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1. Ghee

2. According to the PFA (1976), ghee is the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter is added. Defined as clarified butter fat with a strong characteristic flavor prepared by heating makkhan , in an open pan, to about 110-120ºC till all the moisture is evaporated and the characteristic flavor develops. Can be compared to butter oil. Butter oil is the western counterpart of ghee. Characteristics Requirements Cow Buffalo Milk fat 99 to 99.5 per cent Moisture Not more than 0.5 per cent Unsaponifiable matter Carotene ( m g/g.) 3.2-7.4 - Vit.A (I.U./g) 19-34 17-38 Tocopherol ( m g/g.) 26-48 18-37 Free fatty acids (% oleic) Max. 2.8 ( agmark ) Charred casein, salts of copper and iron, etc., Traces

3. Physico -chemical constants Some important analytical constants/standards of mixed ghee produced under standard conditions are: Melting and solidifying points - MP varies from 28ºC to 44ºC, while the solidifying point varies from 28ºC to 15ºC. (As ghee fat is of a mixture of glycerides, it does not have a sharp melting or solidifying point). Specific gravity - varies from 0.93 – 0.94. Refractive index - The Butyro -Refractometer (B.R), reading (at40ºC ) varies from 40-45. Reichert- Meissl (RM) Value/Reichert value - should be normally not less than 28. However, ghee from cottonseed feeding areas, the limit is 20. Polenske value (P.V) - S hould be normally not more than 2 (except for cotton-seed feeding areas, where limit is 1.5) Saponification value - S hould be normally not less than 220. Iodine value - S hould normally vary from 26 to 38.

4. Reichert- Meissl (RM) Value - Scientist named as Reichert Meissl Value introduced this test. He invented that the range of volatile fatty acids should be in  between 26-30 . Therefore to determine the fraud mixing in oil or fat can be determined by this test. If the value of this test is less than 26, this indicates the adulteration in ghee. Polenske value (P.V)- It is measure of  the steam volatile and water insoluble fatty acids, chiefly caprylic, capric and lauric acids, present in oil and fat . N amed after the chemist who developed it, Eduard Polenske .  Saponification value - Saponification value or saponification number (SV or SN) represents the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) required to saponify one gram of fat under the conditions specified Iodine value - The iodine value (IV)  indicates the degree of unsaturation of a fat or oil . It is defined as the number of grams of iodine absorbed by 100 g of fat

5. Method of Preparation Country/Desi method Creamery butter method Pre-stratification method Direct cream method Continuous method Desi Method Fresh or accumulated over a few days, makkhan (butter) is taken in a suitable open mud-pot or metallic vessel, and heated and stirred on a low fire to drive out the moisture. When all moisture is removed, a stage judged by experience, further heating is stopped and the vessel is removed from the fire. On cooling, when the residue has settled down, the clear fat is decanted into suitable containers. More than 90% of ghee is produced by the traditional method from desi butter or makkhan Merits - Desirable flavour , body and texture Demerits - S mall scale in operation, problems in collecting and marketing , Low keeping quality and vitamin content.

6. Creamery butter method Standard method, where unsalted butter is heated in a ghee boiler consisting of a steel jacketed pan with a stirrer, with steam supply and control valves. After complete melting, the steam pressure is raised to bring the liquid mass to boil at a temperature of 90ºC with constantly agitation The scum, gathering on the top is periodically removed, until there is profuse effervescence, followed by crackling sound, initially. When all the moisture have been driven out, the temperature of the liquid shoots up suddenly and end point is indicated by the appearance of effervescence for the second time together with browning of the curd particles. At this stage, characteristic ghee flavor emanates and the temperature now will be around 110-120ºC . Heating is stopped, and after cooling and sedimentation, the ghee is filtered through a muslin cloth and goes for granulation and packaging. Merits - Saving in labour , physical exertion and exposure to uncomfortably high temperatures and humidity during desi ghee making compared to the direct-cream heating method.

7. Pre-stratification method W hen butter is left undisturbed 80-85ºCfor 15 to 30 minutes, it stratifies, i.e., separates into 3 distinct layers, viz., a top layer of floating denatured particles of curd, a middle layer of fat, and a bottom layer of buttermilk. This separation is called pre-stratification. B ottom layer of buttermilk contains 60-70% of SNF and also over 80% of the moisture present in butter , it is removed mechanically without disturbing the top and middle layers. Afterwards, the temperature of the remaining two upper layers (of denatured curd and fat) is raised to the usual clarifying temperature of 110-120ºC. Merits - Economy in fuel consumption as compared to direct clarification , Production of ghee with lower acidity and longer shelf life. Direct-cream method Cream is heated in the same ghee boiler described for the creamery-butter method and the procedure for heating and moisture removal Merits - Over all economy in labor compared to the creamery method Demerits- Low fat recovery, Slightly greasy texture of ghee

8. Continuous method Advantages Large scale handling Utilization of machines for a large number of operations Uniform demand on services High fat recovery Possibility of in-place-cleaning (IPC) No stirring, no scrapping and no laborious effort on the part of the ghee operators required. Final temperature of clarification The final temperature of clarification depends upon the region of the country which is normally 110ºC in north India and 120ºC in south India. Cooling and granulation (crystallization) Granularity in ghee is considered as an important criterion of quality and even purity, it is assumed primarily to certain content of glycerides of high-melting saturated fatty acids, esp. palmitic and stearic acid. B uffalo ghee, being more saturated, crystallizes more effectively than cow ghee. Cold storage of ghee should be avoided, as it leads to a loss of granularity and the product becomes waxy on storage.

9. H eating ghee to 60-100ºC, followed by rapid cooling, yields small grains in ghee; however, if the ghee is held for crystallization at a temperature about 1ºC above the melting point of ghee (cow ghee–29ºC; buffalo–31ºC), a large number of big grains result. Renovation of Ghee - M arket practice of attempting to improve the old and rancid ghee, so as to make it marketable as a product of secondary quality. Some methods for the renovation of ghee are- Re-heating inferior ghee with curd, betel leaves, etc., and subsequently filtering it; Adding a yellow substance, such saffron, annatto, turmeric juice, etc. to make it as cow ghee Blending an inferior ghee with a superior quality product. Neutralizing high-acid ghee G hee develops large quantities of free fatty acid (oleic) because of faulty preparation methods or storage which is tackled by neutralization. Neutralizer used is sodium hydroxide, and lime. Lime is more preferable than sodium hydroxide. H igh acid ghee is heated to 60-70ºC, lime powdered to 60 mesh size is sprinkled on the surface @ 3 % of ghee. The temperature is quickly raised to108ºC with gentle stirring and mass is cooled and filtered at 60ºC.

10. Antioxidants Lipid oxidation is a chain reaction involving initiation, propagation and termination stages. U nsaturated fatty acids are oxidized to form odorless, tasteless hydro peroxides, which further degrade to yield carbonyls and other compounds, which give out the characteristic dis agreeable oxidized flavour . F actors affecting oxidation- oxygen concentration, light intensity, contact with metals etc., Anti-oxidants are substances used to inhibit the progress of lipid oxidation, and may be either natural (e.g., Tocopherols, carotene,) or synthetic substances(Butylated hydroxy anisole, Butylated hydroxy toluene, Hydroquinone, gallic acid esters etc.,) Metal-chelating agents, such as citric acid and phosphoric acid, EDTA act in conjunction with anti-oxidants and inhibit fat oxidation. Keeping quality of Ghee can be extended by the addition of antioxidants. Under the PFA Rules (1976), BHA not exceeding 0.02% can be added. B etel leaves and curry leaves are added while ghee making at 1% level, which gives good flavour to and also acts as antioxidant.

11. The AGMARK ghee-grading scheme AG for “agricultural” and MARK for ‘marketing ’ is the exclusive property of the Govt. of India and not a private trademark. The Agmark grading or certifications is for agricultural, livestock and horticultural commodities. The Indian legislature passed the agricultural produce (grading and marketing) act 1937, which provides for the grading of ghee on a voluntary basis . The Agmark grading objectives. To assure the consumer a produce of pre-tested quality and purity. To enable manufacturers of a high-grade product to obtain better returns. To develop an orderly marketing of the commodities by eliminating malpractices when transferring them from the producer to the consumer. The ‘Agmark’ standards of ghee are same throughout the country. Under Agmark, ghee is graded into three categories namely- ‘ Special’ (Agmark Red Label) ‘General’ (Green Label) ‘Standard’.

12. Uses of Ghee- cooking or frying medium, In confectionery , For direct consumption , indigenous pharmaceutical preparations (mainly cow ghee) Ghee residue Charred light to dark brown residue which is obtained on the cloth strainer after the ghee is filtered. B y-product of the ghee industry. C ontains heat-denatured milk-proteins, caramelized lactose and varying proportions of entrapped fat, minerals and water. AGMARK standards of ghee

13. Name of the defect Causes Prevention Flavour Smoky Smoky fire used for boiling milk or converting makkhan into ghee in desi method. Using non smoky fire for boiling milk or converting makkhan in to ghee in desi method Overcooked /burnt Excessive high temperature of clarification of ghee Optimum temperature of clarification of ghee Undercooked Excessive low temperature of clarification Optimum temperature of clarification of ghee. Rancid Fat hydrolysis due to lipase action in milk / cream / curd / butter/ kachcha ghee. Inactivation of lipase by proper pasteurization heating of milk cream etc., Using optimum clarification Packaging  in small containers for retail sale. Oxidized/oily/Metallic Fat oxidation due to direct contact of milk curd/cream/butter/ghee with copper or iron exposure of this product to sunlight etc. Storage of milk  curd / scream / butter / ghee in properly tinned or aluminum alloy /stainless steel vessels. Filling ghee up to the brim/to avoid any head space air Avoiding storage of ghee at high temperature Avoiding use salted butter from ghee making avoiding long storage of ghee Storage of ghee in opaque containers. Defects in ghee

14. Name of the defect Causes Prevention Texture Greasy Rapid cooling of hot ghee after clarification. Subjecting ghee to further heating and cooling treatments after preparation. Slow cooling of hot ghee after clarification Avoiding further heating and cooling of ghee after preparation. Colour Burnt Excessively high temperature of clarification of ghee. Optimum temperature of clarification of ghee. Sediment High Incorrect straining of ghee Correct straining of ghee. Burnt Excessively high temperature of clarification of ghee. Optimum temperature of clarification. Type of Residue Chemical composition Ave.Yield (kg) (per 100 Kg) Butter / Cream (kg) Water Fat Protein Lactose Ash From Desi Butter Cow Buffalo 14.4 32.4 36 12 5.2 1.6 13.4 33.4 32.8 15.4 5.2 1.6