoillivingorganisms,germinationofplantedseeds,oxidationofammonium
compoundsfromdecomposingorganicmattertonitratesforplantuptake.Propersoilaeration
willensureadequateexchangeofgasesbetweenthesoilandatmosphere.

19. Soil mineral matter-this forms the framework of the soil and it supplies nutrients
to plants, offers surfaces onto which water is held, and also offers anchorage to
plant roots.
Soil non-living organic matter(Humus)-its roles include; increasing the water
holding capacity of soil, binding and granulating soil particles, buffering soil pH,
providing plant nutrients (like N,K and P), etc

20. Soillivingorganisms-Thesecompriseoffauna(e.gprotozoa,earthworms&nematodes)and
flora(e.gbacteria,algae,fungi&actinomycetes),andmaybemacroormicro-organisms.
Dependingonthespecies,theirrolesinthesoilmaybebeneficialorharmful.
Beneficialrolesinclude;decomposingorganicmaterials,somefungiproducingantibioticsthatkill
harmfulbacteria,decomposing/degradingtoxicchemicals,nitrogenfixingbacteriaconverting
nitrogengastonitratesforplantuptake,andmacroorganismsimprovingaerationanddrainage
throughburrowing.
Harmfuleffectsinclude;somebeingpeststocrops(forexampletermites,andnematodes),some
causingdiseasestocrops(forexamplebacteriaandfungi),sometransmitingdiseasesfromone
areatoanother,anddenitrifyingbacteriareducingavailablenitratestoplantsthroughdenitrification.

21. Soil texture
The mineral portion of soil is
divided into three particle-size
classes:
▪Sand,
▪Silt
▪Clay
Clay
Fine sand Coarse sand
Silt
Gravel

22. Therelativeproportionofsand,silt,orclayinasoilisknownassoiltexture.
Theprincipaltypesofsoiltexturalclassesare:
i.Claysoils,
ii.Sandysoils.
iii.Loamsoil.
Soil texture influences nutrient and water retention, soil aeration and drainage
among others.

23. Theclaysoilscontainover60%clayparticlesandtheircharacteristicsinclude;
beingpoorlydrainedandabsorbwaterslowly,poorlyaerated,stickywhenwet
andveryhardwhendry,difficulttocultivate(andhencereferredtoasheavy
soils),havinghighwaterholdingcapacity,highnutrientretentionability,etc
Thesandysoilscontainover80%sandparticlesandtheircharacteristics
include;beingwelldrainedandabsorbwaterveryfast,poorwaterholding
capacity,wellaerated,highleachingrateandhencelownutrientcontent,less
stablestructureandeasilyeroded,easytocultivate(andhencereferredtoas
lightsoils),etc

24. Soil structure
Soilstructurereferstothespatialarrangementofsoilparticlesandthevoids
(pores)betweenthem.
Compactingthesoilreducestheporespacewhereaslooseningthesoil
increasesporespace
Agoodsoilstructureensuresabalancebetweensoil,airandwater,toallow
freedrainage,retainsufficientwaterforplantuse,allowgoodaerationand
releasenutrientsreadilytoplants.

25. Soil profile
Soil profile refers to the vertical
arrangement of various soil horizons
(layers).
It influences crop root development
and penetration, the amount of
water and nutrients the soil can
store, among others

26. Soil pH
Soil pH is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil solution.
Soils may be:
i.Acidic (value lower than 7)
ii.Alkaline (value higher than 7)
iii.Neutral (value equals 7)
It influences nutrient solubility and availability to plants, and the distribution of
plant pathogens.
Soil pH can be modified by addition of acidic fertilizers, or liming.

27. Functions of soil in the global ecosystem
Thesoilservesasa:
▪Mediumforplantgrowth,storesandprovidesnutrientstocrops/plants
▪Asananchorforplantrootsenablingplantstostanderect
▪Regulatorofwatersupplies(waterholdingtank,itabsorbsandstorethe
moistureforlateruse,filterswaterasitpassesthrough)
▪Recyclerofrawmaterials/wastes(Decomposition)
▪Habitatforsoilorganisms
▪Landscapingandengineeringmedium(Soilsarethebasematerialforroads,
buildings,andotherstructures)

28. Soil fertility
Soilfertilityreferstoameasureoftheabilityofasoiltosupplyessentialelements
(nutrients)intheformthataplantcantakeeasilyinrightamountandproportions.
Theessentialplantnutrientelementsare:
Nitrogen(N)
Phosphorus(P)
Potassium(K)
Calcium(Ca)
Magnesium(Mg)
Sulphur (S)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Boron (B)
Zinc (Zn)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn)
Chlorine (Cl)
Carbon (C),
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)

29. Forpropergrowth,plantsmustbeprovidedwithalltheessentialnutrientsin
adequatequantitiesandintheproperbalance
Plantsexhibitanumberofsymptomswhenanutrientiseitherlackingoris
presentininsufficientquantities,orisinexcessquantities.Thesesymptomscan
beusedtodiagnosethenutrientdeficiencyortoxicity.

30. Asampleofvisualsymptomsofnutrientdeficienciesanddisorders

31. Plant roots require certain conditions to obtain nutrients from the soil:
i.Thesoilmustbesufficientlymoisttoallowtherootstotakeupand
transportthenutrients.
ii.ThepHofthesoilmustbewithinacertainrangefornutrientstobe
releasablefromthesoilparticles.
iii.Thetemperatureofthesoilmustfallwithinafavourablerangefornutrient
uptaketooccur.
iv.Thenutrientsmustbewithintherootzoneinorderfortherootstoaccess
them.

32. Core principles of improving soil fertility
i.Minimize tillage. Overcultivation promotes erosion, exposes organic matter and nutrients to
the air and sun, slowing the breakdown of organic material and the release of nutrients.
ii.Add organic matter. In addition to being rich in nutrients, organic matter in the soil helps it
retain moisture and neutralizes acidity.
iii.Protect soil from sun, wind, and rain. Heavy rains and winds can carry away vital topsoil, and
also sun’s heat increases evaporation from soil surface.
iv.Limit use of chemicals. Overuse of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides is a major
contributor to soil acidity.

33. The Edaphic (soil) factors which affect crop growth
▪Soil moisture.
▪Soil aeration.
▪Soil temperature.
▪Soil mineral nutrient content
▪Soil organic matter(humus)
▪Soil organisms
▪Soil reaction (Soil pH)

34. Soil conservation measures
▪Crop rotation
▪Intercropping
▪Cover cropping
▪Strip cropping
▪Agroforestry
▪Mulching
▪Addition of organic matter
▪Contour ploughing
▪Emergency tillage
▪Conservation tillage
▪Contour bunds
▪Windrows
▪Diversion channels
▪Grassed waterways
▪Gabions / barrages
▪Etc

35. CROP PRODUCTION ACTIVITIES
Pre-planting
Planting
Post-planting

36. GUIDELINES TO ACHIEVE OPTIMUM CROP PRODUCTION
▪Selecting good quality planting materials for
crops suited to the soil and weather
conditions of the area.
▪Proper and timely seed bed preparation
(involving land clearing and tillage).
▪Follow proper crop rotation.
▪Timely planting at the correct depth and
spacing.
▪Use healthy (clean) planting materials.
▪Proper and timely weed control.
▪Timely irrigation where necessary.
▪Drain excess water where necessary.
▪Apply the right and appropriate amounts of
fertilizers.
▪Timely control of crop pests and diseases.
▪Harvest at the right time using the right
technique

37. CROP PROPAGATION TECHNIQUES
Propagationoffoodcropsmaybe:
◦Sexual(byseed)
or
◦Asexual(byvegetativestructures).
Plantstructuresthatareusedtoestablishnewcropsare
referredtoasplantingmaterials.

38. Rightchoiceofparentplantsfromwhichplantingmaterialsare
obtainedmustbemade.
Selectionisbasedonthefollowingqualities:
▪Highyieldingcapacity.
▪Resistancetodiseasesandpests.
▪Qualityproductsasdesiredonthemarket.
▪Adaptationtoconditionsintheenvironment.
▪Fastergrowth/earlymaturity.

39. PROPAGATION BY SEED
Good seeds for planting have the following qualities:
▪Freedom from seed borne diseases and pest attack.
▪Germination percentage of seed lot higher than 80%.
▪Normal uniform size, weight, shape and colour according
to the type and crop variety.
▪Freedom from any physical defects/damages.
▪Freedom from contamination by weed seeds and stones
List examples of food crops propagated sexually.

40. Advantages of seed selection
▪Reduced cost of cleaning, standardization and disinfections
▪Uniform germination thus avoiding replanting, gap filling
▪Vigorous seedling growth, which reduces weed and
disease damages.
▪Uniform growth stages, maturity and products.
▪Maintain good quality under storage conditions.
▪Reduced cost/ expense on planting material.

41. Advantages of propagation by seeds
▪Seeds are cheaper compared to vegetative structures.
▪Large numbers of seedlings are produced from a single parent
plant.
▪Seeds are convenient for storage when not needed.
▪Transmission of certain diseases from parents is reduced.
▪Seeds are not bulky and therefore easy to handle during
transportation.
▪Seeds are easily planted using machines,
Etc.

42. Disadvantages of propagation by seeds
▪Crops take long to mature compared to those from
vegetative structures.
▪Seedlings from some seeds are delicate and therefore
require a nursery in raising the planting material.
▪Seeds from hybrid crops give disappointing results as they
do not breed true.
▪There is variation in characteristics of crops arising from the
seeds/genetic material may not be uniform.

43. VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION (Natural & Artificial)
Natural methods include:
▪Use of crowns, e,gpineapple
▪Use of stem cuttings, e,gcassava
▪Use of bulbs, e.gonion
▪Use of suckers, e.gbanana
▪Use of rhizomes, e.gturmeric
▪Use of corms, e,gcocoyam
▪Use of stem tubers, e.gpotato

44. BHND 2102: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Root tuber
Stem cuttings

45. BHND 2102: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Crown
Bulbs

46. BHND 2102: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Suckers

47. BHND 2102: ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Rhizome
Corms Stem tubers

48. Artificial methods (Grafting, Layering, Tissue culture)
Grafting
The union of one or more cuttings
(called scion)from one plant to the
lower part of another (known as the
root stock)to form an individual
plant.
Where a vegetative bud is joined to
a seedling or mature plant, it is
described as bud grafting/ budding

50. Advantages of grafting technique
▪It facilitates changing top of tree from being undesirable to desirable e.g
changes the variety of crops to meet the market demand
▪Makes growing of more than one type of fruit or flower on one plant possible.
▪Grafted plants reach fruiting stage earlier than planted ones.
▪Use of rootstock with disease resistance helps to control certain diseases.
▪Use dwarf rootstocks minimizes size of plants reducing space requirement,
enabling higher plant population per given area
▪Modifies plant growth to ease management of the crops e.gdwarf rootstocks of
Apples reduce tree height which makes picking without a ladder possible.

51. Layering.
Plant stems are induced to root before
being detached from the parent plant to
be used for producing new individuals
Rooting is induced when the stem part is
wounded to expose the cambium, and
then buried in a rooting medium which is
kept moist.
The rooting medium may be provided
above ground, described as air-layering
(marcotting).

52. The rooting mixture can also be provided at ground level, described as ground layering

53. Tissue culture
Plant tissue culture involves excising (cut out) plant tissues and growing them on
nutrient media. It is a technique for multiplying clean planting material from small
plant pieces taken from a mother plant.
Plant parts such as buds, apical meristems, leaves, petioles, embryos, stem
segments, pith, ovaries, seeds, root tips, cambium, intercalary meristems,
epidermis, etc. can be used as starting tissue and each can be cultivated by
different methods depending on the objective. On top of that, single cells derived
from any plant part can be cultivated.
.

54. Advantages of vegetative propagation
▪Enablespropagatingcropsthatdonotproduceseedsorwhoseseedscannot
germinateeasily.
▪Cropspropagatedvegetativelymaturemuchfasterthanthosefromseeds.
▪Therearehighchancesofsproutingoftheplantingmaterialwhilegerminationof
seedsmaybedifficultduetopestdamage.
▪Itallowseasierandquickerpropagationwheredormancyoftheseedsmaybe
toolong.
▪Thecropsraisedvegetativelyareresistanttoweedsandpoorclimatic
conditionsbetterthanthosefromseeds.
▪Goodcharacteristicsfromtheparentplantaredirectlytransferredtothenew
plant.

55. Disadvantages of vegetative propagation
▪Vegetativepartsarebulkyanddifficulttotransport.
▪Vegetativestructuresareperishableandcannotbestoredforlong.
▪Diseasesareeasilytransmittedfromonegenerationtothenext.
▪Itisdifficulttousemachinesforplantingvegetativestructures.
▪Vegetativepartsarealwaysexpensivecomparedtoseeds.
▪Grafting,layering&tissueculturetechniquesarecomplexrequiring
skilledworkmanshiptoperform

56. NURSERY AND FIELD
PRACTICES

57. NURSERY PREPARATION
Seedlings may be raised
in nursery beds (nursery
seedbeds), seed boxes
or soil blocks.
Nursery bed

58. Preparation of a nursery bed
▪Removeallroots,vegetationandtree
stumpsfromtheareatobeused.
▪Deeplycultivatethearea.
▪Addorganicfertilizer(manure)and
thoroughlymixwiththesoil.
▪Breakthebigsoilclodstoobtainfine
tilth.
▪Sterilizethesoil.
▪Levelandfirmthetopsoil.
▪Protectsidesofthebedagainst
erosion.
▪Makedrillsforplacingtheseeds.
▪Placetheseedsinthedrills.
▪Covertheseedswithathinalayerof
soil.

59. Seed boxes

60. Soil blocks

61. Management of the nurseries
▪Apply a layer of mulch to the surface
▪Fence around the nursery to guard
against stray animals
▪Water (irrigate) regularly
▪Remove the layer of mulch as seeds
begin to germinate
▪Establish a shade approximately 1m
high
▪Control weeds to avoid competition
with seedlings.
▪Apply pesticides and fungicides when
required for pest & Fungal disease
control
▪Prick out seedlings to reduce
competition for growth requirements
▪Harden off seedlings to accustom
them to field conditions.
▪Transplant the seedlings at right stage
to the garden

62. SEEDBED PREPARATION
1. The first step is to clear the land of existing vegetation.
What are the methods used to clear land for farming in your area?
2. Land preparatory tillage, divided into:
i.Primary tillage -first deeper cutting and inverting of the soil that is done
after the harvest of the crop or on untilled fallow.
ii.Secondary tillage -subsequent shallow tillage operation that break down
big soil clods to obtain fine tilth.

63. Tillage is done to:
Destroyweeds.
Controlpests(exposingthemto
naturalenemiesanddesiccation
oftheireggsduetosun’sheat).
Breaksoilsurfacecappingand
improveraininfiltration.
Loosenthesoilandallowfreeair
circulationinthesoil.
Breaksoilclodstoobtainfinetilth.
Cutandmixorburyplantmaterialinto
thesoil.
Levelandfirmtopsoilsurfacefor
planting.
Burrybroadcastedseeds.
Breaksoilhardpansandcreateenough
roomforpenetrationanddevelopmentof
croproots.

64. SOWING / PLANTING
Sowingistheplacingofaspecificquantityofseedsinthesoilforgermination
andgrowthwhile;
Plantingistheplacingofplantpropagules(maybeseedlings,cuttings,
rhizomes,tubers,etc)inthesoiltogrowasplants.
Thedepth,spacingandtimingareveryimportantduringplanting/sowing.

65. Plantingdepth
Therecommendeddepthforplantingisthreetimesthesphericaldiameterofthe
seedtobeplanted.Thus,plantingdepth=3D;whereDisthespherical
diameteroftheseed.
Correctplantingdepthisvitaltoensurequickanduniformgerminationwhich
leadstoauniformplantstand.

66. Plantspacing
Thisisthedistancebetweenoneplant/plantingholeandanotheralongtherowor
betweenrows.Plantdensityisthenumberofplantsperunitareainacroppedfield.
Eachcropshouldbeplantedatarecommendedspacing.Theobjectiveistoensurethat
allcropsgetadequateofeachrequirementforpropergrowth,soilsurfaceisadequately
protectedfromerosionandtheenvironmenteasescarryingoutfieldmanagement
practices,butalsocreateenvironmentlessconducivefortheweeds,pestsanddisease
Thecorrectspacingofcropsdependson;Soilfertility,Typeofcropbeinggrown,
Growthhabitofthecropvariety,Amountofrainfallreceivedinthearea,Purposefor
whichthecropisintended,Diseasecontrolmeasuresbeingadopted,thecroppingsystem
tobeadopted,andthelevelofmechanizationforcarryingoutfieldoperations

67. Plantingtime
Cropsshouldbeplantedatthebeginningoftherainseason.Thisisdescribedas
Early/Timelyplanting.
Thisisveryadvantageousespeciallyforannualcropsbecause;cropsbenefitmuchfrom
theseason’srainsandthisresultintohigheryields,cropsmayescapeattackbysome
pests,cropsestablishfasterandhaveabetterabilitytocompetewithweeds,highprices
aresecuredascropsareharvestedandsoldearlybeforethemarketisfloodedwith
produce,harvestingcoincideswithsuitableweatherconditionsfordryingwhichreduces
spoilageofproduce,etc.

68. FIELD MANAGEMENT
Weeding.Referstoeliminatingallothertypesofplantsinterferingwiththegrowthof
thecropinthefield.Itisaimedatprotectingcropsfromcompetitionforgrowth
requirementswithweeds.
Thinning.Referstoremovingexcesscropplantsfromthefield/plantinghole.Itis
aimedatpreventingovercrowdingandcompetitionwhichmakeplantstogrowtalland
thinandeventuallyfailtoyieldwell.
Fertilizerapplication.Donetoincreasenutrientcontentandimprovesoilconditionfor
propergrowthofcropssoastoachievebetteryields.
Irrigation.Thisisaimedatmaintainingadequatesoilmoistureforcropgrowthduring
periodsofrainfallshortage
Drainage.Thisisaimedatimprovingsoilaeration&creatingfavourableconditionsfor
growthofcropsthatcannotwithstandwaterlogging.

69. Gapping/gapfilling.Referstoplacingplantingmaterialinplantingholes/spaceswhere
theseedlingshavebeendestroyedorwheretheplantingmaterialsdidnot
germinate/emerge.Itisaimedatachievingoptimumplantpopulationinthefieldsothat
soilresourcesarenotunder-utilized.
PestandDiseasecontrol.Thisisaimedatpreventingorreducingtheirdamagefor
betterqualityandquantityofproduce.
Mulching.Referstoplacingdryplantmaterialsorartificialsheetsonthesoilsurfacein
acropfield.Itisaimedatconservingsoilmoistureandsuppressingweeds.
Staking.Referstoprovidingsupporttocrops.Thekindofstakesusedmaydifferfrom
croptocrop.Itisimportanttoprotectplantsfromfallingorbreakingduetoeffectof
strongwind,protectplantsfromfallingorbreakingduetoheavyweightoffruitslikein
Banana,raisefruitsoffthegroundtoavoidrottinglikeinTomatoandPassionfruit,ease
otherfieldoperationslikeweedingandharvesting.

70. Pruning.Referstoremovingexcess,lessorunproductivepartsoftheplant.
Itisimportantforincreasingyields(forexamplebigbunchsizeinBananasafter
desuckering),Controlspestsanddiseasesincrops,improvesaccessibilityduringfield
operationslikeweedingandharvesting,Checksexcessivegrowthtomaintaindesired
shapeandsize,Improvesquality(taste)infruitsdueincreasedexposuretosunlight.
Harvesting.Referstoremovingorcollectingreadycropproducefromthefield.Crop
formsharvestedmaybefruits,grains,tubers,stems,leavesandflowersdependingonthe
crop.Alwaysharvestcropsattherightstageforbetterqualityandquantityofproduct.
Tooearlyharvestingespeciallyforgraincropsleadtoshrinkageofgrainsafterdrying
andfailureofseedstogerminate.

71. Some basic principles to follow during harvesting
▪Consider the right harvesting time and weather conditions
▪Use selective harvesting (harvest at the right maturity)
▪Use appropriate, crop specific harvesting techniques
▪Use correct and clean equipment for harvesting
▪Use clean and correct containers (smooth, with no sharp edges or projections)
▪Prevent overfilling of the containers/bins.
▪Prevent damaging the fruit, dropping the fruit in to the containers at a distance
and rough handling