geography of indiageoo from 2001 to 2024

geogrA;phy of indian 2001-2024

1. GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA

2. UNIT –I
❖GeographicalSetting
❖Physical features –Major Physiographic
Divisions
❖Drainage
❖Climate
❖Soiland
❖NaturalVegetation.

3. Indiansubcontinentisalargepeninsula.Inthenorth,thehimalayan
mountainseparateIndiafromtherestofAsia.
IndiaissurroundedbytheBayofBengalintheeastArabianSeain
thewest,IndianOceaninthesouthandtheLakshadweepSeato
thesouthwest.
Indiaissituatednorthoftheequatorbetween8°4'northto37°6'
northlatitudeand68°7'eastto97°25'eastlongitude.
Theseventh-largestcountryintheworld-withageographicaltotal
areaof3.2millionsq.kms.
Indiameasures3,214kms(1,997mls)fromnorthtosouthand2,933
kms(1,822mls)fromeasttowest.
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

4. Ithasalandfrontierof15,200kms(9,445mls)andacoastline
of7,516.6kms(4,671mls).
Indiahas7unionterritoriesand29states.
Indiabordersshareswithseveralcountries,itsharesland
borderswithPakistan,Nepal,AfghanistanandChinainthe
northornorth-west,andwithBangladeshandMyanmarinthe
east.
IndiaalsoshareswaterborderswithSriLanka,Maldivesand
Indonesia.

5. India
Neighboring Countries

6. TheHimalayasandtheNorthernPlainsarethemostrecent
landforms.
Fromtheviewpointofgeology,Himalayanmountainsform
anunstablezone.ThewholemountainsystemofHimalaya
representsaveryyouthfultopography
•HighPeaks,
•DeepValleysand
•FastflowingRivers.
Thenorthernplainsareformedofalluvialdeposits.
Thepeninsularplateauiscomposedofigneousand
metamorphicrockswithgentlyrisinghillsandwidevalleys.
PHYSICAL FEATURES

7. MAJOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS
The Himalayan Mountains
The Northern Plains
The Peninsular Plateau
The Indian Desert
The Coastal Plains and
The Islands

9. THE HIMALAYAS
HimalayasnorthernbordersofIndia.Thesemountainranges
runinawest-eastdirectionfromtheIndustothe
Brahmaputra.
Theyformanarc,whichcoversadistanceofabout2,400
Km.
Theirwidthvariesfrom400KminKashmirto150Kmin
ArunachalPradesh.
TheHimalayaconsistsofthreeparallelrangesinits
longitudinalextent.

10. TherangelyingtothesouthoftheHimadriforms
themostruggedmountainsystemandisknown
asHimachalorlesserHimalaya.
Therangesaremainlycomposedofhighly
compressedandalteredrocks.
TheoutermostrangeoftheHimalayasiscalled
theShiwaliks.
TheBrahmaputramarkstheeasternmost
boundaryoftheHimalayas.

11. THE NORTHERN PLAINS
Thenorthernplainhasbeenformedbytheinterplayofthe
threemajorriversystems,namelytheIndus,theGangaand
theBrahmaputraalongwiththeirtributaries.
Thisplainisformedofalluvialsoil.Thedepositionof
alluviuminavastbasinlyingatthefoothillsoftheHimalaya
overmillionsofyears,formedthisfertileplain.
Itspreadsoveranareaof7lakhsq.km.Theplainbeing
about2400Kmlongand240to320Kmbroad,isadensely
populatedphysiographicdivision.

12. THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
ThePeninsularPlateauThePeninsularplateauisa
tablelandcomposedoftheoldcrystalline,igneousand
metamorphicrocks.
Itwasformedduetothebreakinganddriftingofthe
Gondwanalandandthus,makingitapartoftheoldest
landmass.
ThepartofthePeninsularplateaulyingtothenorthofthe
NarmadarivercoveringamajorareaoftheMalwaplateau
isknownastheCentralHighlands.
TheVindhyanrangeisboundedbytheCentralHighlands
onthesouthandtheAravalisonthenorthwest.
TheWesternGhatsandtheEasternGhatsmarkthe
westernandtheeasternedgesoftheDeccanPlateau
respectively.

13. THE INDIAN DESERT
TheIndiandesestliestowardsthewesternmarginsofthe
AravaliHills.
Thisregionreceivesverylowrainfallbelow150mmper
year.
Ithasaridclimatewithlowvegetationcover.
Soonaftertheydisappearintothesandastheydonothave
enoughwatertoreachthesea.
Luniistheonlylargeriverinthisregion.

14. THE COASTAL PLAINS
ThePeninsularplateauisflankedbystretchofnarrow
coastalstrips,runningalongtheArabianSeaonthewest
andtheBayofBengalontheeast.
Thewesterncoast,sandwichedbetweentheWestern
GhatsandtheArabianSea,isanarrowplain.
TheplainsalongtheBayofBengalarewideandlevel.
LargeriverssuchastheMahanadi,theGodavari,the
KrishnaandtheKaverihaveformedextensivedeltaonthis
coast.
LakeChilikaisanimportantfeaturealongtheeastern
coast.

15. THE ISLANDS
LocatetheLakshadweepIslandsgrouplyingclosetothe
MalabarcoastofKerala.
Thisgroupofislandsiscomposedofsmallcoralisalnds.
EarliertheywereknownasLaccadive,MinicoyandAmindive.
TheLakshadweepiscoverssmallareaof32sqkm.
Kavarattiislandistheadministrativeheadquartersof
Lakshadweep.
Thisislandgrouphasgreatdiversityoffloraandfauna.
ThePittiisland,whichisuninhabited,hasabirdsanctuary.
Themountainsarethemajorsourcesofwaterand
forestwealth.
Thenorthernplainsarethegranariesofthecountry.
Theyprovidethebaseforearlycivilisations.

16. DRAINAGE
Indiandrainagesystemconsistsofalargenumberof
smallandbigrivers.
Itistheoutcomeoftheevolutionaryprocessofthe
threemajorphysiographicunitsandthenatureand
characteristicsofprecipitation.
TheHimalayandrainagesystemincludestheGanga,the
IndusandtheBrahmaputrariverbasins.
ThepeninsularplateauisdrainedbyNarmada,Tapi,the
Mahanadi,theGodavari,theKrishnaandtheKaveri.

17. Thedrainagepatternofanareaistheresultofthe
geologicaltimeperiod,nature,andstructureofrocks,
topographyandslope,etc.
About77%ofthedrainageareaconsistingoftheGanga,the
Brahmaputra,theMahanadi,theKrishna,etc.Itisorientedtowards
theBayofBengal.Ontheotherhand,23%comprisingtheIndus,the
Narmada,theTapi,theMahi,andthePeriyarsystemsdischargetheir
watersintheArabianSea.
Ariverdrainisaspecificarea,whichisknownasthe
catchmentareaofthatriver.
Anareadrainedbyariveranditstributariesisknownasa
drainagebasin.
Theboundarylineseparatingonedrainagebasinfromthe
otheriscalledasthewatershedarea.

18. India
Major Rivers

19. DRAINAGE PATTERN
Following are the major drainage patterns are
Dendritic
Radial
Centripetal and
Trellis

20. CLASSIFICATION OF DRAINAGE
Indian drainage is classified as
❖TheHimalayan drainageand
❖ThePeninsular drainage.
THE HIMALAYAN DRAINAGE
Major Himalayan drainage systems are
TheIndus,
TheGanga, and
TheBrahmaputrarivers.

21. THE INDUS
ThetotallengthoftheIndusRiversystemis2,880km(inIndia1,114
km).
TheIndus,whichisalsoknownastheSindhu,isthewesternmostof
theHimalayanRiversinIndia.
TheIndusoriginatesfromaglaciernearBokharChuintheTibetan
regionatanaltitudeof4,164mintheKailashMountainrange.
MajortributariesofIndusaretheShyok,theGilgit,theZaskar,the
Hunza,theNubra,theShigar,theGasting,andtheDrasintheupper
part.
Inthelowerpart,theSatluj,theBeas,theRavi,theChenab,
andtheJhelumarethemajortributariesoftheIndus.
OriginatingfromtheBeasKundneartheRohtangPassatan
elevationof4,000mabovethemeansealevel,Beasisalsoan
importanttributariesoftheIndus.
Beas enters into the Punjab plains and meets with the Satluj
near Harike.

22. AlsopopularasLangchenKhambab(inTibet),theSatluj
originatesfromtheRakaslakenearMansarovaratanaltitude
of4,555minTibet.
TheSatlujpassesthroughtheShipkiLaontheHimalayan
rangesandentersintothePunjabplains.
TheSatlujistheriverthatfeedsthecanalsystemofthe
BhakraNangalproject.

23. The Ganga
TheGangaoriginates from theGangotriglacier near Gaumukh
(3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
The major tributaries of the Alaknanda are the Dhauli and the
Vishnu Ganga; these two rivers meet at Joshimath/Vishnu
Prayag.
Some other tributaries of theAlaknandaare thePindar(joins at
Karna Prayag), theMandakiniorKali Ganga(joins at Rudra
Prayag).
The total length of the Ganga in India is 2,525 km, which is
shared by Uttarakhand (110 km); Uttar Pradesh (1,450 km);
Bihar (445 km); and West Bengal (520 km).

24. TheGangariversystemisthelargestriversysteminIndia.
TheSonisamajorrightbanktributaryoftheGanga,however,
majorleftbanktributariesaretheRamganga,theGomati,
theGhaghara,theGandak,theKosi,andtheMahananda.
TheYamunajoinstheGangaatAllahabad(Prayag),Uttar
Pradesh.TheChambalrisesnearMhowintheMalwaplateau
ofMadhyaPradesh.
TheGandakjoinstheGangaatSonpurnearPatna,Bihar.
TheGhagharaoriginatesfromtheMapchachungoglaciersand
joinstheGangaatChhapra,Bihar.

25. TheBarakaristhemaintributaryoftheDamodar.
TheSardaorSaryuRiverrisesfromtheMilamglacierinthe
NepalHimalayaswhereitisknownastheGoriganga.
However,alongtheIndo-Nepalborder,itiscalled
asKaliorChauk,whereitjoinstheGhaghara.
OriginatingfromtheAmarkantakplateau,theSonisalarge
southbanktributaryoftheGanga,itjoinstheGangaatArrah,
Bihar.

26. THE BRAHMAPUTRA
TheBrahmaputraoriginatesfromtheChemayungdungglacier
oftheKailashrangeneartheMansarovarLake.
InTibet,theBrahmaputraisknownastheTsangpo.
TheRangoTsangpoisthemajorrightbanktributaryofthe
BrahmaputrainTibet.
TheBrahmaputraentersintoIndianearthewestofSadiya
towninArunachalPradesh.
Major left bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra
areLohit,DibangorSikang, Burhi Dihing,andDhansari.
Major right bank tributaries of the Brahmaputra are
theSubansiri, Kameng, Manas,andSankosh.
TheTistajoins the Brahmaputra on its right bank in Bangladesh
and from here, the river is known as theYamuna.

27. THEPENINSULAR DRAINAGE
The Peninsular drainage system is older than the
Himalayan Rivers.
The Mahanadi originates from Sihawa in Raipur district
of Chhattisgarh and runs through Madhya Pradesh and
Odisha and finally discharges its water into the Bay of
Bengal.
The total length of Mahanadi is 851 km. Popularly
known as the Dakshin Ganga, the Godavari is the largest
peninsular river system.

28. With total 1,465 km length, Godavari covers the areas
of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha,
and Andhra Pradesh.
The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra
are the major tributaries of Godavari.
The Koyna, the Tungabhadra, and the Bhima are the
major tributaries of the Krishna.
The total catchment area of the Krishna, 27% lies in
Maharashtra, 44% in Karnataka, and 29% in Andhra
Pradesh.

29. The Kaveri originates from the Brahmagiri hills (1,341m)
located in Kogadu district of Karnataka.
The river Kaveri’s total course of 770 km commands a basin
area of 8.8 million hectare mha, of which, 3% lies in Kerala,
41% lies in Karnataka, and 56% lies in Tamil Nadu.
Major tributaries of the Kaveri are the Kabini, the Bhavani,
and the Amravati.
The Narmada originates from the western flank of the
Amarkantak plateau (1,057 m).
Dhuandhar Waterfall The total length of Narmada is 1,312
km.

30. About 79% of the Tapi basin lies in Maharashtra, 15% in
Madhya Pradesh, and the remaining 6% in Gujarat. Luni is
the longest river system of Rajasthan.
Primarily, Luni originates in the Pushkar valley of the
Aravalli range, Rajasthan in two branches, i.e. the Saraswati
and the Sabarmati; which join each other at Govindgarh.
Some small rivers flowing towards the West are the
Shetruniji, the Bhadra, Dhadhar, Sabarmati, Mahi, Vaitarna,
Kalinadi, Dedti, Sharavati, Mandovi, Juari, Bharathapuzha,
Periyar, etc.
Some small rivers flowing towards the East are
Subarnarekha, Baitarni, Brahmani, Penner, and Palar.

31. CLIMATE
Weatheristhetemporarystateoftheatmosphere,
whileclimatereferstotheaverageoftheweatherconditionsovera
longerperiodoftime.
Weatherchangesquickly,maybewithinadayorweek,butclimate
changesinimperceptivityandmaybenotedafter50,100years,or
evenmore.
TheclimateofIndiahasdistinctregionalvariationsdiscerniblebythe
patternofwinds,temperature,andrainfall.Further,alsointheformof
rhythmofseasonsandthedegreeofwetnessordryness.
Theduringwinters,thenorthernhalfofIndiaiswarmerby3°Cto
8°Cthanotherareaslocatedonsamelatitudes.
SoIndianclimate,tobeprecise,istropicalmonsoontyperatherthan
justatropicalorhalftemperateclimate.
SoIndianclimate,tobeprecise,istropicalmonsoontyperatherthan
justatropicalorhalftemperateclimate.

32. FACTORS THAT AFFECT INDIAN CLIMATE
Major factors the climate of India are
•Latitudinal location,
•Distance from the Sea,
•Himalayas and Indian Climate,
•Physiography and Indian Climate,
•Monsoon Winds and Indian Climate,
•Upper Air Circulation,
•Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances and
•El-Nino, La Nina, ENSO and Indian Climate.

33. SEASONS IN INDIA
ThesubcontinentofIndiahasgreatlatitudinaldimensions.There
aredifferentseasonsfromkanyakumaritojammuandkashmir.The
MeteronologicalDevelopmentofIndia,however,dividestheseasons
ofIndiaintothefollowingfourseasons
A . Season of North-East Monsoon
1. Winter season, mid-December to mid-march and
2. How weather season, mid-March to May.
B. Seasons of South-West Monsoon
3. Rainy season, June to September and
4. Seasons of retreatingmonsoon, October to mid-December.

34. 1. The Cold Weather Season
•ThecoldweatherseasoninthegreaterpartsofIndiabeginsinthelaterpartof
Novemberinthenorth,andbythebeginningofDecemberintherestofthe
country.
•Themiddlelatiudeweterliesreachdowntothesurfacenorthofabout25ºN,South
ofthislatiudethegeneralmovementsofairisfromthenortheast.
2.The Hot Weather Season
•The north Indian region a well defined hot weather season from mid-March to mid-
June.
•The lid of subsiding warming dry air prevents the surface thermal low from having
sufficient effect as lifting agent to carrry air aloft and so to being about
precipitation.

36. 3.The Season of General Rain
BytheendofJunealowpressureareadevelopsoverPunjabandRajasthan.
Thesouthernbranchofthejetstreamweakensandisfinallywithdrawnfromthe
southernslopesoftheHimalayasbymid-June,leadingtotheformationofafynamic
depressionoverthesufacethermallow.
InthenorthenplainsofIndia,thetemperaturereachesitsmaximuminJuneto
breakthemonsoonPlaces,thedaytemperaturetouches46ºCandmore.
4.Season of Reteating Monsoon
Thesouth-westmonsoonbeginstoretreatfromnorthernIndiabythethirdweek
ofSeptemberwiththesouthwardmigrationofthesun.
Thetemperatureduringtheseasonofreteatingmonsoonisuniformallyhighabout
25ºCinthebeginningofOctombertinNorthernIndia.
Thedaytemperatureisgenerallyhighbutnightsbecomepleaseantwiththemean
goingdownto20ºCorevenlower.

37. SOIL
•Soilisveryimportantandavaluableresourceforeveryhuman
being.
•Soilisthemixtureofrockdebrisandorganicmaterials,which
developontheearth’ssurface.
•Themajorfactorsthatdeterminesoils’characteristicsareparent
material,climate,relief,vegetation,time,andsomeotherlife-forms.
•Majorconstituentsofthesoilaremineralparticles,humus,water,
andair.
•Asoilhorizonisalayergenerallyparalleltothesoilcrust,whose
physicalcharacteristicsdifferfromthelayersaboveandbeneath.

38. Soil Profile:
Soil Horizon is classified into three categories −Horizon A, Horizon B, and
Horizon C; collectively known as Soil Profile (i.e. the arrangement of soil
layers).
Horizon A’ is the topmost zone, where organic materials stored with the
minerals, nutrients, and water, necessary for the growth of the plants.
‘Horizon B’ is the transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and ‘horizon C’,
and hence, it contains matter derived from ‘horizon A’ as well as from
‘horizon C’.
‘Horizon C’ is composed of loose parent material and hence, it is the layer
of first stage of the soil formation process and eventually forms the above
discussed two layers.
Classification of Soil
Soilswereclassifiedonthebasisoftheirinherentcharacteristicsand
externalfeaturesincludingtexture,color,slopeofland,andmoisture
contentinthesoil.
SoilSurveyofIndia,establishedin1956,madecomprehensivestudyofsoils.

40. Indian soil
On the basis of genesis, color, composition, and location,
the soils of India have been classified as −
Alluvial soils,
Black soils,
Red and Yellow soils,
Laterite soils,
Arid soils,
Forest soils,
Saline soils and
Peaty soils.

41. Alluvial Soils:
Alluvialsoilsarewidespreadinthenorthernplainsandtheriver
valleysandcoverabout40%oftotalareaofIndia.
Alluvialsoilsaredepositionalsoils,astransportedanddepositedby
theriversstreams.
Alluvialsoilsarenormallyrichinpotash,butpoorinphosphorous.
IntheUpperandMiddleGangaplain,twodifferenttypesofalluvial
soilsarefoundi.e.Khadar(itisthenewalluviumandisdepositedby
floodsannually)andBhangar(itisasystemofolderalluvium,
depositedawayfromthefloodplains).
Thealluvialsoilsnormallyvaryinnaturefromsandy,loamy,toclayey
anditscolorvariesfromlightgreytoashgrey.

42. Black Soils:
AlsopopularasRegurSoilortheBlackCottonSoil,Blacksoilcovers
mostoftheDeccanPlateau;forexample,blacksoilisfoundinparts
ofMaharashtra,MadhyaPradesh,Gujarat,AndhraPradesh,andTamil
Nadu.
Blacksoilisusuallyclayey,deep,andimpermeable;therefore,itcan
retainthemoistureforaverylongtime(veryusefulforthecrops
especiallycotton).
Blacksoilisrichinlime,iron,magnesia,alumina,andalsopotash.
Thecoloroftheblacksoilvariesfromdeepblacktogrey.

44. Red & Yellow Soils:
Redsoildevelopsoncrystallineigneousrocksintheareasoflow
rainfall,especially,intheeasternandsouthernpartsoftheDeccan
Plateau.
Redsoildevelopsareddishcolorbecauseofawidediffusionofiron
incrystallineandmetamorphicrocks.Ontheotherhand,itdevelops
yellowcolorwhenitoccursinahydratedform.
Thefine-grainedredandyellowsoilsareusuallyfertile,whereas
coarse-grainedsoilsfoundindryuplandareashavepoorfertility.
Theredandyellowsoilsnormallyhavepoorcontentofnitrogen,
phosphorousandhumus.

45. Laterite Soils:
Thelateritesoilsdevelopinareasofhightemperatureandhigh
rainfall.
ThelateritesoilsarecommonlyfoundinKarnataka,Kerala,Tamil
Nadu,MadhyaPradesh,andthehillyareasofOdishaandAssam.
Lateritesoilsaretheresultofintenseleachingduetotropicalrains;
becauseofrain,limeandsilicaareleachedaway,andsoilsbecome
richinironoxideandaluminum.
Lateritesoilshoweverarepoorinorganicmatter,nitrogen,
phosphate,andcalcium,butrichinironoxideandpotash.
Lateritesoilsarenormallyinfertile;however,itiswidelytomake
bricks(usedinbuildingconstruction).
Normallysandyinstructureandsalineinnature,aridsoilsvaryfrom
redtobrownincolor.

46. Arid Soils:
Lowerhorizonsofthearidsoilsareoccupiedby‘kankar’layers
becauseoftheincreasingcalciumcontentdownwards.
Aridsoilshavepoorcontentofhumusandorganicmatter.
AridsoilsaretypicallydevelopedinwesternRajasthan.
Saline Soils:
Salinesoilscontainalargerproportionofsodium,potassium,and
magnesium,andthus,theyareinfertile,anddonotsupport
vegetation.
Becauseofthedryclimateandpoordrainagesystem,salinesoil
containsmoresalt.
Salinesoilsarenormallyfoundinaridandsemi-aridregions,aswell
asinwaterloggedandswampyareas.
Deficientinnitrogenandcalcium,salinesoilsarefoundinwestern
Gujarat,deltasoftheeasterncoast,andinSunderbanareasofWest
Bengal.


47. ForestsSoils:
Forestsoilsareusuallyformedintheforestareaswheresufficient
rainfallisavailable.
Likeotherorganism,soilsarelivingsystems,astheytoodevelopand
decay,getdegraded,andrespondtopropertreatmentifadministered
intime.
PeatySoils:
Intheareasofheavyrainfallandhighhumidity,largequantityofdead
organicmatteraccumulatesandenrichhumusandorganiccontent
thatformsthepeatysoils.
Peatysoilsarenormallyheavyandblackincolorandwidelyfoundin
thenorthernpartofBihar,southernpartofUttaranchal,andthe
coastalareasofWestBengal,Odisha,andTamilNadu.
Declineinsoilfertilitybecauseofanyreason(eithernaturalor
humaninduced)isknownassoildegradation(exampleshowninthe
imagegivenbelow).

48. NATURAL VEGETATION
Classification of Vegetation
Based on climatic conditions, forests are divided
into categories. They are −
•Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
•Tropical Deciduous forests,
•Tropical Thorn forests,
•Montane forests and
•Littoral and Swamp forests

49. Tropical Evergreen Forests
Tropicalevergreenforestsarefoundintheregionsthatreceiveannual
precipitationofover200cm.
TropicalevergreenforestsarefoundinthewesternslopeoftheWestern
Ghats,hillsofthenortheasternregion,andtheAndamanandNicobar
Islands.
Intropicalevergreenforests,treesreachgreatheights,i.e.,upto60mor
evenabove.and,largelythesetreesdonothavefixedtimetoshedtheir
leaves.
Majorexamplesofevergreenforestsarerosewood,mahogany,aini,ebony,
etc.
Semi-evergreen Forests
Semi-evergreenforestsareamixtureofevergreenandmoistdeciduous
trees,foundintheregionsthatreceivelessprecipitationthanthe
evergreenforests.
Mainspeciesofsemi-evergreenforestsarewhitecedar,hillock,andkail.

51. Tropical Deciduous Forests:
TropicalDeciduousForestsarethemostwidespreadforestsofIndiaand
arepopularlyasMonsoonForests.
Tropicaldeciduousforestsarefoundintheregions,whichreceiverainfall
between70and200cm.
TropicaldeciduousforestsarefurthercategorizedastheMoist
deciduousforestsandDrydeciduousforest.
Themoistdeciduousforestsarefoundintheregions,whichrecord
rainfallbetween100and200cm.
Themoistdeciduousforestsarefoundalongthefoothillsofthe
Himalayas,easternslopesoftheWesternGhats,andOdisha.
Teak,sal,shisham,hurra,mahua,amla,semul,kusum,andsandalwoodetc.
arethemainspeciesofthemoistdeciduousforests.
Drydeciduousforestsarefoundintheregionsthatreceiveprecipitation
between70and100cm.
Asthedryseasonbegins,thetreesofdeciduousforestsshedtheirleaves
completely.

52. Tropical Thorn Forests:
Tropical thorn forests are found in the areas, which receive rainfall
less than 50 cm.
Tropical thorn forests are found in the areas of South west Punjab,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh.
Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas, etc. are
the important species of tropical thorn forests.
Mountain Forests:
MountainforestsinIndiaarenormallyclassifiedintotwotypes,i.e.
thenorthernmountainforestsandthesouthernmountainforests.
DeciduousforestsarefoundinthefoothillsoftheHimalayas.
Temperateforestsfoundbetweenanaltitudeof1,000&2,000m.
InthehigherhillrangesofnortheasternIndia;forexample,hilly
areasofWestBengalandUttaranchal,evergreenbroadleaftrees
suchasoakandchestnutarepredominant.

53. Chir,deodar,pine,etc.aretheimportantspeciesoftemperate
forests.
Between3,000and4,000m,Silverfirs,junipers,pines,birch,and
rhododendrons,etc.arefound.
However,athigheraltitude,thetundravegetationisfoundand
majorspeciesaremossesandlichens.
Atahigheraltitude,thesouthernmountainforestslargelybelong
tothetemperatetype,whicharelocallyknownas‘Sholas’inthe
Nilgiris,Anaimalai,andPalanihills.Someofthetreesofeconomic
significanceincludemagnolia,laurel,cinchonaandwattle.
Littoral and Swamp Forests:
India is rich in Littoral and Swamp Forests.
Chilika Lake (in Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (in Bharatpur,
Rajasthan) are protected as water-fowl habitats under the
Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (i.e. Ramsar
Convention).


54. References:
https://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/iess102.pdf
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/geography
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/geography/geography_india_climate.htm
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/geography/geography_india_drainage_system.htm
https://www.amu.ac.in/emp/studym/99993715.pdf