Geography: A History

A brief history of the development of geography as an academic subject.

1. Geography: A History

2. Origins of modern Geography
Origins of modern geography can be
dated back to western Europe in the
16
th
century.
Expansion of European power.
By 1600 the Atlantic trading system had
establish links between Europe and the
‘New World’.
Increased range of European travel and
trade transformed European
perceptions of the world.
European universities began to offer
specialized courses in geography.

3. ‘Scientific Revolution’
Foundations of modern science
established during 17
th
century.
Navigational skills that merely
facilitated scientific discovery.
Discussions of the relative merits
of different societies, cultures and
civilizations around the world.
18
th
century – era of European
enlightenment.

4. Geography as exploration
Geography as navigation transformed
into Geography as exploration.
Scientific exploration as an objective
New navigational and cartographical
techniques.
1769 James Cook voyage a turning
point in the development of modern
geography.
Exploration reflected imperial
objectives

5. Enlightenment Geography
Alexander von Humboldt: Prussian,
explorer and author
Ideas shaped by late 18
th
century
European romanticism
Notable travels in South America
Sought a systematic science of
geography
Carl Ritter: German, writer, explorer
Unfinished 19 volume Erdkunde
published in mid 19
th
C
Objective to create a generalized world
geography

6. Emergence of Societies
1778 Association for Promoting the
Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa.
Pioneering expeditions by Mungo Park,
Hugh Clapperton and Alexander
Gordon Laing
French Revolution: halt the
Enlightenment geographical enquiry
but provided purpose for the further
development of cartography and land
survey.
First geographical societies emerge: Paris
(1821), Berlin (1828), London (1830)

7. Emergence of the RGS
Royal Geographical Society became the focal
point of world exploration.
1850: nearly 800 fellows
1870: 2,400 fellows
Number of prominent scientists joined:
including Charles Darwin.
Dominant figure: Sir Roderick Murchison
Published general advice through its Hints to
Travellers plus it boasts one of the largest
private map collections in the world.

8. Success of the RGS
RGS exploited a national passion for heroism in
exotic places that was enthusiastically promoted
by the British press.
The explorer was the ideal masculine hero of
Victorian society.
Extensive exploration of Africa – many of the
major explorers: Burton, Speke, Livingstone,
Stanley – were influenced by the RGS.
New challenges posed by exploration into Asia,
the polar ice caps, and in particular the
Himalayas.
Geographical societies across Europe expanded
rapidly.

9. The time of imperialism
An age of European military
and commercial colonization of
the Americas, Asia and Africa.
After the Franco-Prussian war
(1870) aggressive colonial
expansion
‘The Scramble for Africa’
RGS remained the largest and
wealthiest geographical society
in the world.

10. Geography enters universities
Chair of geography established in UCL in 1833
First full time post in a British university not until
1887 in Oxford University: Halford Mackinder.
The RGS and GA worked hard to promote the
study of geography.
Sir Harry Johnstone argued that geography should
become a compulsory school subject.
‘it was only through detailed geographical description,
complete with authoritative and regularly updated
topographical and thematic maps, that a region could be
know, understood and therefore fully possessed by those in
authority’ (Heffernan, 1996:520).

11. Natural Selection?
University geography sought to explain
human and natural features of the
world, but also to justify the existence of
European empires.
Friedrich Ratzel (and others) insisted
that the principles of ‘natural selection’
applied equally to the natural, social
and political realms.
Imperial ‘race’ of Europe
Environmental determinism and
scientific racism

12. Alternative views
Environmental and moral
improvement were the justification
for intervention from the Western
World.
However,
Petr Kropotkin & Elisee Reclus
argued that geography suggested
ways of developing a new harmony
of human societies with the natural
world.

13. Crisis of the 20
th
Century
Unexplored and unclaimed ‘blank’
spaces on the world map were rapidly
diminishing.
Mackinder talked of the emergence of
20
th
C world order dominated by land
based empires bound together by
railways.
Eurasian landmass: the geographical
pivot of history = whoever had control
would have power over limitless
resources and would dominate world
affairs.

14. Global Conflict
•WWI: first truly global conflict
•Mackinder: war had erupted from the
territorial struggle he had foreseen.
•Leading geographers involved in
redrawing the political map after WWI.
•Isiah Bowman adviser to US President
Woodrow Wilson during peace
negotiations.
•Several French geographers advised the
French government during peace
conferences and the RGS was involved
in aiding the Naval and War Office
Intelligence services.

16. Post-war Geography
•First schools of geography established
during the war:
–Liverpool (1917), LSE and Aberystwyth
(1918), UCL and Cambridge (1918),
Manchester (1923)
•Expansion of the discipline eroded the
control of the RGS on the geographical
agenda.
•Geographers keen to establish the
subject as scientifically rigorous.
•Institute of British Geographers
established in 1933

17. The Interwar Years
•Interwar years: evolved into a popular discipline.
•Sub-disciplines arose.
•Physical and human geography should be brought together in
the analysis of specific regions.
•The region became the building block of Geography.
•School of cultural geography established at Berkeley with the
idea that historical and geographical particularism and the
unique qualities of diverse regions should be explored.

18. Emergence of spatial science
•Nationalistic geographers
•WWII end of geopolitical
movements of Italy and Germany.
•1960s and 1970s – stress on
quantitative geographical enquiry.
•New and more rigorously scientific
regional science developed during
the post war years.