General psychology

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General
Psychology

PC 4

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Contents
Chapter One ........................................................................................................................ 4
Introduction to Psychology .................................................................................................. 4
1.1. Definition Psychology ........................................................................................... 4
1.2. Historical development of psychology................................................................. 4
1.4. Controversial Issues in Psychology ...................................................................... 13
1.5. Goals of psychology ............................................................................................ 15
1.6. Psychiatry and psychology ................................................................................... 16
Chapter Two ...................................................................................................................... 17
Research Methods in Psychology ....................................................................................... 17
2.1. Definition of Research Related Terms ................................................................. 17
2.2. Characteristics of research ................................................................................... 18
2.3. Basic Steps in Scientific Research ........................................................................ 18
2.4. Common Psychological Research Methods ......................................................... 19
2.4.1. Descriptive methods .................................................................................... 19
 Explanatory research ........................................................................................... 24
2.3. Ethical Concerns in Psychological Research ........................................................ 27
2.4. Research and Animals ......................................................................................... 27
Chapter Three .................................................................................................................... 28
Sensation and Perception ................................................................................................... 28
3.1. Definition of Concepts ........................................................................................ 28
3.2. Psychophysics and Signal Detection .................................................................... 28
3.3. Sensation and sense organs.................................................................................. 30
3.3.1. Vision........................................................................................................... 31
3.3.2. Audition (hearing) ........................................................................................ 32
3.3.3. The skin senses (somesthesis)....................................................................... 33
3.3.4. Movement and balance sense ....................................................................... 33
3.3.5. Taste (gustation)........................................................................................... 34
3.3.6. Smell (olfaction) ........................................................................................... 34
3.4. Perception ........................................................................................................... 34
3.4.1. Shape perception.......................................................................................... 35
3.4.2. Depth Perception ......................................................................................... 36
3.4.3. Motion perception ....................................................................................... 38

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3.4.4. Illusions ....................................................................................................... 39
3.4.5. Extra sensory perception (ESP).................................................................... 40
Chapter Four...................................................................................................................... 40
States of Consciousness...................................................................................................... 40
4.1.1. Sleeps .................................................................................................................. 42
4.1.2. Dreams................................................................................................................ 44
4.2. Altered States of Consciousness .......................................................................... 45
4.2.1. Meditation.................................................................................................... 45
4.2.2. Hypnosis ...................................................................................................... 45
4.2.3. Psychoactive drugs ............................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Characteristics of some psychoactive drugs ......................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Five ...................................................................................................................... 46
Learning ............................................................................................................................. 46
5.1. Definition of Learning......................................................................................... 46
5.2. Learning Theories................................................................................................ 46
5.2.1. Behavioral theories ....................................................................................... 46
5.2.2. Operant Conditioning .................................................................................. 50
5.2.3. Observational learning (aka social cognitive) ................................................ 52
5.2.4. Cognitive approaches to learning.................................................................. 53
5.3. Non associative learning ...................................................................................... 53
Chapter six: Memory .......................................................................................................... 53
Chapter Seven ..................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Motivation and Emotion ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.1. Motivation............................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
7.2. Emotion ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER NINE ............................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
STRESS& HEALTH ......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Behavioral medicine: ................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
STRESS ............................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Stress: ......................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Sources of stress......................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chapter Ten ........................................................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
Personality........................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

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Chapter One
Introduction to Psychology
1.1. Definition Psychology
he term psychology comes from two Greek words, psyche to mean “soul”, “spirit”
or “mind”, and logos, for “study”. Therefore, psychology is literally defined as the
study of mind or soul.
However, the most accepted definition of psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes. The scope of this definition can include both the study of humans and animals. To
elaborate this, look at the following basic definitions:
 Behavior: refers to all measureable overt actions of a person that others can directly
observe. For example, manners of our speech, dressing, eating, action …etc.
 Mental processes: refers to the subjective experiences of the individual that cannot
be directly measured or observed. Thoughts, emotions, feelings, reasoning, memory,
interest, day dreaming, dreaming, and motivation reflect inner mental experiences.
 Scientific study: investigation used to create coherent and cohesive body of
knowledge. Psychology relies on objective method to know the nature of human
behavior and thought rather than intuition and speculation.
Why do psychologists study animal behavior?
Psychologists study animal behavior because in order to can get some facts that can be
applied or generalized to humans as well.
1.2. Historical development of psychology
People have been asking psychological questions for long as humans could thing about
behavior and mind. However, as Herman Ebbinghaus said “psychology has a long past but only a
short history”. This statement reflects that the starting point of psychology is in ancient times
but its scientific beginning dates to 19
th
century by Wilhelm Wundt. Even though Aristotle
used the term “psyche” for the first time to refer breath, spirit or soul; the word psychology
T

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was used for the first time by a German philosopher Rudolf Göckel in 1590. Moreover,
historical accounts show that the roots of psychology traces back to ancient Greeks and
Romans. However, the formal beginning of psychology was in 1879 by a German
psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany when he established the first laboratory of
psychology by separating it from philosophy and physiology. Similarly, William James
opened another laboratory in USA at Harvard University in the same year
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.
1.2.1. Old age

A. Demonology
In ancient times, people used to give spiritual explanations for many psychological and
natural processes. They considered psychological problems were caused by evil spirits as
punishments for sins. This belief is commonly known as demonology. Ancient people used
Trephining (breaking off a patient’s skull or making a hole in the brain with a sharp stone
to set a person free from evil spirits). Archeological findings showing skulls with signs
openings of the skull has served as evidences to show the existence of trephination.
In addition, ancient people employed Exorcism, various techniques (e.g. baptizing, praying,
and starving the patient) used to cast out demons. Surprisingly, exorcism is still practiced by
priests, sheiks, and other religious leaders in different parts of the world (including Ethiopia
to cast out demons.

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Some authors makes the year 1874/75, before Wundt founded the Leipzig laboratory (Russel, 2013;
Boeree, 2000). Therefore, the credit to establish the first psychological lab may be given to William
James.

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B. Humoral theory
Humoral theory was developed by a famous Greek physician Hippocrates (460-377 BC).
According to him temperaments (behaviors) are influenced by humors or fluids in the
body. These fluids are yellow bile, black bile, red blood and phlegm. Later, Galen added that
the dominant humor (fluid) controls behavior of the individual. He associated these fluids to
different personality types.
 Sanguine: a personality temperament related to the dominance of red blood.
 Choleric: aggressive personality occurring when yellow bile is dominant in the body of
the person.
 Melancholic: depressive personality temperament due to the excessive amount of
black bile.
 Phlegmatic: a phlegmatic is calm, passive and unemotional person. The dominant
fluid in phlegmatic personality is phlegm.
1.2.2. Early philosophical roots of psychology
Ancient Greeks believed that gods punish humans for wrong deeds by making them mad.
This assumption is directly related to demonology. However, these views were challenges by
different ancient philosophers:
A. Socrates (470-399)
Socrates is known by his famous saying know thy self, which is strongly related with the
psychological method of introspection, inward self observation. Moreover, he believed in the
presence of innate knowledge. Plato was a prized student of Socrates.
B. Plato (427-347 B.C.)
Plato said we understand behavior by reasoning and thinking about it. According to Plato
madness results when the individual’s irrational, animal like psyche dominates the intellectual and rational
psyche. According to Plato there are two kinds of reality: ontos and phenomena.
 Ontos (ideal or idea): this is the eternal, spiritual and the ultimate reality.
 Phenomena: manifestations of the ideal, appearances-things as seem to us.

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C. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Aristotle, Plato’s student, tried to discover universal laws that govern human behavior. For
example, he said humans are motivated to seek pleasure and avoid pain-hedonism. He used the
term psyche to refer to the essence of life-“breath” or “soul” to refer mind.
Unlike Plato (who was a rationalist), Aristotle was an empiricist; he believed that knowledge
of things comes through senses. In addition, He wrote about sensation, memory, intelligence
and thinking, personality, pleasure and pain, knowledge, free will, motivation, rationality, and
perception. He is also known for his work entitled peri psyche-meaning “about the mind”.
1.2.3. Middle ages
Middle age is characterized by reappearance of demonology. Most Europeans believed that
madness and problems such as agitation and confusions are signs for possession of the
individual by evil spirits, as punishment for sins.
They developed one technique called water float test: a test in which suspected demon
possessed individuals are put in the water by assuming that if the individual is free from
demons he/she will sink and if he/she is demon possessed he/she will float.
1.2.4. Pseudo- scientific schools
Pseudo scientific schools appear scientific on the surface, deep down; they are actually not
scientific at all. Pseudoscientific schools are false scientific schools because their assumptions
lack empirical evidences.
A. Phrenology
Franz Joseph Gall attempted to link behaviors with features of the brain (shape and number of
bumps on a person’s skull).
The following illustration shows a phrenology chart. Areas on the skull are mapped and
numbered. For example, if you had a bump in area 6, right above the ear, a phrenologist
might say you were prone to destructiveness.

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B. Somatotypes theory:
William Sheldon, a psychologist with medical training, identified three fundamental
somatotypes: endomorpy, mesomorphy and ectomorphy. These terms were derived from 3 layers of
human embryo: the endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm.
According to him, the shapes of individuals determine their behavior.
 Endomorphs: have roundandsoft body and heavy weight. Their personality is
characterized by love of comfort and eating, relaxation, outgoing and sociable
personality, and sleepiness. Endomorphs want to enjoy, they are sociable and relaxed.
 Mesomorphs: are muscular people. Mesomorphic personality is associated with
assertiveness, athletic, adventurer sand aggressive, action oriented personality, and they
sleep the least.
 Ectomorphs: are thin, tall, skinny, have long limbs, necks, toes and fingers. Their
temperament is related with brain, mind and nervous system): they are reserved lonely,
intellectual, introverted and self- aware.
1.3. Schools of Thought in Psychology
There are three early schools of thought in psychology: structuralism, functionalism and
Gestalt psychology.
1.3.1. Early Schools of Thought
A. Structuralism
Structuralism was a model developed by Wilhelm Wundt and his student Edward B.
Titchchener. This school focuses on the fundamental elements that form the foundations of
thinking, emotion, consciousness, and other kinds of mental states. Structuralsts introduced
introspection to study the structure of the mind.
Introspection is a method in which participants report the contents of their conscious
experience (report their own inner feelings, sensations, images, and experiences). Wundt and
Titchener wanted to identify the basic elements of conscious experience (mind). Some times
their work is referred to as “mental chemistry”

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They tried to breakdown the contents of the mind into basic units like basic elements of
matter in chemistry. I other words, structuralism tried to study basic elements that formed
the mind, the building blocks of the mind.
B. Functionalism
Functionalism is a theory developed by an American psychologist named William James.
Functionalism deals with the functions (works) of the mind and behavior rather than components
of the mind. They try to study what the mind does. This can be directly related to pragmatism.
William James was highly influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. According to him
thinking, learning, feeling, memory, and other forms of human consciousness are helpful to
survive. James focused on conscious awareness, voluntary action (free will), habits and
emotions and the role of mind in securing our survival.
C. Gestalt psychology
Gestalt (pronounced ge-stalt) psychology is theory developed by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang,
Kohler, and Kurt Koffka. This theory was started in Germany, Frankfurt in 1912. Gestalt
came from a German word which refers to “shape”, “pattern”, or configuration or refers to
an organized or unified whole.
Gestalt psychologists wanted to study how perception is organized. Structuralism say things
must be broken down to be perceived, but gestalt psychologists say “we should perceive
unified forms not bits pieces of the whole.” Their motto is “The whole is greater than the sum of
its parts”. For example, we interpret the following disconnected pictures as faces and
rectancle based on the pattern, context, and configuration.

The above figure will be more meaningful if you perceive it as a rectangle or face rather than
disconnected sets of lines.

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12 13 14 15
A 13 C D
From the above example, we can understand that the number 13 in first row can be
perceived as letter B in the second row. According to Gestalt psychologists, we have to
focus on the whole configuration and the pattern in order to grasp the meaning of the
stimulus.
1.3.2. Modern Schools of thought
A. Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychologists focus on how people think about the world (representation of the
outside world within our mind). They study how our knowledge, understanding and thinking
styles about our surroundings (environment) affect our behavior. Cognitive psychology can
be considered as s a modern version of functionalism and Gestalt psychology.
B. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is founded by an American psychologist named John B. Watson. It is the
school of psychology that emphasizes the process of leaning and measurement of overt behavior.
The prominent contributors to this theory are Ivan Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike and B.F
Skinner. Behaviorists ignore the inner experiences of our mind; rather they focus on the role
of environment in behavioral change.
Behaviorists criticize all theorists who try to search for subjective inner experiences. In
contrast, they delimited psychology to the study of observable behaviors. Moreover,
behaviorists claim that it is possible to change behavior of individuals by controlling their
environment. Concerning this, J.B Watson, the father of behaviorism stated:
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well formed, and my own special world to bring them up
in and I will guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any kind of
specialist, I might select a doctor, a lawyer, a priest, an artist, a thief and even a beggar,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors.
Behaviorists contributed greatly for treatment of mental disorders, resolution of sexual
problems, treatment of drug addiction, minimizing aggression and so on. The Father of
American Behaviorism, made four major assumptions about radical Behaviorisms:

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a) Evolutionary Continuity: The laws of behavior are applied equally to all living
organisms, so we can study animals as simple models of complex human responses.
b) Reductionism: All behaviors are linked to physiological and neuro-chemical
processes.
c) Determinism: Animals do not respond freely, they respond in a programmed way
to external stimuli. Biological organisms respond to outside influences.
d) Empiricism: Only our actions are observable evidence of our personality.
Psychology should involve the study of observable (overt) behavior.
C. Social learning theory

Modern behavioral psychologists try to integrate the study of cognition with the study of
behavior. Social cognitive theory is the blend of both behaviorism and cognitive. This theory
is also known as social cognitive and observational learning theory. The proponent of this theory is
Albert Bandura.
This theory states that most important aspects of our behavior are learned from another person in
society: family, friends, teachers, and other prominent personalities in the society. According
to Bandura, we learn to be who we are from another person (a model) by imitating
(observing) their actions, feelings and thoughts. He stated that:
&#3627408437;=&#3627408467; (&#3627408438;,??????)
Where:
B=Behavior
C=cognition. Personal factors
E= Environmental factors

Bandura also believes in reciprocal determinism: person, environment and behavior influencing
each other. This means, cognition, environment and behavior are not independent; they
work together and influence one another.

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Figure 1.Reciprocal determinism. A diagram showing how internal and external factors influence and
influenced by behavioral factors.

D. Psychodynamic approach
Psychoanalysis is an approached developed by an Austrian neurologist, Sigmund Freud. This
theory suggests that unconscious mental processes (which we are not aware of them) are
determinants of behavior. This theory was revolutionary for psychology and other fields.
According to psychoanalysts, unconscious, inner, innate, aggressive and sexual drives are
influential factors in our behavior even though we don’t know about their existence.
Unconscious motives and conflicts are found in the unconscious part of our mind-Id which
influences both normal and abnormal behavior.
Freud also focused on early childhood experiences as a determinant factor in personality
development. Moreover, Freud believed that to understand individuals’ behavior we must
study their early childhood experiences. In treating psychopathologies, psychoanalysis
therapy aims at bringing unconscious caucuses of conflict (distress) to the conscious level by
using techniques such as: hypnosis, free association, and dream analysis.

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E. Humanistic perspective

Psychoanalysts focused on inner unconscious forces as behaviorists attempted to identify
conditions that influence behavior by studying lower animals under controlled laboratory.
Critics argued that neither of these approaches focused on creative potential and
psychological health of human beings but, humanists did it.
The proponents of this theory are: Carl R. Rogers and Abraham Maslow. According to
humanistic view human beings possess creative potential to improve and determine their
lives by the decisions they make. They believe that human beings possess creative potentials
to improve and determine their own lives through the choices and decisions they make.
Humanistic theorists called themselves “the third force” to refer their dominance following
behavioral and psychoanalytic perspectives in psychology. Humanists have a positive view of
human nature. They developed a concept of freewill: the ability of human beings to control
their own fates through conscious decisions they make; people have the ability to make their
own choices. According to this theory every individuals have the ability to reach their fullest
potential, if given the opportunity. Basic need of individuals is to grow to their fullest potential.
Currently Emerging Psychological Approaches
 Eclectic approach: approach in psychology that combines several different theories
of psychology.
 Evolutionary psychology: focus on the effect of genetics on behavior and natural
selection that help that influence psychological behavior of humans and animals.
This theory is based on theory of Charles Darwin’s evolution theory of survival of
the fittest that the fittest organism will be selected (passing its own gene to the next
generation).
1.4. Controversial Issues in Psychology
A. Mind-body problem
René Descartes, a French philosopher, the father of modern philosophy introduced the
concept of Dualism:
 Dualism

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Dualists believe that behavior is controlled by two distinct entities (i.e. mind and body).
Descartes believed that behavior and mind are different entities but they interact through pineal
gland, a tiny structure at the base of the brain. For example: we may think about food and go
to hotel to eat when your mind and body interact. According to Descartes behavior of the
body is determined by mechanical laws and can be studied and measured scientifically. But
the mind cannot be studied simply.
 Body: the material, natural thing which can be studied scientifically.
 Soul: the supernatural, immaterial, world which cannot be studied scientifically.
 Monism
Thomas Hobbes and John Lock, English philosophers said that mind and body are one and the
same. According to Lock and Hobbs, human experiences such as: sensations, thinking,
imaginations, thinking and feelings are physical processes occur in the brain and nervous
system.
 Immaterialism (idealism): according to George Berkeley there is no
mind/body distinction because what we think of as body is merely the perception
of mind. According to this doctrine all physical objects are mind-dependent and
can have no existence apart from a mind that is conscious of them.
 Materialism (realism): states that matter is fundamental-the ultimate reality.
Something may exist if it exists, if it is matter-can be seen and felt or touched.
They deny the existence of mental events.
Nativismvs Empiricists

Nativism: states that fundamental patterns of ideas and knowledge are innate and inborn.
According to Immanuel Kant human beings are born with a certain mental structure that
helps them to perceive and interpret the world in terms of time and space.
Empiricism: focus on experience. Mind as tabula rasa: blank slate (sheet) on which
experience writes on. They are interested in experience, learning.
Interactionism: value the importance of both environment and nature.
Epistemology
Epistemology is part of philosophy which studies about knowledge, reality. There are two
approaches to epistemology: rationalism and empiricism.

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◦ Rationalism: states that we get knowledge through reasoning, thinking.
◦ Empiricism: states that we get knowledge through sensory experiences: hearing,
seeing, touching, and so on).

Free will vs Determinism
◦ Free will: states that our behavior is controlled by ourselves, our behavior is not
controlled by external factors. It is a nonscientific approach.
◦ Determinism: our behavior is caused by causes that have to be studied
scientifically.
1.5. Goals of psychology
The goals of psychology are:
 Description
Description refers to giving satisfactory definition (precise and objective description of
evidence) to something. Primarily try to answer questions: what happens? How does it happen?
And where and when it happens?
- Descriptions are statements about the behavior of organisms and the conditions
under which behaviors occur by collecting data reports of observations. It is
simply characterization of how we think, feel or act in different conditions.
- Focus on observable (external) behavioral patterns.
 Explanation
Explanation focuses on understanding behavior and mental processes in order to explain why
something happened by depending on theories: tentative explanation of facts and
relationships. Theories are subject to change or revision depending on further investigation
or research. Theories lead to hypothesis: a testable statement about the relationship
between two or more variables e.g. attitude and behavior.
- Determinism: is a belief that behavior is caused and scientists try to find these
causes, at least theoretically. Behavior is determined by environment, biology or

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through interaction of both. Determinism implies that psychological events are
irrational. Therefore, to study behavior we need to use scientific methods.
 Prediction
Predictions are statements about the likelihood of things to occur at the future. In
prediction, scientists forecast what will happen in the future based on empirical
data(information received by sensory experiences such as; hearing, seeing, tasting, touching,
etc.) from the past and present. Prediction is important to;
o Find regular behavioral patterns of people, how could they act in the future.
o Give us forewarning of phenomena.
 Control
Control involves manipulation of independent variables. Psychology intends to discover
universal laws and principles that govern behavior, and want control behavior. Example:
How to control psychological disorders.
o It is making behavior happen or not happen-staring, maintaining, stopping and
influencing the frequency, strength and rate of the occurrence of the behavior.
o Controlling behavior is important not only for validating explanations and theories
but also it gives researchers ways of changing behaviors to help people.
o Through controlling psychologists try to change or modify destructive behaviors
through psychological treatment or therapy.
1.6. Psychiatry and psychology
A psychiatrist is a person trained in medicine and holding M.D (medical degree),
prescribe drugs and use medical treatments, usually do internship in general medicine.
A Psychologist is a person trained in psychology but who has not attended medical
training. Psychology is broader than psychiatry. Clinical psychology is more similar with
psychiatry. Clinical psychologists have PsyD (Doctor of psychology) or PhD (Doctor of
philosophy in psychology) and accomplished internship in clinical psychology but don’t
have medical training and don’t prescribe drugs and treat other medical problems.

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Chapter Two
Research Methods in Psychology
Psychologists from all areas of specialization use the scientific method to test their theories about
behavior and mental processes.
2.1. Definition of Research Related Terms
esearch: refers to organized study: scientific investigation in order to discover facts, to
establish or revise a theory, or to develop a plan of action based on the facts discovered.
Scientific method
Scientific method refers to the use of a set of objective and systematic procedures (e.g.
observation, measurement, description, and interpretation) in order to describe, explain, predict, and
control social behavior.
A. Definition of terms
• Theory: a set of organized principles, assumptions, and ideas used to explain how observed
social events are related.
• Hypothesis: testable calculated guess on specific expectations. Often as alternative to
hypotheses we can use research questions. Hypotheses are stated in declarative statements
whereas research questions are stated in question forms.
• Operational definition: practical measurable description of variables.
B. Reasons for psychological research
Psychological researches are needed to discriminate between the societal fact knowledge from myth.
- To distinguish the common sense from the truth
- To avoid hindsight bias – “I knew-it-all-phenomenon”. It refers to the tendency of people to
exaggerate one’s own ability to have foreseen or guess the outcome of researches after
learning the outcomes. For example, look at the following research findings. Do you believe
that they are true?
R

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If you think that you would have known the above concepts to be true, you are a victim of hindsight
bias. Different researches showed that all the above concepts are not true. However, on the surface
they appear true. Therefore, social psychological researches could help us to correct such thoughts.
2.2. Characteristics of research
Explanations in researches should be:
• Parsimonious: economic expression. The research should be expressed in few and easy words
as much as possible.
• Tentative: researchers should be open minded. A Research is done to prove or disprove or
modify the existing theories, researches, and findings. Therefore, the researchers must
acknowledge the possibility of revision and modification of their research finding.
• Rational: following logical explanations. Researches should base on reasonable justifications
rather than impulsive, emotional accounts.
• Skeptical: doubtful. Research is a result of doubt, questioning everything. Skeptical thoughts
are necessary to come up with novel unexpected results.
• Empirical: explanations based on the evidences of the senses, observation by using our sense
organs (e.g. hearing, seeing, etc.).

2.3. Basic Steps in Scientific Research
Research method involve, literature review (some kind of observation), problem identification,
literature review, data collection, data analysis and interpretation and finally report and publication.
• To change peoples’ behavior we must change their attitude
• Attractive people are often evaluated negatively
• Watching aggressive videos can vent out (reduce)the
aggressive behavior of individuals
• Opposites attract

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2.4. Common Psychological Research Methods
2.4.1. Descriptive methods
Descriptive researches simply try to describe the nature, type, and characteristics of social
phenomena as they occur. Descriptive researches don’t explain why social events occur, why people
act, feel, and think the way they do. The following are some of the descriptive methods:
I. Observational research
Observational research involves systematic description of behavior.
- Can be quantitative or qualitative
- The are two types of observational research: participant and naturalistic observation
There are two types of observational research:
a. Naturalistic observation
Naturalistic observation Involves unobtrusive study of behavior of subjects in their natural setting.
The subjects are unaware that they are being studied in this kind of observation. In addition, the
setting of naturalistic observation could be: sport fields, school environment, forests to observe
primates, etc.
Advantage
We can measure the real behavior of the participants
Disadvantage
o We must wait for the desired behavior to study (no control)
o Observer bias (inter observer reliability could help here)

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o If people understand that they are being observed, they may change their true behavior
b. Participant observation
Participant observation is an observation when a researcher becomes part of the people to be
studied.
 It helps the researchers to get a closer information.
 Leon Festinger (1957) studied the “doomsday cult” leaded by Mrs Keetch, who claimed to have
a contact with aliens from outer space.
Advantage
 Used to study odd, peculiar events such as: new religious movements, criminals,
gays, and hoodlums
Disadvantage
 It is risky, the subjects studied may react negatively if they know that they are being
studied
 The presence of the researcher could alter the natural behavior of the participants
 There is a possibility of conversion

II. Correlational method
Correlation is a method used to study the relationship between two or more variables.
• A correlation coefficient has a value ranging from +1 through 0 to -1- no higher and lower.
The higher the value of the r (relationship), the stronger the relationship between variables.
• In correlation, the sign + or – tells us only the direction of the relationship.
• Plus (+) sign refers to (positive correlation) - two variables increase or decrease together.
For example, frustration and aggression are positively correlated, meaning that as frustration
rises, so do acts of aggression.
• Minus (-) sign indicates (Negative correlation) - refers to the values of the two variables
travels in opposite directions; when one increases the other decreases.
• The number in correlation coefficient shows strength of relationship.

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Correlation is calculated by using the following formula:
&#3627408479;=
????????????&#3627408485;&#3627408486;−??????&#3627408485;(??????&#3627408486;)
√[????????????&#3627408485;
2
−(??????&#3627408485;)
2
][????????????&#3627408486;
2
−(??????&#3627408486;)
2
]

Where:
Σxy=Sum of cross product of x and y (found by multiplying x and y and then adding them)
Σx=Sum of x scores (found by simply adding all the x scores)
Σy= Sum of y scores (found by simply adding all the y scores)
Σx
2
= Sum of squared x scores (squaring all the scores and finally adding them together)
Σy
2
=Sum of squared y scores (adding all squared y scores)
For instance, look at the following simple calculation of correlation between crowding (number of
people) and altruistic behavior count. I used these entries only for the sake of example. In real
research the number of entries or individuals (pairs of variables) should be representative.
x
(Crowding)
y(Altruism) x
2
y
2
Xy
N=3
N=refers to number of
entries or pairs. Or simply,
number of subjects,
participants are related to N.
1 4 1 16 4
2 2 4 4 4
3 1 9 1 3
Σx=6 Σy=7 Σx
2
=14 Σy
2
=21 Σxy=11

&#3627408479;=
????????????&#3627408485;&#3627408486;−??????&#3627408485;(??????&#3627408486;)
√[????????????&#3627408485;
2
−(??????&#3627408485;)
2
][????????????&#3627408486;
2
−(??????&#3627408486;)
2
]

&#3627408479;=
3(11)−6(7)
√[3(7)−(6)
2
][3(21)−(7)
2
]

&#3627408479;=
33−42
√[42−36][63−49]

&#3627408479;=
−9
√[6][14]

&#3627408479;=
−9
√84

&#3627408479;=
−9
√9.16

&#3627408479;=.98
The relationship between these two variables is found to be strong. Strong relationships could not
necessarily be significant. The significance of relationship depends up on the sample size and other
factors.
In reporting correlation results we can use the following example. For example,

22
To investigate the relationship between, crowding and prosocial behavior, Pearson
correlation was calculated. The result showed that there is a strong but non-significant
relationship between crowding and helping behavior, (r=.98, P>.05).
Scatter Plot
The use of scatter plot is very important in correlation. For example, look at the following scatter
plot (graphical representation) for crowding and level of altruism:

The problem of correlational research is that it does not show causation. For example, if we find
positive strong relationship between aggressive behavior and violent videos, we may conclude that
violent videos cause aggressive behavior. This explanation could be true. However, violent behavior
0
2
4
6
0 1 2 3 4
Altruism
Crowding
Example of Scatter plot for crowding and
altriusm
(Inverse or negative relationship)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 1 2 3 4 5
Example of Scatter plot for number of
playing violent video games and
aggressive behavior
(Perfect Positive relationship)

23
could lead to aggressive behavior and another third variable could be accountable for the
relationship.
Cause effect relationship is established by using experiments. Look at the following relationship
between x (e.g. crowding) and y (altruistic behavior).
XY
X Y Or
III. Survey method
Survey research involves asking people about their behavior, opinion, attitude or behavior. Survey
could be conducted by using questionnaires and interview. The data for survey could be collected
through face-to face interview, email and internet and through phone,
Advantage
- Could address larger people
- survey method involves direct question rather than inference
Disadvantage
- Respondents may lie about their real behavior, attitude, or opinion.
- Social desirability: respondents may provide answers that make them appear good respondents.
Most of people may not want to report their undesirable or negative behaviors such as:
aggression, hate, discrimination, etc.
- Self-selection bias: most survey may include only self-selected participants and therefore the
survey may lack representativeness. All volunteer respondents may have similar attitude or
preference.
- Difficulty of analysis: survey data are mostly large and the analysis and interpretation could be
unmanageable.
* Self report: when participants report their internal thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions. For
example, Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale is a typical measure of self-report.
Cautions to be taken in survey research
- Wording: the way the questions are framed could create different types of responses.
- Order of questions

24
- Response styles: the way the respondents respond to the survey questions could be taken
into account in preventing biased response.
o Position: arrangement of response choices could bias the answer of the
respondents. For example, most people may concentrate on the third option
therefore the order of the desired choices should be varied.
o Focus: some respondents may focus on the manifest (obvious) meaning of the
questions where as other can be concerned with the latent content (the hidden
meaning).
o Tendency: most people tend to opt to agree with the question regardless of the
questions (yea sayers) where as some individuals tend to agree with everything that is
asked (nay sayers).
IV. Discourse analysis
Content analysis refers to the detailed analysis and interpretation of the contents and messages of a
specific discourse, video, book, poster, TV program, and related materials.
 Explanatory research
I. Experimental research
Experimental research tries to establish cause-effect relationship. Experimental research at least
requires two groups experimental and control group.
o Experimental group: a group receiving treatment or program.
o Control group: comparison group without treatment.
In experiment, the effect of treatment (independent) variable is measured to know its effect on
dependent variable (the outcome) by controlling extraneous variables.
o Independent variable (IV): a treatment given to the experimental group. IV is a variable
which causes a change in the dependent variable.
o Dependent variable (DV): a variable that is caused or changed based on the presence and
absence of the dependent variable.
o Extraneous variable (EV: all variable other than the IV to produce a change in the
dependent variable.

25
o Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that systematically changes with the
independent variable. For example, level of intelligence may systematically change with the
age of participants.
Experimental research can be divided into laboratory experiment and field research.
A. Laboratory experiment: a research that takes place in controlled condition. Laboratory
researches are needed to control extraneous variables (internal validity) where as they are
weak to achieve ecological validity because laboratory experiments may differ from real life
experiences. The behavior of the participants can be changed from the laboratory to real life.
B. Field experiment: an experimental research which is done in real life situation. Field
experiments are very good to ensure ecological validity.
Most of the time laboratory experiments are artificial and less realistic. In experiment,
experimental and mundane realism should be confirmed.
o Mundane realism the extent to which the experimental setting resembles everyday
situation (i.e. similarity to places and events that exist in the real world).
o Experimental realism: The extent to which the experiment leads to natural
responses of the respondents. The participants should not feel that they are in an
experiment rather their behavior must be natural. Researchers must prevent
participants from thinking about the purpose and hypotheses of the experiment by
designing a study that has a high degree of experimental realism.
Advantages of experimental research
 Control: unlike other research methods, experimental research is very helpful to
control extraneous variables. Control refers to an attempt to keep other potential
factors that affect the outcome (such as age, gender, weather, economic status, etc.)
constant. For instance to control the effect of weather change, the research can collect
data (from both the control and experimental group) at the same time.
 Manipulation: experiment involves manipulation, deliberately altering the level of the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, exposing experimental
group children to violent video and the control group to nonviolent videos refers to
manipulation.
 Causality: determining cause and effect relationship between variables.

26

Problems of experimental method
There are different problems associated with the use of experimentation. An experimenter should
ensure internal and external validity.
Internal validity refers to the extent to which the treatment used in the experiment can truly cause
a change in the dependent variable whereas external validity is related to generalizability.
There are various problems associated with the experimental method:
 Artificiality. The laboratory experiment can be very artificial because people may act in
contrast to their real behavior when they are in a laboratory.
 Demand characteristics. The participants may guess the hypotheses and objectives of the
research and act based on their expectation.
 Hawthorne effect: the research by itself could bring the desired change even without
treatment.
 Placebo effect: the effect of participants’ expectation on the outcome of the research
caused by placebo.
 Rosenthal effect: the expectation of the researcher could affect the outcome of the study.
This also called researcher bias. In order to avoid both experimenter and demand
characteristics, it is advisable to use a double blind experiment. Double blind experiment is
a kind of experiment in which both the participants and the researcher are unaware of the
level of treatment. Both the subjects and the researcher don’t know who are in the control
and who are in the experimental group. However, in single blind experiment, only the
subjects will be unaware about the treatment condition.
II. Ex-post facto
Ex-post facto researches are retrospective studies conducted to know a cause of something that has
already happened in the past.

27
2.3. Ethical Concerns in Psychological Research
Researchers should keep the following ethical considerations. The following are some of the major
ethical principles that we need to consider in conducting research.
 Informed consent. Informed consent refers to informing the participants about the purposes,
procedures, benefits and harms of the research that they may decide either to participate or
not.
 Limited deception. Researches could involve some kind of deceptions when telling the
objectives could affect the response of the participants. However, the deception could not be a
cause for some kind of physical, social, or psychological problem so such threats may change
the decision of the participants to be involved in the research. Deception should be followed
be debriefing.
 Debriefing. Debriefing involves giving a complete explanation at the end of a research that
involved deception.
 Freedom from physical and mental harm. The participants should not incur any kind of
physical or psychological harm because of their participation in the research.
 Anonymity. Anonymity refers to keeping data (information) in a way that could not disclose
the identity of the participants. The participants should remain hidden, they should not be
identified because of their specific responses.
 Confidentiality. The privacies of the participants should be kept secret.No detailed
description should be published. For example, names of subjects should not to be mentioned
in a text.
2.4. Research and Animals
Laboratory experiments that use rats, mice, rabbits, pigeons, monkeys, and other animals are
common in psychology and biology/medicine. Animal research serves three purposes in psychology:
a) To learn more about certain types of animals,
b) To discover general principles of behavior that can be applicable to all species, and
c) To study variables that cannot ethically be tested with human beings.
However, some animal right activists argue against the use of animal research. Do you agree?

28
Chapter Three
Sensation and Perception
Sensation and perception are fundamental topics since our behavior is so much a reflection of how
we react to and interpret stimuli from the world around us.
3.1. Definition of Concepts
Sensation refers to the stimulation of sense organs. In other words, the process of receiving
stimulus energies (such as; light, sound, and heat) from the environment by specialized receptors in
the sense organs; eyes, ears, skin, nose and tongue shows sensation. It is also described as a process
of receiving information.
Physical energy of stimulus is converted to an electrochemical impulse through the process called
Transduction: which produces an action potential that relays information about the stimulus
through the nervous system to the brain then travels to the area of cerebral cortex. Then, the brain
gives meaning to sensation through perception.

Perception is simply knowing or understanding what you sense (sensation). It is interpretation of
sensory stimuli. Many animals can perceive sensations far beyond what human beings experience.
For example: snakes can detect infrared rays, frogs can sense seismic vibrations, and bees can see
ultraviolet rays.
Many animals can perceive sensations far beyond what we experience. For example snakes can
Stimulus; is energy that produces a response in the sense organ. Its plural form is stimuli. Most
people believe that there are just five senses for vision, hearing (audition), olfaction (smell), gestation
(taste), and somesthesis (touch). However, our senses are more than five including vestibular and
kinesthetic as additional senses.
3.2. Psychophysics and Signal Detection
Sensation and perception are concern of psychophysics.
Psycho physics; is science that studies the relationship between physical stimulus and the sensory
experience. It is more interested with sensory threshold.

29
A. Threshold
Threshold is the level at which some one can detect either a stimulus or a change in stimulus.
Absolute threshold: is the smallest (weakest) amount of energy that we can detect or a sense will
respond. Example:
 Hearing: sound of a clock that tick from 20feet away at quite condition.
 Vision: a candle flame seen at 30 miles in a dark, clear night.
 Taste: one teaspoon of sugar dissolved in 2 gallons of water.
 Smell: one drop of perfume diffused throughout 3 rooms.
 Touch: the wing of bee falling on your cheek from a distance of 1cm.
B. Subliminal perception
Subliminal perception refers to the ability to detect information below the level of conscious
awareness. Example: the hidden picture of two oxen in Ethiopian 100&50 Birr.
C. The Difference Threshold
The difference threshold is also called Just Noticeable Difference (JND): Is the smallest difference
between two stimuli that can be detected or discriminated .Example; the difference between two
similar oranges. Try to know how much change is required to detect a difference.
Weber’s law: says two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (not a constant
amount), to be perceived as different. According to Ernst Weber the stimulus must increase or
decrease by a constant intensity of the original intensity of the first stimulus. Example; if 100 gm
increases by 2gm weight to produce difference, then it would take 1gm to bring change to 50 gm.
The amount of change (JND) needed to be detected should be directly proportional to the intensity of the original
stimuli.
Webber developed the following formula to know JND.
K=
Δ??????
I
Where:
Δ??????= Change in stimulus intensity
I = Original (comparison) intensity
K = Constant

30
According to Weber the constant is the same for all tests of the same sense, but it differs from one
sense to another. For example K (constant) for audition is 5%;whereas k for vision is 8%. For
example: your standard or comparison stimulus is a 30 db tone. To perceive this tone has increase in
intensity, it must be presented at 31.5 db.

K=
1.5 (change in intensity)
30 (I)
=1.5 =5%

The sound must increase or decrease by 5% before hearing it as a louder or softer.

D. Signal detection theory
Signal detection theory explains the concept of threshold with detectability the role of psychological
factors in judgment of whether stimulus is absent or present. Detection depends on variety of
factors besides the intensity of the stimulus and the sensory abilities of observer such as individual
and contextual variations for example; fatigue, expectancy and urgency of the moment. The theory
was pioneered by John Swets (1964). He replaced the concept of threshold with detectability; the
ability to notice a stimulus under a given set of circumstances. Example: noise.
Perception involves two basic processes to understand the nature of real world.
o Interpretation of basic information about physical objects such as; size, shape and color are
integrated to our brain: is a body of knowledge that permits you to identify the object.
o Categorization process you place objects in hierarchical scheme of objects and their relation
with other objects.
3.3. Sensation and sense organs
Sensory adaptation
Sensory adaptation a progressive decrease in sensitivity to stimuli. Sensory adaptation is a change in
responsiveness of the sensory system based on the average level of surrounding stimulation.
Example: turning off light at a night may stumble you, make you completely blind for objects
around you. But gradually the objects become clearer and start to reappear, visual adaptation.
Dark adaptation: occurs when we move from light to dark
Light adaptation: adapting to light, when we move from dark to light.

31
3.3.1. Vision
Vision is sense of sight. The visual stimulus for eye is light or electromagnetic energy. Frances,
Volkman, Curnin Riggers & Robert Moore proposed when the brain signals the eyelids to close in a
blink, it also stops visual system activity. When the blink is completed, the visual system returns to
its normal functioning.
Color deficiencies: Deficiencies in color vision are called Monochromes: seeing no colors in rare
cases, they possess only one type of cone; as a result the brain perceives all received lights waves as
the same (only shades of gray).
Visual perception: understanding what you see.
An interpretation of a visual stimulus is more subjective and influenced by properties of the
stimulus, and the individual perceiver.
Theories of color vision
Sensation of color is transmitted to the brain by cones in the retina. To understand these two
theories proposed different ideas.
o Trichromatic theory: this theory was proposed by Thomas Young in 1802 and modified by
Herman Von Helmholtz in 1852. This theory states that there are 3 types of cones, each
responding to primary colors: red, green, and blue.
o The opponent process theory: this theory was proposed by Ewald Hering in 1870. This
theory states that the cones are arranged in pairs; red is paired with green, and blue with
yellow. The operation of one pair directly opposes the other. The opponent process produces
color after images: the perception of a color that is not really present, which occurs after seeing
the opposite or complimentary color. Example viewing red when green is removed.
In visual perception shape, depth, motion and constancy are critical in the interpretation of
fragments of information that the eye sends to the visual cortex.

32
3.3.2. Audition (hearing)
Hearing is sensing and perceiving sound, it tells about events occurring at a distant. It gives us
warning. Stimulus (energy) for hearing is vibration. Information about sound moves from hair cells
to the auditory nerve, which carries information to the brains auditory areas. It is believed that
noises at 80 decibel or higher for prolonged time affects hearing.
On the process of audition, the following two theories essential in showing how we hear different
tones:
o Place theory: proposed by Herman Von Helmholtz in 1863. This theory proposes that hair
cells located at different places on the organ of corti transmit information about different
pitches to be perceived. Example; bending hair located near the oval window results in the
perception of higher frequencies, whereas bending those located further away results in the
perception of lower frequencies. Thus, what we hear depends up on which hair cells are
activated. The basilar membrane has to vibrate frequencies above 1,000 Hz.
o Frequency theory: proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1886. This theory states that we
perceive according to how rapidly the basilar membrane vibrates. The faster the vibration, the
higher the pitch, and vice versa. This theory works for the frequency up to 100 Hz. The basilar
membrane vibrates at different places according to place theory and vibrates at different rates
for frequency theory to create the perception of different pitches.
Hearing disorders
Hearing disorders are results of extended exposure to sound of 70 db or more intensity. Louder
sounds tend to produce damage. The following two may result from loud voices.
o Conduction deafness: deafness due to problems associated with conduction or transmitting
sound through the outer and middle ear. In addition to loud voices it is caused by excessive ear
wax or damage to the hammer, anvil or stirrup. Most of the time this kind of hearing can be
treated-hearing aids can be used.
o Sensory neural deafness: deafness caused by damage to the inner ear, especially the hair cells.
o Central deafness: is caused by disease and tumors in the auditory pathways and auditory
cortex of the brain.
Although sensory neural and central deafness can be inherited, they can also develop from exposure
to measles and other contagious diseases before birth, lack of oxygen supply during birth and
childhood diseases such as meningitis.

33

3.3.3. The skin senses (somesthesis)

In touch we detect mechanical energy, or pressure against the skin. The skin senses are: touch,
pressure, temperature, and pain.
Somesthesis: came from Greek word for “body knowledge”, which detect four basic skin senses:
pressure, warmth, cold and pain.
o Touch and pressure: allow us to determine where a stimulus is coming in contact with the
skin & to differentiate simultaneous stimuli. The finger tips, lips and genital parts of humans
are sensitive to touch because they have concentration of tactile (touch) receptors.
o Temperature: Sensation for warmth or coldness. It depends on actual temperature of the
stimulus &the existing skin temperature.
o Pain: it is unpleasant sensation created by damage to our bodies, when our skin experiences
a form of a sharp pinch, our sensation shift from pressure to pain. It is sensation that warns
us that damage (something bad) to our bodies is occurring. Pain may be caused by extreme
heat or cold stimulus, toxic chemicals, cuts, and so on.
Gate control theory of pain: this theory was proposed by a psychologist named Ronald Melzack.
He suggested that a spinal column contains a neural gate in which its opening creates perception of
pain and when it is closed (blocked) we experience perception of pain. Generally opening of this gate leads
to pain and closing of this gate blocks pain. Pains enter to our body through the opening gate.
Pain control and treatment
Surgery, drugs, exercise, hypnosis, electrical stimulation, relaxation, and thought distraction are ways
to decrease pain.
Strategies for pain control
 Distraction: refers to shifting attention from painful situation to something pleasant thing.
 Counter stimulation: applying another stimulus against the pain. Ex: if you cut your finger
you would likely mute your pain by applying ice to a sprained or swollen area.
 Focused breathing: is short fast breath during painful situation.

3.3.4. Movement and balance sense

34
Kinesthesis: perceiving motion and position, it provides neural feedback concerning position by the
help of ligaments and joints of the bodies. The term came from Greek word kinesis for “motion”
and aesthetics for “perception” generally to refer “motion perception”. For example: you can easily eat
a meal while blind folded because kinesthetic receptors make it possible to virtually “see” without
your eyes.
Vestibular sense: sensation for balance. This control of balance is achieved through vestibular
sense.
3.3.5. Taste (gustation)
Gustation is chemical sense like smell. There are four basic taste qualities: sweet, bitter, salty and
sour. Compounds that elicit these qualities in pure form are sucrose (sweet), quinine (bitter), sodium
chloride (salty), and hydrochloric acid (sour). We tend to perceive salty tastes most rapidly and bitter
tastes least rapidly. Our tongue has more than 10,000 receptors (buds) for taste.
3.3.6. Smell (olfaction)
Smell is indicative of gas. Receptors for smell are neurons. Humans can detect more than 10,000
separate smells.
3.4. Perception
Important factors in perceiving sensory stimuli are attention and perceptual set Attention: refers to
the ability to focus on limited range of stimuli or event. There are two factors in attention:
 Selective attention: focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others. Example:
you give attention to a person who calls your name in a crowded room.
 Novelty: new, different, or unusual stimuli often attract our attention.
 Size: objects that are large are more likely to attract attention.
 Color: vividly colored things are attention catching than dull colored objects.
 Movement: moving objects are more likely to attract our attention than objects that are
small or stationary objects.
 Interest: we are more likely to pay attention to things to interesting to us.
 Frequency: highly practiced, repeated, and familiar stimuli (such as your own name or
father’s name) catch our attention.

35
 Perceptual set: a predisposition or readiness, to perceive something in particular way. Our
expectations influence our perceptions. Example: reading” ABCOEF” as ABCDEF.
 The stoop effect is an example of an automatic perception in which it is difficult to name the
colors in which words are printed by when the words name different colors.

3.4.1. Shape perception
Figure ground relationship: the principle by which we organize the perceptual field in to stimuli
that stand out (figure) and that those left over (back ground). For example, white chalk (figure)
and black board (back ground) reflects the gestalt principle.

According to Gestalt psychology: people naturally organize their perceptions according to certain
patterns (forms). Gestalt comes from German to mean “form”. It says the whole is different from
its parts. For example: Many dots (parts) make an image (whole). Principles of Gestalt psychology
are:

Gestalt Laws of Pragnanz
Visual perception, according to gestalt psychologists, is conditioned by laws of closure, proximity,
simplicity, common fate and continuity.
a. Closure: when individuals see disconnected or incomplete figures, they will fill the space and see
it as a whole. As an Example see the following pictures.

36

b. Proximity: objects that are near each other tend to be perceived as a unit. Ex:

a. b. c.
c. Simplicity: every stimuli tend to be perceived as simply as possible or if not complex.

d. Similarity: we tend to group similar items (in terms of color, shape, size) together.



e. Good continuation: perceiving patterns as continuing even though they are disrupted, or
discontinued.

f. Common fate: perceiving objects moving together as a group (coordinate movement). For
example: if you see people running together, you assume that they have common purpose (fate).
3.4.2. Depth Perception
Depth perception is refers to the ability to perceive objects three dimensionally. To see depth, we
use two kinds of cues (information):

37
A. Binocular cues: depth cues that are based on the combination of the images on left & right
eyes and on the way the two eyes work together. The difference between the images on the left
and right eyes is binocular cue the brain uses to determine the depth, or distance of an object.
o Retinal disparity: when our eyes are relaxed to perceive changing distances of objects.
Each image from two eyes will be seen at different angles or the two eyes don’t see the
same view of 3- dimensional object, especially when the object is near. Thus the disparity
of the retina is useful for perceiving depth.
o Convergence: when our eyes are contracted by eye muscles to observe approaching
objects. To look at near objects our eyes move toward each other. It occur when our two
eyes look at an object in center of visual field, angle inward sharply for a near object than for a distant
object.

B. Monocular cues: depth cues that can be perceived only by using one eye (either the right or
the left eye). Depth perception includes:
a. Linear perspective: when parallel lines get smaller as we move far from them (further
objects become smaller on retina). Example: asphalt roads.

b. Super position (overlap or interposition): when near objects partially cover the appearance
of distant objects. Position of near objects partially covers the view of distant objects.

c. Texture gradient: The texture becomes denser and less detailed distance increases from
the observer, and this information helps us to judge depth.

38

d. Aerial (atmospheric) perspective: when distant objects become blue, hazy, smoky, in
relation to near objects. We use it to judge distance of objects.
e. Height cue: when we perceive points nearer to the horizon as more distant than points
that are farther away from the horizon.
f. Motion parallax: perceiving near objects (when we are in motion) as moving backward in a
rapid rate and far objects as moving forward with us.

g. Accommodation: contraction and relaxation of retina to see objects at different distances.
h. Shadow: change of perception because of the position of light and the observer. Shadows
give information about the objects 3 dimensional shape and their position in relation to the
light.

3.4.3. Motion perception
Motion perception is perception of movement sense. There are two kinds of movement perception:
real and apparent movement.
Apparent movement perception: occurs when objects are stationary but we perceive it as moving.
Ex: when we travel by cars trees appears to be moving.

39
Real movement perception: perception which occurs when objects are truly moving.
Perceptual constancy: is recognition that objects are constant and unchanging even though
sensory input about them is changing. Example: even though the retinal image changes as you walk,
you still perceive the objects as the same.

3.4.4. Illusions
Illusions are in correct but not abnormal.
Visual illusion: is discrepancy (difference) between reality and the perceptual representation of it.
Physical stimuli that produce errors in perception or they are simply false perception of stimuli.
Perceptual illusions: misconceptions or misinterpretation of stimuli that don’t correspond to the
sensations received.

a. b.

1. Horizontal vertical illusion: the horizontal 2. Müller-Lyer illusion: ByMüller-Lyer. The
line looks shorter but they are of the same length same length (a) looks longer than (b)

a. are the centre circles the same length? b. the ponzo illusion: the upper horizontal line looks
longer
The answer is yes. than the lower but they are of the same length.

Devil’s tuning fork illusion: two
dimensional representation of
impossible three dimensional

Zolner illusion: when line between the
parallel lines seem to be varying.

40

3.4.5. Extra sensory perception (esp)
Extra sensory perception (ESP): refers to experiences or behaviors that occur without sensory
contact or paranormal phenomenon that don’t involve the senses. The term ESP was first coined by
Joseph Banks Rhine. The following the most commonly known extrasensory experiences:
 Clairvoyance: came from French for “clearing seeing”. It is claimed ability to “see”
information from objects and events without direct contact with senses. Example: telling
objects in a closed box that we haven’t seen.
 Telepathy: supposed ability to perceive the thoughts or emotions of others. Or it is transfer
of ideas from one (sender) to the other (receiver).
 Precognition: knowledge of future event before its occurrence.
 Psychokinesis (telekinesis): claimed ability to influence (move) matters directly without using
sense organs.

Chapter Four
States of Consciousness

41
Consciousness: refers to awareness to external events and internal sensations including the self and
thoughts about ones experiences. This definition is concerned with a state of awareness about
sensations, thoughts, memories, feelings and experiences at any given moment.
Consciousness can be conceptualized in relation to wakefulness, alertness, awareness, attention, and
controlled deliberate processes. Therefore, some elements of consciousness relate to animals.
Different authors discriminate between waking and altered states of consciousness. Waking
consciousness refers to a state of clear, organized alertness. In waking consciousness we perceive times,
places, and events as real, meaningful, and familiar. However, an altered state of consciousness (ASC) is a
state that remarkably differs from the waking “normal” consciousness because of fatigue, hypnosis,
drugs, and sleeping and dreaming. In addition consciousness can be seen as high, moderate, and low.

4.1. Measuring Consciousness
Psychologists use different tools such as, imaging devices and mental rotation tasks to study
conscious.
 Introspection: a method that relies on the subjects’ subjective self-observation report.
 Imaging devices: the use of brain scanning devices such as fMRI, PET scan, and CT scan to
know physical changes in the brain.
 Electroencephalogram (EEG): an electronic device to measure electrical activity (wave pattern)
in the brain.
 Electromyography (EMG): a device that measures muscular activity and tension.
 Electrooculography (EOG): a device that records eye movement.
 Mental rotation tests: are used to ask participants to compare figures rotated at different angles.
 The zoom in test: subjects are asked to think about stimuli and then visualize (zoom in) the
details.
Waves with relatively higher wave patterns (higher amplitude and frequency) are closely related to
higher level of consciousness.
4.2. Levels of consciousness
Consciousness is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon rather it can be seen as a continuum. The level
of our consciousness can be high (extremely alert state) or very low (unconscious

42
 Higher levels of consciousness
Extreme alertness and consciousness can be manifested in controlled processes. Controlled processes:
actively goal directed attention that requires higher concentration.
 Lower levels of consciousness
Lower levels of consciousness involve divided attention, automatic processes andday dreaming.
Automatic processes involve doing two or more tasks together. On the other hand, daydreaming
refers to shifts in attention (mind wandering) involving wishful fantasy and imagination occurring
every 90 minutes. College students may spend as much as 50% of their waking time in a day-dream.

Sleeps and dreams

4.2.1. Sleeps

Sleep: is an altered state of consciousness in which we spend one third of our time in.
Stages of sleep
Once you have fallen asleep you go through 4 stages of sleep. Sleep researchers use
Electroencephalogram (EEG) to know brain wave pattern.
Before falling asleep the EEG frequency is alpha wave (8-12 cycles per second).
Normal sleep is cyclical activity with 4-5 cycles per night and it is an active process not passive.
Normal sleep is divided into:
Rapid eye movements (REM) sleep: is sleep in which eyes move rapidly and there is rapid wave
in EEG. It occurs in stage 1. It is often referred to as paradoxical sleep. The EEG pattern of this
sleep is similar with that of the waking person.
Non rapid eye movement (NREM): is characterized by slower eye movement which occurs in
stage 2, 3 and 4.
Stage 1: This is a light, drowsy phase transition from wakefulness to sleep which is characterized by
higher muscular activity: higher heart rate, blood pressure, and eye movement.

43
Stage 2: Characterized by: relative muscular relaxation and slower heart rate and blood pressure
stage 1. It covers (45-50%) of the whole sleep.
Stage 3: Characterized by: very low muscular movement. It is difficult to awaken a person. And it
covers 10- 20 % of the total sleep.
Stage 4: The deepest sleep state characterized by: deep muscular relaxation and almost no muscular
movement, very low heartbeat, blood pressure and eye movement. It is impossible to awaken a
sleeper in this stage. It covers 15-20% of the total sleep.

Stage 3 and 4 are called slow wave sleep.
A more typical pattern of sleep just begins with stage1, 2, 3 and 4 to NREM sleep and then returns
to stage 3, 2 and 1.

Functions of sleep

Good sleep not only gives a restful period but also has a restorative functions: many hormones such
as growth hormones are released during stage 3 and 4 sleeps (slow wave sleep).
Sleep deprivation on the other hand can lead to debilitation, restlessness, irritability, and at time
psychoses: a disorder in which touch with reality is absent, gross impairment in thinking, etc. is
there. Sleep deprivation for about 4 days can turn your whole world upside down. In addition, sleep
loss leads to:
- Lack of concentration, sensitivity to pain, s

Sleep disorders

Both excessive sleepiness and wakefulness are abnormal.
Insomnia: too little sleep
Hypersomnia: too much sleep

44
Narcolepsy: characterized by sudden attacks of skeletal muscle, excessive day time sleepiness,
inability to move one’s body. The person may fallen asleep suddenly when he/she is reading a book,
driving a car, talking or doing any other activity with little or no warning.
Sleep apnea: cessation of air flow at mouth or nostril, characterized by snoring.
Sleep wake schedule disorder: mismatch between the individuals sleep wake schedule and the
desired sleep schedule or waking earlier or later than the desired time.

Parasomnias

Parasomniasinclude:
o Sleep walking: has hereditary content
o Sleep talking: Talking more or less incomprehensive during sleep.
o Night terror: A vague (unclear) perception of frightening dream
o Nightmare (night anxiety): Vivid and detailed bad dream recall, where as in night terror
there is no recall of the dream.
o Bruxism: Teeth grinding during sleep. Most of the time, it is reported by spouses.

4.2.2. Dreams
Dream refers to a succession of mental images occurring during sleep. Perceptions, thoughts and
feelings associated with dreaming are similar but different from reality. Visual dreams are most
prevalent followed by auditory perceptions. In contrast, other experiences such as touch, smell, and
taste occur infrequently.
Theories of dreaming
1. Unconscious wish fulfillment
This is Sigmund Freud’s theory suggesting that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers
desire to be fulfilled. According to Freud, dreams have latent and manifest content.
The Latent content: represents the disguised or hidden meaning of dreams by more obvious subjects
whereas the manifest content is related to the obvious story of dreams.
2. Reverse learning theory

45
This theory proposes that dreams have no meaning instead function to rid us from unnecessary
information that we have accumulated during the day.

3. Evolutionary theory
Evolutionary theory suggests that dreams are helpful for our survival. They permit information that
is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep.

4. Activation synthesis theory
Activation synthesis theory states that the brain produces random electrical energy during sleep that
stimulates memories. Dreams are the result of random activation of various memories, which are
tied together in a logical story line.

4.3. Altered States of Consciousness
Meditation and hypnosis, and drugs produce altered states of consciousness.
4.3.1. Meditation
Meditation: refers to focusing on one particular word, object or picture which is learned for
refocusing attention that brings an altered state of consciousness. A person disregards any
distracting thoughts. It is a technique that moves thought process away from their usual analytical
mode to a more passive, receptive state which is found in every major religion including Christianity
and Judaism.
Herbert Benson developed procedures for meditation. They include sitting in a quiet room with
your eyes closed, breathing deeply and rhythmically, and repeating a word or sound such as the
word” one” over and over. Although the procedure is a bit more involved than this, most people
find themselves in a deeply relaxed state after 20 minute practiced twice a day, this technique seem
to be just as effective in bringing about relaxation as more mystical methods.(Feldman, 2005 p.148)
4.3.2. Hypnosis
Hypnosis is a state heightened attention to the suggestion of hypnotist, involves deep relaxation
and imagery. People cannot be hypnotized against their wills.

46

Chapter Five
Learning
5.1. Definition of Learning
Learning: refers to a relatively permanent or stable change in behavior due to experience or
practice. It allows human beings to adapt different environments. Here it is better to consider the
following elements of this definition:
 Behavioral change: difference between the previous and the current behavior.
 Experience: the in behavior should be caused by practice,
 The behavioral change should be long lasting
All changes in behavior are not the results of learning. Changes due to maturation and growth are not
learning. For example: children may start to walk at the age 2 (the ability of children to walk is not
learning because it is caused by change in age not experience).
Most learning theorists focus on observable external behavior than hidden unconscious processes.

5.2. Learning Theories
However, theories in learning include behavioral, cognitive, and social cognitive approaches.
5.2.1. Behavioral theories
Focus on stimulus-response and observable (overt) behaviors.
A. Classical conditioning

47
Classical conditioning is a theory developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov established
a laboratory in Leningrad; he was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work. To study salivation, he
implanted surgically tubes in the cheeks of his dog to measure the amount of the saliva in the dog’s
mouth. This theory is termed as: Pavlovian conditioning, respondent conditioning and substitution learning.
For Pavlov learning is a function of association: repeated connection between two elements. For
example: if you frequently go to café with your friend, going to café alone (without your friend) may
help you to remember your friend.

It is learning by which an organism learns to respond to a neutral stimulus that normally does
not bring that response. Pavlov made his experiment on a dog.
Pavlov’s experiment on dog had three elements: food, salivation and sound of bell.
Classical conditioning: is a form of learning when previously neutral (CS) is associated with
natural stimulus (UCS) to bring unlearned response (UCR). It involves involuntary responses to
stimuli.
Elements of classical conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US): the innate, natural stimulus that produces response (salivation)
without prior experience or learning. It is the food given to the dog.
Unconditioned response (UR): is natural or innate response that is automatically produced by
the unconditioned stimulus (US) or it is salivation due to food.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): is previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits or produces
the conditioned response (salivation) after paired with unconditioned stimulus for many times. It
is sound of bell.
Conditioned response (CR): is learned response to the conditioned stimulus that occurs after
the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus are paired together repeatedly. It is
salivation only due to the sound of bell.

48
Before conditioning
UCS (Food)- natural stimulus → UCR (Salivation of the dog)-natural response
CS (Bell)-neutral stimulus → No response (Salivation)-neutral response

During conditioning
Neutral stimulus (Sound of bell) +UCS (Food) →UCR (Salivation)
For many times

After conditioning
CS (Sound of bell) → CR (Salivation)-artificial response
Principles of Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, the CS must be a reliable indicator for the occurrence of the UCS. For
example: if the sound of the bell is always followed by the food, salivation will be stronger.
Acquisition
Acquisition in classical conditioning is the initial learning stage of the stimulus-response link. This
occurs when the neutral stimulus (e.g. bell) associated with UCS (food) becomes a conditioned
stimulus to elicit the CR (salivation). Contiguity and contingency are two important factors that
affect acquisition.
Contiguity (connectedness). To make the conditioned response effective, the CS (sound of bell) and UCS
(food) should occur closely together in time and space. Similarly, Contingency (predictability) refers to
the presence of one stimulus predicting the occurrence of another stimulus. For example, the
presence of CS (bell) should predict the occurrence of UCS (food).
Stimulus generalization and discrimination
Stimulus generalization: when new stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus (e.g. bell)elicits similar
response. For example, a child who was injected by a doctor wearing white gown starts to cry when
he/she observes another person (e.g. a teacher) with white gown.
Stimulus discrimination: the process of learning to differentiate among stimuli. Discrimination occurs
when an organism responds to the CS but not to other similar stimuli. For example, a child starts to
cry whenever he observes a doctor in a clinic rather than a teacher in a school setting.

49
Extinction and spontaneous recovery
Extinction: is unlearning what is learned or the weakening of conditioned response as a result of
absence of unconditioned stimulus. Here, the dog will not salivate if it is not followed by food.
Spontaneous recovery: refers to the return of conditioned response because of the reappearance of
previously extinguished UCS. This occurs without further learning.
Application of Classical Conditioning Theory
John B. Watson conducted another experiment in USA to apply on human beings. According to
him human beings acquire fear through classical conditioning. Watson taught fear to his child,
“Little Albert” by letting him to play with a laboratory rabbit.

White rabbit +Loud voiceCrying

Counter conditioning: reversing the conditioned response. In another study Watson reduced fear
producing rabbit in another small child by gradually pairing the rabbit (CS) with the cookies (UCS).

White rabbit + Cookies No fear

Factors affecting classical conditioning

Order of CS-UCS presentation

Trace conditioning: the conditioned stimulus (CS) comes and goes off before the UCS is presented.
Here the UCS is associated with the memory trace of the CS, not with the conditioned stimulus
itself. Trace conditioning produces weaker conditioning.
Delayed conditioning: the CS comes and stays on, and then the UCS is presented and the CS and the
UCS occur together. Here the presentation of the UCS (food) is delayed for a specified interval after
the CS (bell) has been presented. If the CS (bell) precedes the UCS (food) by a short interval, it
produces very strong conditioning; whereas longer delays between the Cs and the UCS produce
weak conditioning.

50
Simultaneous conditioning: the CS and the UCS comes on exactly at the same time. Presenting the bell
immediately while ringing the bell.
Backward conditioning: the CS is presented after the UCS has been presented. Example: presenting the
food for the dog before the bell. It produces very week (almost no) conditioning.
Strength of UCS
The stronger the UCS, the stronger conditioning. For example: the dog salivates more if it is given a
large amount of food than a small amount of food.
Nature of the stimulus
The nature of the stimulus should be attractive for the organism. For example: meat produces more
salivation than food and a food produces more salivation than a candy.
Number of CS and UCS pairings
Presentation of the Cs with the UCS for several times leads to stronger conditioning. For example: if
the bell is

5.2.2. Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning is also known as instrumental conditioning. It is developed by B.F. Skinner.
Operant conditioning states that learning is a result of punishment and reinforcement. That means
our behavior is strengthened or weakened depending on its positive or negative consequences.
Reinforcements and Punishments
Reinforcement
Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability of a behavior to be
repeated. Any stimulus that increases the frequency of a behavior to occur is termed as a reinforcer or
reward. There are two types of reinforcement:
Positive reinforcement: refers to the presence of reward to increase the frequency of his/her desired
behavior. Example: Giving a candy when students start to study.

51
Negative reinforcement: when the frequency of a behavior increases because it is followed by a removal
of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. Taking aspirin to alleviate headache and reducing the work load
for a hard worker are examples of negative reinforcement.
Punishment
Punishment refers to unpleasant or painful stimuli that decrease the probability that a behavior will
occur again. Example: arresting criminals. There are two types of punishment:
Positive punishment: when a behavior decreases following the application of unpleasant stimuli.
Example: beating a student when he refuses to do his homework.
Negative punishment: refers to decreases the probability of a behavior to be repeated by removing
pleasant stimuli. Example: removing a ball from children when they stop studying.

Escape learning: is a process in which the organism acquires a response that ends an aversive
stimulus. Avoidance learning: is learning in which the acquired response prevents an aversive
stimulus from occurring.

Schedules of reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement are timetables that determine when a behavior will be reinforced. There
are two schedules of reinforcement; continuous and intermittent schedules.
Continuous schedule
Positive (when
stimulus is added)
Reinforcement
Example: praising for good
behavior
Result: increase good behavior

Punishment
Example: beating children when
they cry
Result: decreasing crying
Negative(When
stimulus is removed)
Punishment
Example: removal of a candy after
misbehavior
Result: decrease misbehavior
Reinforcement
Example: terminating a headache
by taking aspirin
Result: increase behavior (taking
aspirin)

52
Continuous schedule is related to rewarding every desirable behavior. For example, giving candy for
a child for every correct answer. This is not an effective method.
Partial/intermittent reinforcement schedules
Partial reinforcement schedules reinforces the desirable behavior in some cases rather than
rewarding every desirable behavior. There are two types of partial reinforcement schedules; ratio and
interval schedules. Ratio schedules bases on the number of responses whereas interval schedules
follow the time passage to reinforce a given behavior or response.
 Fixed ratio schedule: is reinforcing a behavior after a set number of behaviors. Example:
one bottle soft drink reward for a person who bought 20 bottles of soft drink.
 Variable ratio schedule: is a time table in which behaviors are rewarded on average
number basis. Example: reward for a person who bought 20 bottles of soft drink on
unpredictable manner. They are more resistant to extinction.
 Fixed interval schedule: is time table in which reinforcement is given for appropriate
behavior after a fixed amount of time. Example: giving salary after every 30 days.
 Variable interval schedule: refers to time table in which reinforcement is given after a
variable amount of time. Example: incentives may be given after 1 month, 3 month, 2 month
or any other month for workers.
Shaping
Shaping is the process of rewarding approximations of desired behavior. It is concept of operant
conditioning. In shaping, learning begins by reinforcing a response the learner can perform easily,
and then gradually progresses to a more and more complex responses.
Thorndike’s law of effect
This law was developed by Edward Thorndike and the law of effect states that responses that are
satisfying are more likely to be repeated, and those that are not satisfying are less likely to be
repeated. According to him learning is a process of trial and error. There is no direct connection
between the stimulus and response but the connection is created over time through experience.
5.2.3. Observational learning (aka social cognitive)

53
Observational learning is learning by observing behavior of another person (model). This theory is
developed by Albert Bandura. Learning takes place by imitation. According to him learning involves
four basic processes:
 Attention: attending the model to learn (imitate) from the model.
 Retention: storing what we have imitated in memory to use later.
 Reproduction: reproducing (acting) what we have imitated from the model.
 Motivation: motivation (interest) to reproduce the act of the model.
5.2.4. Cognitive approaches to learning
Cognitive approaches focus on thought processes involved in learning. The following are major
indicators of cognitive factors in learning:
 Cognitive maps: are mental maps learned as a result of repetition of the rout or path.
 Latent learning: unintended and hidden learning that is not evident until reinforcement is
presented. .
 Insight: sudden, unexpected recognition or learning.

5.3. Non associative learning
 Habituation: when sensitivity for a stimulus decrease due to its repeated occurrence. For
example: exposition for fear (many times) may decrease the fear of that person, drug
tolerance (when a person needs larger dose as he/she continues to use that drug).
 Sensitization: increased sensitivity to an event or stimulus due to repeated exposure to it.
For example: For example: exposure to repeated loud voices.

Generally sensitization occurs more likely when the repeated stimulus is relatively intense
and habituation occurs if the stimulus is relatively modest.
Chapter six: Memory
6.1. Basic Concepts
Memory: is the retention of information over time through encoding, storage and retrieval.
Take information → represent it in some manner (store) → retrieval for use Ex.
6.2. Encoding

54
Encoding (taking information to memory) → Storage (retaining or preserving information over
time) → Retrieval (taking out information out of storage).

 Encoding: is taking information
o Acoustic encoding: uses the sounds of words to encode.
o Visual encoding: coding information in images or pictures formats.
o Semantic encoding: represents coding information in based on its meaning.
o Motor encoding: encoding physical skills. Example: driving.

6.2. Storage
A. Three systems memory model
This theory is developed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. According to them there are
three components of the overall memory system.
a. Sensory memory (SM)
Sensory memory is specific to different sensory modalities. SM stores all stimuli that register on the
senses, having literal copies of stimuli from different sensory modalities for a short moment i.e. less
than 5 seconds. These copies tend to disappear if not attended.
Iconic memory, image copies in the SM last less than a second.
Echoic memory, auditory memory that lasts for about three or four seconds.

b. Short term memory (STM)
Short term memory has limited capacity that also stores information briefly, though for longer than
sensory memory. It can last from 15 to 2o seconds. According to George Miller STM holds 7 (+ or -
2) items or chunks. Example: 09-12-55-66-08 consists 5 chunks. It is more often called working
memory. It is the aspect of memory that you are aware of at a moment, or can bring back very
quickly and easily. A good analogy to the working memory is RAM of a computer.
We use rehearsal to transfer information in STM to long term memory. Rehearsal refers to
repetitively practicing or thinking about the information to be remembered can keep it in memory
for longer time.

55
 Maintenance rehearsal: simple repetition for short term memory. Example: telephone
number.
 Elaborative rehearsal: analysis of in relation to patterns of information already stored in
LTM.
c. Long term memory (LTM)
Long term memory holds information indefinitely or even permanently. It has unlimited capacity.
LTM contains declarative and non-declarative memory.
 Declarative/Explicit memory
Declarative memory: is memory for specific facts and personal experiences. It is explicit (conscious
recollection). Example: the first president of USA was George Washington.
o Semantic memory: is very stable memory of general knowledge. It is person’s
knowledge about the world: knowledge about meaning of words, famous individuals,
important places and common things.
o Episodic memory: memory for place and time, biographical details, and
biographical details of our lives. It is long term memory for specific things.
 Non-declarative/Implicit memory
Procedural memory: also called non declarative memory. It is memory for motor, cognitive
and perceptual skills. Example: how to cook food.

Figure 2. The basic processes of memory

B. Levels of processing theory

56
Levels of processing theory states that that there is really just one memory house, which contains
information at different level or depth. Therefore, this theory maintains deeper level of processing is
required for storage.

 Structural encoding: is superficial encoding which depends on physical properties of
stimuli. Example: remembering depending on structure of words (small or capital).
 Phonemic encoding: in which you repeat the word and note what it sounds like.
 Semantic encoding: has the greatest depth than structural and phonemic respectively. It is
accomplished through elaborative rehearsal in which you actively think about the word and
understand its meaning.

6.3. Retrieval
Retrieval refers to drawing out the stored information to use. Retrieval is also known as
remembering. Recalling is measured in two ways; recall and recognition.

 Recognition is the easier one: We recognize our friend when we see him coming down the
road.
 Recall is more effortful, and involves mentally rebuilding the experience.

Retrospective and prospective memory
 Retrospective memory: remembering information learned in the past.
 Prospective memory: remembering information about doing something in the future.
Retrieval processes
a. Transference: when one information affects the retrieval of the other.
 Positive transference: when previous learning assists subsequent learning. Example:
when learning psychology helps the recall of sociological concepts.
 Negative transference: when previous learning interferes with the subsequent
learning.
b. Mood-dependent memory or the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood
matched the mood we were in when the event happened. We are likely to recall happy events
when we are happy and recall negative events when we are feeling pessimistic.

57
c. State-dependent memory refers to the phenomenon of recalling events encoded while in
particular states of consciousness.
d. Tip-of tongue phenomena: inability to retrieve already known information.
6.3. Factors affecting memory
A. The serial positioning effect
The probability of retrieval (to remember) is affected by the position of any item in the list.
 Primacy effect: words near the beginning of the list are recalled best.
 Recency effect: words near the end of the item of the list tend to be recalled rapidly.
Example: from car, book, bed, john, Abebe, food, sugar, new, and fear. We tend to
remember more words such as: car, fear, book, and new.
B. Distinctiveness effect: refers to the ability to remember more if the target stimulus is very
different.
Distortions and Memory Reconstruction
 Constructive memory: is memory that uses the existing knowledge, expectancy, or biases to
modify or fill in gaps of incoming information. It is accomplished by Schema, mental
representation for a group of objects, peoples, or events.
 False memory: remembering non existing information.
 Recovered memories: refers to the process of remembering memory lost for long period
of time such as childhood experiences by using different techniques (e.g. hypnosis).
However, the recovered memories can be inaccurate.
6.3. Measuring Memory
Memory measurement often involves recognition, recall and relearning tests.
 Recognition: the ability to identify what you have seen (learned) before. Example: multiple
choice questions.
 Recall: refers to remember previously learned object. It is more difficult than recognition.
o Free recall: remembering previously objects as much as possible without any hint or
clue. Who was the 1
st
president of Ethiopia?
o Serial recall
o Random order recall

58
o Cued recall: here participants are given hint or clue to remember what they have
learned. Example: who is the 1
st
president of USA? The first letters of his name are
G.W.
 Relearning: restudying materials learned to learn it again. It is called the method of saving.
It takes lesser time than the original learning.

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??????&#3627408466;??????&#3627408479;&#3627408475;??????&#3627408475;&#3627408468; &#3627408481;&#3627408479;??????????????????&#3627408480;− &#3627408479;&#3627408466;??????&#3627408466;??????&#3627408479;&#3627408475;??????&#3627408475;&#3627408468; &#3627408481;&#3627408479;??????????????????
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&#3627408485; 100
Where:
o Learning trials: number of errors to learn the material for the first time
o Relearning trials: number of mistakes to relearn
For example: a person made 12 errors to learn the material for the first time and 6 errors after
studying the material for the second time.
12−6
12
&#3627408485; 100=50%
The person preserved or saved of memory for this material.
6.4. Eyewitness Memory
Psychological researches have indicated that the accuracy of eyewitnesses’ testimony depends up on
different factors.

6.5. Forgetting
Forgetting is failure of remembering or apparent loss of information because of various reasons.
The following are some of theories of forgetting:
 Decay theory: states that information is lost because of its nonuse. Decay theory proposes
information fades away because of physiological processes as time passes. Memory traces
formed in learning will disintegrated over time.
 Interference: the phenomenon by which information in memory displaces or
blocks/prevents the recall of other information. Most researchers suggest that interference is
the key process in forgetting. There are two kinds of interference:

59
 Proactive interference: occurs when information learned earlier interferes with the
recall of the newer one. Example, when information learned in high school interferes
with the recall of newer concept (e.g. introduction to psychology).
 Retroactive interference: refers to difficulty of remembering the past due to
exposure to new information. Example, information you learned in college prevents
recall of information you learned in high school.
 Motivated forgetting: occurs when we forget information because of its pain or anxiety.
Repression: is one of motivated forgetting in which we face difficulty in retrieving
emotional memories.
 Amnesia: the loss of memory, which occurs without mental difficulties.
Antrograde amnesia: loss of memory which occurs following an injury which affects the retention
of new information. Information cannot be transformed from STM to LTM memory.
Remembering information in LTM only prior to accident is characteristics of anterograde amnesia.

Retrograde amnesia: is memory loss for the segment of the past but not for new events (disability
to remember anything from the past).
Memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event.
There is usually reappearance of lost memory, although it may take as long as several years for a full
restoration to occur.
6.6. Strategies to improve your memory
To improve memory and ultimately academic achievement, psychologists recommend the following
techniques.
 Manage your time: schedule (Program) your activities
 Pay attention (undivided concentration) to your study and minimize distraction: attention
shifting things like music, bad odor, and so on. Environments should be quite.
 Understanding rather than rote memorization. This requires understanding,
elaboration, giving meaning, and personalizing the information.
 Cognitive monitoring: check your progress in study. Example: summarize what you have
studied.
 Sharing the information. Most people remember more when they speak out.
 Ask yourself and others questions.

60
 Summarize: write down the main ideas
 Outline: create outline or hierarchy
 The Cornell method: divide your sheet into columns (fold) and write and write on them.
 Use mnemonics (pronounced nemoniks): creating systematic and organized set of images,
words, etc. Mnemonic devices are procedures for associating new information with
previously stored memories. To remember new information you first recall previously
learned or familiar information and then recall the new information.

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