FORESIC PHOTOGRAPHY PPT.pptasdgufbgvwbguyf

education

1. •FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY - is defined as the
study of the fundamentals of photography, its
application to police work and the preparation of
photographic evidence. It consists of the legal
aspects of photography that covers the following
phases:
–Fundamental concepts of photography
–Application to police work
–Preparation of photographic evidence 
•According to (Redsicker 2001), Forensic
Photography is the art or science of
documenting
•photographically a crime scene and evidence for
laboratory examination and analysis for purposes
of court trial.

2. PHOTOGRAPHY- is from Greek words “Phos” or Photo
which means light and “grapho” which means to “Draw”
or graphia meaning “write”. Therefore photography
best translates to “write with light”. (Herschel 1839). This
word is defined as an art or science that deals with the
reproduction of images through the action of light upon
sensitized material (film and photographic paper) with the
aid of the camera and its accessories and the chemical
process involved therein. (Modern definition)

3. •MODERN PHOTOGRAPHY may be defined as any
means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic
recording of the images of scenes, or objects formed by
some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-
rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays.
•(Technical/Legal definition) This definition is broad
enough to include not only the conventional methods of
photography but almost any new process that may be
developed. (Scott 1975)

4. •POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY- is an art or science that deals
with the study of the principles of photography, the
preparation of photographic evidence and its application
to police work. (Aquino 1972).
•MUG SHOOT CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY

5. •PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION: 
PHOTOGRAPHY is an essential tool for the law-
enforcement investigator. As a tool, it enables him to
record the visible and in any cases, the invisible
evidence of crime. Special techniques employing infra-
red, ultra-violet, and x-ray radiation enable him to
record evidence which is not visible. The photographic
evidence can then restored indefinitely and retrieve
when needed. There is not other process which can be
ferret, record, remember, and recall criminal
evidence as well as photography.

6. Photographs are also means of
communication. It is a language sometimes
defined as the “THE MOST UNIVERSAL OF ALL LANGUAGES “.
Photography has an advantage as language
because it does not rely upon abstract symbols-
words. Photography, thus, is more direct and
less subject to misunderstanding. As a
communication medium-has few, if any, equal.

7. FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN INVESTIGATIVE
WORK:
1. Identification
•Criminal

•Missing person
•Lost and stolen properties
•Civilian 
2. Communication and microfilm files
•Transmission of photos (wire or photos)
•Investigative report file
 

8. 3. Evidence
a) Recording and preserving
–Crime scene
–Vehicular accident
–Homicide or Murder
–Robbery cases
–Fires or Arson
–Object of evidence
–Evidential traces
b) Discovering and proving
–By contrast control (lighting, film and paper, filter)
–By magnification (photo micrography, photo
macrography)
–By invisible radiation(infra-red, ultra-violet, X-ray)

9. 4. Action of offenders (recording)
•a) Surveillance
•b) Burglary
•c) Confessions
•d) Reenactment of crime
 
5. Court Exhibits
•a) Demonstration enlargements
•b) Individual photos
•c) Projection slides
•d) Motion pictures

10. 6. Crime prevention
a) Security clearance
 
7. Public relations
 
8. Police training
a) Prepared training films (police tactics, investigation
techniques)
b) Traffic studies
c) Documentaries (Riots and mob control, disasters, prison
disorders)

9. Reproduction and copying
a) Photographs
b) Official records

11. PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY 
• A photograph is both the mechanical and chemical result of
photography. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from
sensitized materials (film or papers). Light radiated or reflected by
the subject must reach the film while all other lights are excluded.
The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by placing the film
inside a light tight box (camera).
• The effect of light on the film is not visible in the formation
of images of objects. To make it visible, we need or require a
chemical processing of the expose film called development.
• The visual effect of light on the film after development
varies when the quantity quality of light the reached the emulsion
of the film. To grant in the amount of light will produce an opaque
or very black shade after development. Too little will produces a
transparent or white shade after a development.
• The amount of light reaching the film is dependent upon
several factors like lightning condition, lens opening, used, shutter
speed used, filter used etc.

12. HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY
 
•Equipment -1700 – Camera Obscura (dark chamber) was
designed by Leonardo da Vinci for accurate perspective and
scale. 
•Chemicals-1725 – 1777 – Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and
silver chloride solution had been discovered and investigated.
1800 – Thomas Wedgewood and Humphery Davy – produced
photograms.  
•True Photography was accomplished by: 
•Joseph Nicephore Niepce-1816 – was able to obtain camera
images on papers sensitized with silver chloride solution.
•Louis Jacques Daguerre-1839 – “Daguerreotype”- The first
practical photography process. Image was made permanent by
the use of hypo.
•William Henry Fox Talbot-1841 – he patented “Calotype”
process negatives on paper sensitized with silver-iodide and
silver nitrate. These were contact on sensitized paper. As to
tone and resolving power, Daguerreo-type was better.

13. •Sir John F.W. Herchel-1839 – he coined the word “photography”  
•James Clark Maxwell-1861 – he researched on colors.

–1907 – Lumiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was
used but with blue, green, and red filter.
–1914 – US Eastman Kodak introduced two (2) color subtractive processes
called Kodachrome. Twenty one (21) years later, a three (3) color process
came out.
–1935 – Electronic flash unit came out.
–1947 – Edwin H. Land introduced “POLAROID,” a one step photography.
–1960. Laser was invented making possible holography. 
•1482- The earliest known form of camera, Camera OBSCURA, was
described by Leonardo da Vinci of Italy. 
•An Italian, Geronimo Cardano- fitted a biconvex lens to the Camera
Obscura in 1550 and in 1568,

14. •Daniel Barbaro suggested the use of a diaphragm to sharpen the
image. By the end of the 17
th
century, small portable Camera
Obscura that were equipped with reflex viewing system had been
developed. The camera Obscura was first used successfully for
photography in 1820’s by the French Scientist Joseph Nicephore
Niepce, a French Chemist.
 
•1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze- a German physician was credited
with the discovery of the light sensitivity of silver salt.
 
•1777- Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist investigated the
darkening of silver chloride by light and found out that the salt was
reduced to metallic silver.
 
•1816- Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French chemist, experimented
with silver nitrate. On the same year he suppossedly produced
image on paper from a negative, but he too was unable to remove
the

15. •Daniel Barbaro suggested the use of a diaphragm to sharpen the
image. By the end of the 17
th
century, small portable Camera
Obscura that were equipped with reflex viewing system had been
developed. The camera Obscura was first used successfully for
photography in 1820’s by the French Scientist Joseph Nicephore
Niepce, a French Chemist.
 
•1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze- a German physician was credited
with the discovery of the light sensitivity of silver salt.
 
•1777- Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist investigated the
darkening of silver chloride by light and found out that the salt was
reduced to metallic silver.
 
•1816- Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French chemist, experimented
with silver nitrate. On the same year he supposedly produced
image on paper from a negative, but he too was unable to remove
the

16. •unexposed silver salts and secure a permanent image. He
discovered that bitumen of Judea an asphaltic material became
insoluble when exposed to light. Between 1824 to 1826, Niepce
produce prints by coating the bitumen on metal plates, exposing it to
light under a drawing or transparency and dissolving the unexposed
bitumen. The plates was then etched with acid, which did not react
with the remaining bitumen.1829- Niepce formed a partnership with
Louis Jacquis Mande Dagurre, a French painter, to proceed on
bitumen process but later Niepce died in 1833 and the work was
continued with the partnership of Niepce’s son, Isidore. Daguerre
discarded the bitumen process and worked on his own procedure
with the exposure of a polished silver plate to the vapor of iodine
forming a sensitive layer of silver iodide After the plate had been
exposed in the camera, the image was developed with mercury
vapor. The process is then called Dagurreotypy.

17. •1835- French Dagurre discovered that mercury fume will develop an
invisible (latent) image on a silver plate that is sensitized with iodine
fumes before exposure.
•1835- William Henry Fox Talbot, an English archeologist and
philologist, experimented with various salts of silver and found that
silver chloride was more sensitive to light than was silver nitrate. 
•Talbot process or Talbotype process, is a process wherein the
paper was sensitized with silver iodide and after exposure was
developed in Gallic acid.

•The modern photography is based on Talbot’s Negative – to -
Positive principle. 
•1839- is generally known as the birth of photography. William Henry
Fox Talbot explained a process he had invented (Calotype) at the
Royal Society of London. 
•The “Calotype” used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with
light sensitive compounds.

18. •Sir John F.W. Herschel coins the word “photography”;
(suggest “negative” and “positive” in the following year)
and point out that image can be made permanent by
dissolving away unexposed silver compounds with a
solution of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium
thiosulfate), which he had discovered in 1819. 
•1839- Daguerreotype consisted of two wooden boxes
perfected his photographic process. Images are made
permanent by the use of hypo. The precision of details
and exquisite beauty of these direct-positive images on
silver plates make the Daguerreotype an immediate
success. 
•1840- U.S. J. W. Draper is also one to produce
photographic protraits using a lens with a diameter of five
inches and a focus of seven inches. 
•1840, Australia-Hungary, J.M. Petzval designed the first
lens specifically for photographic use. Its maximum
aperture if f/3.6 makes it possible to take portrait
exposure of less than one minute, launching the most
widespread use of the Daguerreotype. The lens is
produced the following year by Volglander for use in the
first all-metal camera.

19. 1843-1848- Major achievements with the paper-negative
process are made by Hill Adamson and by various
photographers on the continent beyond the reach of
Talbot’s legal agents. 
1845- F Von Marten, France, Invented the panoramic
camera, wherein the lens is rotated about its optical center
while a curved film is scanned by a slit. 
1848- Abel Niepce de Saint Victor introduced a process of
negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding
medium.
1850 – Louis Desirie Blanquart Evard introduced a printing
paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.
1851- England. Frederick Scott Archer published a
method of using collodion in place of albumen for negative
on glass, “wet plate”.
1853- England. JB Dancer makes the first model of a twin
lens camera for stereo photography, suggested by Sir
David Brewster.

20. •1858- France Nadar takes the first aerial photograph over Paris from
a free balloon. 
•1861- First single lens reflex camera was patented by Thomas
Sulton.
•1861- Scotland. James Clerk Maxwell publishes research in color
perception and the three color separation of light. He also
demonstrates additive color synthesis using hand colored materials in
lantern slide projectors.

•1880-The first twin-lens camera was produced by the British firm, R. &
J. Beck. 
•Eastman George, an American inventor, manufactured a dry plate
process in 1880, the roll film in 1884 and made it available to market
in 1889, and the Kodak camera in 1888, (6 ½ X 3 ½ X 3 ½) 3 ½ to
infinity, 100 exposure. 
•1880- England. Sir William Abney discovers the use of
hydroquinone as a developing agent. 
•1882. England Sir William Abney produces silver chloride gelatin
emulsion for printing-out paper; it takes more than ten years for this
and similar materials to supplant albumen paper.

21. •1884- US. Eastman negative paper is introduced, consisting of a
light sensitive emulsion or paper which after development is made
transparent enough for printing by treating with hot castor oil.
•1888- US John Carbutt begin the manufacture of celluloid base
sheet film.
•1890- full corrected lenses were introduced.
•1895- The pocket camera was designed by Frank Brownell & called
it “Brownie”.
•1906- a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all
colors in equivalent shades of gray.
•1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film
was used but with blue, green, and red filter.
•1914- US Eastman Kodak Company introduce a two color subtractive
process called Kodachrome.
•1925- The German firm of Ernst Leitz brought our to market the
popular camera, LIECA.

22. •1928-The famous twin-lens reflex camera, the Rolleiflex was marketed by
the German firm of Franke and Heidecke. 
•1929- Germany. J. Ostermeier produce the first commercially
acceptable self-contained flash bulb; an aluminu, foil sealed in an oxygen-
filled bulb. 
•1932- The first photoelectric exposure meter is produced by Weston
Electric Instrument company. 
•1934- Holland. The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips. 
•1935- A gas discharge tube emitting white light is introduced for
electronic flash photography. 
•1935- the color process came out together with the electronic flash. 
•1936, Germany. Agfacolor reversal films is introduced the first three
monopack film in which subtractive dye-formers are incorporated in each
emulsion layer. 
•1947, US. Edwin H. Land introduce the Polaroid Camera- a one step
photography with a self-processing black-and-white film that yields a
positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal method.


•1960- Laser was invented making possible holograms (three dimensional
pictures).

23. •1988- the arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital
camera that recorded the image as a computerized file was likely
the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal
memory card that used a battery to keep the data in memory.
This camera was never marketed in the USA. The first
commercially available digital camera was the 1992 Kodak DCS-
100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor
and was priced at 13,000 dollars. The first consumer camera with
a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was the Casio QV 10
in 1995 and the first camera to use compact flash was the Kodak
DC-25 in 1996. In 1999 the Nikon D1, a 2.74 mega pixel camera
was the first digital SLR with a price of under 6,000 dollars. This
camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses which means that film
based photographers could use the same lenses they already
own. In 2003, Canon introduced the 300D camera also known as
digital rebel, a six (6) mega pixel and the first DSLR priced lesser
than 1,000 dollars to consumers.

24. IMPORTANT TERMS IN PHOTOGRAPHY:
 
•Relative Aperture- The speed or light gathering power of the lens
equal to the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of it’s lens pupil
or the relative brightness of the image produced by the lens as
compared with the brightness of the subject.
•Depth of Field – The distance between the nearest and the farthest
object in apparent sharp focus when the lens is focused at a given
point.
•Hyper Focal Distance- The nearest distance at which the lens is
focused at a particular F# to give maximum depth of field.
 
•Depth of Focus- The maximum permissible distance within which
the film may be placed without exceeding the circle of confusion in
order to produce the image sharp.
•Distortion- A general label referring to a particular distortion.

25. •Circle of Confusion- A disc form image of a point in the object the
allowable circle of confusion is usually 1/1000 of the focal length of
the lens in inches.
 
•Angle of View-The view of the subject subtended by two lines
emerging from the corners of the film, extending to the center of the
lens.
 
•Focal Length-The distance measured from the center of the lens to
the film plane when the lens is set or focused in infinity position.
 
•Resolving Power of the Lens- The maximum angle of resolution.
 
•Focus- The means by which the object distance is estimated or
calculated to form the image sharp.
 
•Lens- A medium or system which converge or diverge the light
passing through it to form images.

26. •Positive Lens- A converging lens which is characterized by the fact that it
is thicker at the center than the edges and therefore has a positive focal
length. Forms the real image on the opposite side of the lens or the
source of light.
•Negative Lens- A diverging lens which is always thinner at the center
than the edge. Form an image virtual on the same side or source of light.
 
•Shutter- A contraption placed on the path of the light which passes
through the lens.
 
•Filter- A homogeneous medium which (transmit and /or absorb)
differentially wavelenght of the electromagnetic energy.
 
•Correction Filter- Those intended to alter the response of the film’s
spectral sensitivity in term of brightness value as seen by the naked eye.
 
•Contrast Filter- Those intended to darken or lighten certain colors which
would be produced of the same brightness without the use of such.

27. •Neutral Density Filter-Those which are intended to reduce the
intensity of brightness
•Haze Filters- Those which are intended to minimize haze of distant
objects due to atmospheric haze or bluish color of the sky.
 
•Polar Screen Filters- An optical slit which transmits light vibrating
in the plain of the slit. Used primarily to control light reflected from
highly polished surfaces, metallic objects & etc.
 
•Filter Factor-The ratio of the time of exposure with and without the
filter for the same effective exposure.
 
•Flash Synchronization- The mechanical or electrical adjustments to
make the shutter open and the flash lamp reach the peak of it’s flash
at the same time.
 
•Parallax Error- The displacement of an image point when viewed at
a different points of angle.
 

28. •Shape- Relates the general form, configuration, or outline of an
individual object.
 
•Tone- refers to the brilliance with which light is reflected by an
object without tone difference between photographic images, the
shape of the object obviously could not be discerned.
 
•Resolution or Resolving Power-Is an expression of quality
measured by visibly separated lines. It is expressed as the
maximum number of the lines per millimeter that can be resolved
or seen as individual separated lines. Any magnification beyond
that required to make the line count for the resolution of the final
print will decrease the image quality.
 
•Magnification-Described as changing by the use of optical
instrument, the ratio between photographic images and the object.


•Shadow- The absence or reduction of light in a given space;
caused by an opaque item blocking light rays.

29. •Light Meter- An instrument designed to measure the amount of light
falling on or reflected from the subject. The information is used to
make the aperture and shutter settings on a camera.
•Light Meter Acceptor- The eye of the camera metering system.
•Accelarator - One of the four subparts of a developer solution;
purpose is to increase the activity of reducing agent.
 
•Bellows-A light tight folding accordion type sleeve that connects the
camera body and the lens, also provides flexibility.
 
•Bracket Exposures-Making one or more exposure calculated to be
correct.
 
•Flash Meter-A hand held light sensing device used to measure the
burst of light from one or more electric flash unit.

30. “LIGHT” its Nature and Sources
It is a radiant electromagnetic energy that can be seen by naked
eye.
186,000 miles/sec. – velocity/ speed of light
16,000 to 18,000 ft./sec. – bullets speed
“Effect” of light is what we see.
Electromagnetic spectrum – band of colors/energy

31. •“WAVELENGHT”- is the distance measured from the crest (highest
point) to the wave of the next succeeding crest while frequency is the
number of waves passing in a given point in one second. The product
of two is the speed of travel. Wavelenght is measured by the
angstrom unit or in terms of milli-microns (English system of measure)
or nanometer (Metric system of measure) which is equivalent to one
over one millionth of a millimeter.
The final effect a radiant energy may have on an object is to
be converted to another wavelength. This conversion is known as
luminescence. There are two (2) types of luminescence:
1.Fluorescence-is the ability of an object to convert one wavelength to
another as long as the active energy source is irradiating the object.
2.Phosphorescence-is when the object does not only converts the
wavelength while being irradiated but continuously reflect the new
wavelengths for a period of time after the energy source is removed.

32. CREST
TROUGH
One (1) Wave length- (measured between two crest)

33. Invisible light rays to our eyes:
•1) Cosmic rays 5) Ultra-violet rays
•2) Gamma rays
•3) X-rays 6) Infra-red rays
•4) Hertzian wave


•.01-30nm.  X-rays
•30-400nm.  ultra-violet rays (UV) (below the red wavelength)
•400-700nm.  visible light (VL)
•700-1000-2000nm.  infra-red rays (IR)
This all are capable of introducing change into the
photographic emulsion.
 

34. Visible Spectrum
Light from many sources, such as the Sun, appears white. When
white light passes through a prism, however, it separates into a
spectrum of different colors. The prism separates the light by
refracting, or bending, light of different colors at different angles.
Red light bends the least and violet light bends the most.

35. Cosmi
c
rays
Gam
ma
rays
X‒
ray
Ultra
viole
t
Infra
red
herztia
n
Radio
wave
s
Long
Electrical
Oscillation
s
violetblueGreen yelloworangered
400 460 510 580 600 680 700
(Nanometers/Milimicrons)
The ELECTRO MAGNETIC Spectrum
WHITE LIGHT

36. COLOR IN PHOTOGRAPHY
•White light- is photographic ray without a tint of any color
or shadow. Fundamentally and photographically, the
subdivisions of white light are the PRIMARY COLORS :
•Blue;
•Green; and
•Red

37.  RED (P)
YELLOW (S)
BLUE (P)
GREEN (P)
MAGENTA (S)
CYAN
The PRIMARY & SECONDARY Colors

38. 
The respective
complementary colors of the
primaries are yellow, magenta,
and cyan, each being a
combination of the other two
primaries. When a primary color
and its complementary
(secondary) color are combined
to bring all basic color together
again, the result is White Light.

39. •The ADDITIVE PRINCIPLE
• If we get three projectors with beams of lights
projecting individually blue, green and red and have
the three beams overlap over the other, we will note
that the portion where the blue and green lights
merged over the other it will produce a cyan color,
the green and red lights a yellow color, and the red
and blue lights a magenta color. At the center where
the blue, green, red light, were combined in proper
ratio, we see white light. In this aspect, cyan, yellow
and magenta are known as the three secondary
colors of light. For practical purpose, white is the
presence of all colors while black is the absence of
all colors or absence of light. 
•Blue + Red Magenta b)
═
Green + Blue
═
Cyan
• c) Red + Green Yellow
═

40. •The SUBTRACTIVE PRINCIPLE
• This time, the light beams of the three projectors
will be covered each with cyan filter, yellow filter and
magenta filter and have the beams of light projected one
over the other. The cyan filter will transmit blue and green
light but absorbs red from white light. A yellow filter will
transmit green and red light but absorbs blue from white
light. Similarly, a magenta filter will transmit red and blue
light but absorbs green from white light. At the center
where the three beams of light are merged together will
produce black. In simple terms, cyan is the
complementary of red, yellow is the complementary of
blue, and magenta is the complementary of green.
•Magenta + Cyan
═
Blue
•Cyan + Yellow
═
Green
•Magenta + Yellow
═
Red

41. 
“White” – presence of all colors
“Black” – absence of all colors
Color Filter – work in such a way that it will
transmit its own color and
absorb all other colors.
Blue Filter – additive- transmits Blue
◦admits Green and Red
“RAT LAW”
R -Reflection (most likely to happened)
A - Absorption
T - Transmission

42. Manners of Bending of light:
1. Reflection – the rebounding or the deflection
of light as it hits the surface. a) Regular
reflection
 b) Irregular reflection
2. Refraction – bending of light when passing
from one medium to another
3. Diffraction – bending of lights when it strikes
the sharp edge of an opaque object. ( light does
not pass through)
 - occurs when light passes through a
narrow slit. If there were no diffraction, the image
of the slit would be geometrically similar to the
slit itself.
ex. Double Diffraction

43. Types of materials:
1. Transparent – allows light to pass through its medium, objects
on the opposite side is clearly
visible.
2. Translucent – allow light to pass through but not visible.
Objects are not clearly visible.
3. Opaque – does not allow light to pass through its medium.

44. SOURCES OF LIGHT
Natural – sunlight, moonlight, lightning & etc.
Artificial – a) continuous radiant – fluorescent & candle
b) Short radiation – flash units
1. Photo floods – an electric lamp using an excess voltage for
sustained illumination. (1930 – panchromatic film)
- inserted in a metal reflector, fit with standard socket & operate in
ordinary house current and has a life of 3 hours.
2. Flash bulb
3. Electronic flash
 

46. Sunlight:
Color of Day light:
Factors affecting the color of daylight:
1. Atmospheric vapor – tends to color the daylight
orange.

2. Atmospheric dust filters – the sun rays and
scatters rays of the shorter wavelengths more than
those of longer wavelengths. (Blueness of the
sky due to scattering effect of the blue light)
3. Part of the light reaching the subject does not
come directly from the sun but reflected.
(affected by the color of the reflector.)
 

47. Daylight Classification According to Intensity:
1. Bright sunlight – objects in open space
cast a deep & uniform or distinct shadow.
Objects in open space appear glossy & the
colors are saturated.
 a) direct sunlight } coming from the sky
which serves as a reflector.
 b) Reflected light }
2. Hazy sunlight – cast a transparent shadow.
3. Dull sunlight – no longer cast shadow.
 a) cloudy bright – about really to rain
 b) cloudy dull

48. SENSITIZED MATERIALS:
a general term which refers to materials which are sensitive to light. ex. a)
Film b) Photographic paper
Emulsion- Gelatin – prevent scratches on emulsion
Coating of silver halides
silver salts, silver nitrate, silver chloride }
silver bromide } Photo paper
silver iodide }
Spray anti-halation backing -Prevents reflection or formation of
“HALO”

49. FILMS
Film- is a sheet or strip of thin, flexible transparent material (acetate
or polyester plastic) coated on one side with a light sensitive emulsion
capable of recording an image as a result of exposure in camera

50. FUJICOLOR SUPERIA X-TRA800

54. Six (6) layers of black & white film


1. Top Coat – is a layer of hard gelatin that
insulates the emulsion against scratches.
 2. Emulsion layer – where the image
forms, consists of gelatin containing light-
sensitive crystals of silver halides.
 3. Subbing layer – special glue like
gelatin, adheres the emulsion to its support
below.
 4. Support – provides a strong but flexible
plastic (cellulose acetate) base for all the other
component layers of the film.

55. 5. Second Adhesive layer – bonds the support to the anti-halation
backing below.
6. Anti-halation Backing – contains dye that prevents light from
reflecting off the support of the camera itself and back onto the
emulsion, which reflections could create halos around bright areas
of the images.

56. Six (6) basic characteristics of black & white film
1. Color Sensitivity – the ability of the film to
respond to certain wavelength of the light in the
visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
– and therefore unable to represent these
effectively in black & white.
2. Contrast – a films ability to record values of
gray - that is white through gray to black.
 a) Films - that record only a limited
number of values are referred to as contrasty,
while those that record a greater number of
values are considered to be not contrasty.

57. 3. Light Sensitivity – or the film’s speed, as it
is determined by the size of the silver halide
crystals in the film’s emulsion. The larger the
crystals are, the greater sensitivity and the
other way around.
This means that a film with high sensitivity (fast
film) requires less light to produce an image
than one with low sensitivity (slow film).
4. Grain – (size of the light sensitive crystals in
a film’s emulsion determine the nature of its
grain).
  It is the textural quality of tones in a
print that are produced when microscopic
particles of silver clump together during
development.

58.  When choosing the best film for a particular situation, the
photographer must consider not only whether it will give satisfactory
exposure under the conditions of available light but also the kind of
image it will create. Since it is impossible to attain both maximum
speed and the finest visual quality simultaneously; photographers often
compromise by using a MEDIUM SPEED film.
 Graininess – relates to the degree of enlargement made from the
original size of the negative.
5. Resolving Power – refers to the film’s ability to distinguish between
closely spaced lines or the ability of the film to reproduce fine details.
Ex. photographing a chart with areas of parallel lines – lines is either
close or far (not uniform in distance) - cannot be distinguish as lines but
seen as tone of gray.
6. Acutance – is a term that describes a film’s sharpness.
- A film’s sharpness as distinguished by the degree of tonal gradation
separating light and dark areas in photographic image.

59. STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM
•RAW FILM COLOR POSITIVE
•Blue sensitive emulsion Yellow
image
•Green sensitive emulsion Magenta
image
•Red sensitive emulsion Blue-Green
image
•Anti-halation backing Safety film
support

60. •Types of film (black & white) according to Color or Spectral
sensitivity:
•1. Monochromatic (blue sensitivity) – sensitive to UV and blue
color only.
•2. Orthochromatic film – sensitive to UV to blue and green
light.
•3. Panchromatic – sensitive to UV, blue, green, red or all colors,
it has a widest range of spectral sensitivity.
•4. Infra-red films – sensitive to UV, blue, green, red or all colors
or infra-red rays.
• 

61. 3 F’s Infra-red Photography
1. Film
2. Filter
3. Focus – to adjust to the longer wavelengths of infrared. (700 to
1000 nm)
 “Suffix” color – negative material
 “Suffix” chrome – positive material
ex. Film of a Movie
Emulsion Speed - all films except those used in instamatic
camera have a film speed or emulsion speed.

62. •Indications for emulsion speed:

•1. ASA rating – American Standard Association (expressed in
arithmetical value)
•2. DIN rating – Deutsche Industrie Normen (expressed in
logarithmic value)
•3. ISO rating – International Standard Organization (expressed
in arithmetical value)
•4. JSI – Japanese Institute of Standards
•5. BSI- British Standard International.
• 

63. •Major Classifications of Film speed by average
ASA & DIN ratings are:
•a) Slow films – about 32 ASA (16/10 DIN), which require a
high light level;
•b) Medium films – about 125 ASA (22/10 DIN), which are
used in average or normal light situations, such as
outdoors on a sunny day. (The most common).
•c) Fast films – about 400 ASA (27/10 DIN) which are
needed when the light level is low – very cloudy, rainy
day, or indoors under available light.
•- or when fast shutter speed is required to stop action.
•d) Extra-fast films – About 800 ASA (30/10 DIN) which
are used only when the other types of film are too slow –
under the dimmest light conditions or when the fastest
possible shutter speeds are necessary.

64. Chemical composition of developer:
Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
Preservative – sodium sulphite
Accelerator – sodium carbonate
Restrainer or (prevents fog) – Potassium bromide
 1 pack or can of D-76 dissolve in one gallon of water
(5 to 6 minutes)

65. Chemical composition of a fixer:
Dissolving agent – Hypo or Sodium thiosulphate
Preservative – Sodium sulphite
Neutralizer – Boric acid, acetic acid
Hardener – potassium alum
 

66. ASA number - is not absolute. Even manufacturers are
conservative in assigning any number to a film because they feel
that slight over-exposure is less of an evil than under exposure.
Photographers can alter the ASA while processing the film by
manipulating variables temp. of solutions, developing time, type of
developer and the method of agitation.
 

67. PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
Chemical contents
 a) Bromide papers – used in enlarging or projection
printing
 b) Chloride papers – used in contact (size of negative
and the same size of print)
 c) Chlorobromide papers
2. Contrast Range: No. 0 – excessive high, No. 1 – exposed
low contrast, No. 2 – used in normal exposed (contrast
negative)
 No. 3 – used in under exposed or high contrast
negative
3. Physical Characteristics
 a) Surface – glossy-semi matte, matte
 b) Weight or thickness – single weight double weight
 c) Color – white cream.
 

68. TYPES OF CAMERA1. View Camera – a large camera that is mostly used in studios
for portrait pictures.
2. Graphic Camera – is also a view camera, but it is smaller and
designed to be folded up when not in used.
3. Twin lens reflex camera – a roll film camera that uses two
lenses: viewing lens, taking lens
 This camera is useful in police work particularly in traffic
accident photography, color or black & white film can be used.


69. 4. Single lens reflex camera –
  a kind of camera where in the photographer looks
through the lens that actually takes the picture by means of a
mirror.
  when taking picture, the mirror moves up out of the way
just a fraction of a second before the shutter opens.
5. Miniature 35 mm cameras

71. Wet-plate cameras derived their name from the light-
sensitive chemical coating applied to the photographic
plate. The plate was used while wet, which was a messy but
effective process that allowed photographers to make high-
quality negatives with exposures of less than 30 seconds.
Frederick Scott Archer invented the plate in 1851.Dorling
Kindersley

74. Five (5) Basic features of a Camera:
 The following are the parts that enable the instrument to
perform properly:
 1. Viewing system 4. Aperture
 2. Focusing system 5. Lens
 3. Shutter

75. LENS

76. NORMAL LENS

80. Aperture is referred to the lens diaphragm
opening inside a photographic lens. The size of
the diaphragm opening in a camera lens
REGULATES amount of light passes through
onto the film inside the camera the moment
when the shutter curtain in camera opens
during an exposure process. The size of an
aperture in a lens can either be a fixed or the
most popular form in an adjustable type (like an
SLR camera). Aperture size is usually calibrated
in f-numbers or f-stops. i.e. those little numbers
engraved on the lens barrel like (f/22), (f/16),
f/11, f/8.0, f/5.6, f/4.0, f/2.8, f/2.0, f/1.8 etc. Each of
this value represents one time the amount of
light either more or less in quantity. Meaning to
say, f/16 will let in 1X the amount of light than a
diaphragm opening of f/22 and so forth; while
on the other hand, an aperture of f/4.0 will let in
1X lesser than that of f/2.8 etc.

81. APERTURE OPENING

83. ZUIKO TELEPHOTO LENSES | 85MM | 100MM
| 135MM | 180MM | 200MM | 250MM | 300MM |
350MM | 400MM | 500MM REFLEX | 600MM |
1000MM

84. 200 MM LENS