Gender, War and Liberation in Zimbabwe.pptx

Gender, War and Liberation in Zimbabwe

1. Background for FLAME : Gender , War and Liberation in Zimbabwe: 1972-1980. Suggested readings: Tanya Lyons, Guns and Guerilla Girls: Women in the Zimbabwean Liberation Struggle . AWP,2004 . Recommended: Irene Staunton, Mothers of the Revolution , 1991. Norma Kriger , Zimbabwe’s Guerilla War: Peasant Voices , 1992.

2. themes Silences in nationalist historiographies and official discourses which often “ bury counterhegemonic elements in smoothed out discourses that purport to speak for the whole community.” (Stanley James, 1036) In other words, they often exclude women’s stories. Women on the frontlines. Transformations in Gender Roles: Losses and Gains for women and girls. “The Woman Question” – the Marxist-Leninist framing employed by many socialist African liberation struggles. Sexual violence and the Camps Women and the Aftermath and/or post-conflict reconstruction. Gender Backlash: From comrades to cheerleaders. (Operation Clean-Up in 1983)

3. First Chimurenga : 1896-97. Chimurenga : Shona (dominant group in Zimbabwe) word for revolutionary struggle. Acc. To Elizabeth Schmidt, “woman as a subject has been rendered invisible in the historiographies of Rhodesia, with the exception of Nehanda spirit mediums like Charwe . Illustrates women’s resistance to colonization in1890s , e.g., their involvement in military operations against colonists, e.g., women driving away missionary cattle (previously stolen or otherwise appropriated), p. 70. Symbolic role of Mbuya Nehanda to Nationalists and 2 nd Chimurenga . Role model for women in the struggle.

4. Pre-War Events: Gender and Nationalism Civil disobedience in colonial Zimbabwe ( 1957–1964) In September 1956, City Youth League called a bus boycott in response to rise in bus fares. On 12 September 1957 members of the Youth League and the defunct ANC formed the Southern Rhodesia African National Congress led by Joshua Nkomo . Ban ned by colonial government and 307 of it leaders arrested. Like all Nationalisms, Zimbabwe’s was gendered. Evidenced by the rapes of women at the Carter Girls Hostel who were said to have defied the bus boycott called by the nationalist leaders. As usual, of course they were defined as “black prostitutes,” the common patriarchal label for women not under the discipline of men. (Lyons, 84) As Cynthia Enloe puts it, Nationalisms are responses to masculinized insults and humiliations at being turned into a nation of houseboys. Acc. To Partha Chatterjee , they deploy gender stereotypes that view the nation in terms of the inner sanctum and the outer world. Women, are generally the inhabitants and the keepers of the inner sanctum. Men are the agents, the citizens. Acc. Lyons, “Women became defined within the nationalist struggle as both the enemy and the victim.” (85) See quotes from leaders like Nathan Shamuyarira and Maurice Nyagumbo . (86)

5. Timeline 1961 Women’s Protests: marched against new racist constitution and more than 2,000 arrested. Sally Mugabe one of leaders. Following this banning, Nkomo , Robert Mugabe, Herbert Chitepo and Ndabaningi Sithole established the National Democratic Party in 1960 under Nkomo . Govt. banned NDP and arrested its leaders again, excluding Nkomo who then formed the Zimabwe African People’s Union. (ZAPU) which was banned and moved to bases in Zambia and FRELIMO controlled Mozambique. The armed wing of ZAPU was ZIPRA 1962 General election brought in Rhodesian Front, Rhodesia’s version of Nationalist Party of South Africa. Nkomo moved ZAPU headquarters to Dar es Salaam, Tanzania which had recently won its independence from Britain. In July 1963 Nkomo suspended Sithole , Mugabe, Takawira , etc., for their opposition to his leadership of ZAPU. Same year formed the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and a military wing, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) who were trained in the Peoples Republic of China. This is the army that Flame and Liberty (of the film) fight within. In July 1964 ZANLA forces assassinated a Rhodesian Front official and the war began. [3]

6. Timeline 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence intensified conflict. The world responded with sanctions and an embargo. Nationalists with violence. 1966 Battle at Sinoia = first major engagement in war. Formal war began 1972. 1972 First women recruited into liberation armies. (107) Most girls joined as chimbwido = couriers and suppliers, both voluntary and press-ganged. FRELIMO won independence (from Portugal) for Mozambique in 1975, allowing ZANLA and ZIPRA to open bases there. 1975 ZANLA and ZIPRA united as the Zimbabwe People’s Army (ZIPA) ZIPA, most true to Marxist-Leninist perspective on the Woman Question, dominated by workers, but became too threatening to Mugabe and other leaders. 1976. Rhodesia Front responded with Selous Scouts. ZANLA re-emerged as dominant and ZIPA suppressed. December 21, 1979 – The Lancaster House Agreement was signed, declaring ceasefire between ZANLA and Rhodesian Forces and ending the bush war. This led to beginning of independence negotiations. Skipping ahead, Zimbabwe won independence on April 18, 1980. Elections held and Robert Mugabe of ZANU-PF won by landslide.(Independence Day)

7. Prominent Woman in Struggle Teurai Ropa Nhongo ( Joyce Mujuru ) Left school and joined freedom fighters in Zambia and Mozambique. Trained in light infantry. Made political instructor Commander of Women’s detachment. 1976 made director of Chibawawa refugee camp. 1977 became youngest member of central committee and was on national executive of ZANLA . 1980 she became youngest cabinet minister in newly independent country as minister of sports, youth and recreation,’ Held other ministerial portfolios until appointed V.P. in 2004. Involved in many controversies as was everyone involved with Mugabe administration in its later years. Also notorious for her anti- feminist pronouncements.

8. War and Gender Roles According to Sheila Meintjies , Anu Pillay and Meredith Turshen in The Aftermath: African Women in Post-War Reconstruction , war brings about both gains and losses for women; creates both opportunities and obstacles. Why women and girls joined the fighting forces: protest revenge compulsion national feeling, etc. According to Lyon, for some women and girls, the war provided a new opportunity to negotiate gender roles. (96) Section on Sex and War illustrates many contradictions between official policy and realities on the front and in the camps.