Historiography of the philippines

Historiography of the Philippines refers to the studies, sources, critical methods and interpretations used by
scholars to study the history of the Philippines. The Philippine archipelago has been part of many empires before
the Spanish empire has arrived in the 16th century.
The pre-colonial Philippines uses the Abugida writing system that has been widely used in writing and seals on
documents though it was for communication and no recorded writings of early literature or history
[9]
Ancient
Filipinos usually write documents on bamboo, bark, and leaves which did not survive unlike inscriptions on clays,
metals, and ivories did like the Laguna Copperplate Inscription and Butuan Ivory Seal. The discovery of
the Butuan Ivory Seal also proves the use of paper documents in ancient Philippines.
The arrival of the Spanish colonizers, pre-colonial Filipino manuscripts and documents were gathered and
burned to eliminate pagan beliefs. This has been the burden of historians in the accumulation of data and the
development of theories that gave historians many aspects of Philippine history that were left
unexplained.
[10]
The interplay of pre-colonial events, the use of secondary sources written by historians to
evaluate the primary sources, do not provide a critical examination of the methodology of the early Philippine
historical study.
[11]

Government agency[edit]
Main article: National Historical Commission of the Philippines
The National Historical Commission of the Philippines is a government agency of the Philippines whose mission
is "the promotion of Philippine history and cultural heritage through research, dissemination, conservation, sites
management and heraldry works and aims to inculcate awareness and appreciation of the noble deeds and
ideals of our heroes and other illustrious Filipinos, to instill pride in the Filipino people and to rekindle the Filipino
spirit through the lessons of history.
Professional association[edit]
Main article: Philippine Historical Association
The Philippine Historical Association is the largest professional association of historians in the Philippines
founded in 1955 by a group of prominent Filipino historians which includes Encarnacion Alzona, Gabriel
Fabella, Gregorio Zaide, Nicolas Zafra, Celedonio Resurreccion, Teodoro Agoncillo and Esteban de Ocampo.
Non-governmental organization[edit]
The Philippine Association for the Study of Culture, History and Religion is a Non-governmental
organization founded in 2013. This group initiates, facilitates, and organizes conferences and other academic
events. They disseminate information on scholarship and research opportunities and publication of journals,
books, and newsletters in the national and international communities to increase awareness about Philippine
culture, history, and religion.
Pre colonial period[edit]

Laguna Copperplate Inscription

Butuan Ivory Seal

Monreal stone

Pre-colonial Filipino noble couple
Indian culture has long reached the archipelago during the period of Pallava dynasty and the Gupta Empire that
led to the Indianized kingdoms established in the Philippines.
[12][13]
A clear evidence is the use of pre-colonial
Philippines use of honorific titles. No other significant historical documents from this period except for Laguna
Copperplate Inscription, a legal document inscribed on a copper plate dated 900 CE which is the earliest known
calendar dated document found in the Philippines.
[14][15]

Ma-i, an ancient sovereign state located in what is now the Philippines is notable in the history of the Philippines
for being the first place in the archipelago ever to be mentioned in any foreign account which was first
documented in 971 AD, in the Song dynasty documents known as the History of Song.
[16][17][18]
Its existence was
also mentioned in the 10th-century records of the Sultanate of Brunei.
[19]

Until the year 1000 CE, maritime societies exists in the archipelago but there was no significant political state
unifying the entire Philippines.
[20]
The region included only numerous small administrative divisions (ranging in
size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled
by datus, rajahs, sultans or lakans.
[21]

Colonial period[edit]
Main article: Historiography of early Philippine settlements § Early Chroniclers
The first recorded document that mentions the archipelago was Antonio Pigafetta's chronicle Report of the first
trip around the world on his narrative record of the journey of a Spanish expedition in search of the Spice Islands
published sometimes between 1524-1525.
[22]

Another notable document was Antonio de Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas published in 1609 based on
the author's personal experience and documentations from eye-witnesses of the survivors of Miguel López de
Legazpi's expedition.
Documents published are chronicles by the early Spanish explorers and navigators and religious records of
Spanish friars of their Catholic mission during the Spanish colonial period.
[23]

Early chroniclers[edit]

Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas

Boxer Codex Illustrations of tattooed Cebuanos
 Antonio Pigafetta
 Rodrigo de Aganduru Moriz
 Hernando de Riquel
 Miguel López de Legazpi
 Juan de Plasencia
 Pedro de San Buenaventura
 Pedro Chirino
Colonial Era Historians[edit]
 Antonio de Morga
 Emma Helen Blair and James A. Robertson
 Francisco Ignacio Alcina
 Francisco Colin, S.J.
 Felix Huerta, O.F.M
 Ferdinand Blumentritt
 Isabelo de los Reyes
 Jose Rizal
 Pedro Paterno
 Trinidad Pardo de Tavera

Post colonial period[edit]
The historiography of the post-colonial period focused on the Philippine revolutions and the Philippine–American
War as historians saw the colonial era as a prelude. The critical role played by the Filipinos in shaping the
Philippine national history in this period is well highlighted and analyzed based on the accounts on the revolution
and the Philippine–American War as it describes the social, economic, political, and cultural conditions of the
Philippines.
[24]

Historian Reynaldo C. Ileto in his seminal work on Pasyon and Revolution: Popular Movements in the
Philippines, 1840-1910, the historiography of the Philippine Revolution was explored in a new meaning.
Historian Vicente L. Rafael introduced poststructuralist theories in the analysis of the colonial society on
his Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish
Rule.
[25]

Main article: Historiography of early Philippine settlements § Key figures in the Historiography of early Philippine
settlements
Writers and Historians from the Nationalist History tradition[edit]
 Teodoro Agoncillo
 Horacio de la Costa
 Gregorio Zaide
 O.D. Corpuz
 Cesar Adib Majul
 Nick Joaquin
Historians from the Critical Historiography tradition[edit]
 Carlos Quirino
 F. Landa Jocano
 Felix M. Keesing
 William Henry Scott
 Laura Lee Junker
 Damon L. Woods
Writers from the Folkloristics tradition[edit]
 Damiana Eugenio
 Gilda Cordero-Fernando
 Grace Odal-Devora
Historians and Writers from the Postmodern, Local/Ethnic History, and
Religious History traditions[edit]
 Ambeth Ocampo
 Bambi Harper
 Melba Padilla Maggay
 Vicente L. Rafael
 Go Bon Juan
 Luciano P.R. Santiago
 Luis Camara Dery

PHILIPPINE HISTORIOGRAPHY: ISSUES AND TRENDS
Conclusion
The Philippine history is composed of happenings that is very essential on molding the present day
and the future. In Philippine historiography, colonialism is the policy of nation seeking to extend or retain
its authority over other people or territories generally with the aim of economic dominance, through invasion
it is the way to make their country powerful before to extend and expand their authority before. Until now, we
have been experienced the invasion although it is not even in the way of war but in economy. Understanding

the Philippine history can be a bit tricky for most Filipinos because there are so many historians who made
different records of the past events in our country. Each one of them have their own perspective on how they
are going to interpret the meaning of history. Some of them said that history is about people achievements,
some said that history is the process of dealing with the past. As defined by Elizabeth Medina, history is not
just the past but also and principally the present and the future. I believed that history is inescapable, it studies
the past and the legacies of the past in the present.
Also, in our country, the dominance of colonial discourse has challenged the Filipino historians to
write the history of the Philippines using a discourse that will privilege the Filipinos. The study
of history became possible for with the development of writing. Before, writing is a form of art and it is where
historians express their knowledge. The different insights of writers about history helped people to
know more about it. Historians continued to use traditions as one of the sources of history.
Oral tradition helps the historian to determine historical trends and events. Through the comparison of
several oral traditions, the historian can eliminate biases, inconsistencies or inaccuracies in the written
records they are using, to come out with an accurate historical account of the past.
The arrival in Philippine waters of Ferdinand Magellan on 17 March 1521 is traditionally dated as the
beginning of the Spanish period. Back then, the writings of the early friars were basically missionary history.
A missionary is a member of a religious group sent into an area to promote their faith or perform ministries
of service, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development. The accounts
of Spanish friars were focused on the Spanish history of the Philippines, especially their missionary
experience in the country. Some of the friars from this period made a great contribution in the
development of Philippine historiography.
The existing literature of the Philippine ethnic groups at the time of conquest and
conversion into Christianity was mainly oral, consisting of epics, legends, songs, riddles, and proverbs. The
conquistador, especially its ecclesiastical arm, destroyed whatever written literature he could find,
and hence rendered the system of writing inoperable. Among the only native systems of writing that have
survived are the syllabaries of the Mindoro Mangyans and the Tagbanwa of Palawan. The Spanish
colonial strategy was to undermine the native oral tradition by substituting for it the story of the Passion
of Christ. Although Christ was by no means war-like or sexually attractive as many of the heroes of the oral
epic tradition, the appeal of the Jesus myth inhered in the protagonist’s superior magic: by promising eternal
life for
everyone, he democratized the power to rise above death. It is to be emphasized, however, that the native
tradition survived and even flourished in areas inaccessible to the colonial power. Moreover, the tardiness
and the lack of assiduity of the colonial administration in making a public educational system work meant the
survival of oral tradition, or what was left of it, among the conquered tribes.

Some of the pride of the Filipino history is that the figure of Rizal dominates Philippine literature until
the present day, liberalism led to education of the native and the ascendancy of Spanish, but Spanish was
undermined by the very ideas of liberation that it helped spread, and its decline led to nativism and a
renaissance of literature in the native languages, the turn of the century witnessed not only the Philippine
revolution but a quieter though no less significant outbreak, the educated women of the period produced
significant poetry. Gregoria de Jesus, wife of Andres Bonifacio, wrote notable Tagalog poetry. Meanwhile, in
Vigan of the Ilocano North, Leona Florentino, by her poetry, became the foremost Ilocano writer of her time.

Philippine literary production during the American Period in the Philippines was spurred by two
significant developments in education and culture. One is the introduction of free public instruction for all
children of school age and two, the use of English as medium of instruction in all levels of education in public
schools. Free public education made knowledge and information accessible to a greater number of Filipinos.
Those who availed of this education through college were able to improve their social status and joined a
good number of educated masses who became part of the country’s middle class. The use of
English as medium of instruction introduced Filipinos to Anglo-American modes of thought, culture and
life ways that would be embedded not only in the literature produced but also in the psyche of the country’s
educated class. The writing of history during this period are better compared to the writings of Spanish period.

After ten years of military rule and some changes in the life of the Filipino which started under the
New Society, Martial Rule was at last lifted on January 2, 1981.To those in government, the
lifting of military rule heralded a change. To their perceptions, the Philippines became a new nation and this;
former President Marcos called “The New Republic of the Philippines.” A historian called this the Third
Republic. The First Republic he claimed was during the Philippine Republic of Emilio Aguinaldo when we first
got our independence form the Spaniards on June 12, 1898. The Second was when the Americans granted
us our independence on July 4, 1946. This period, January 2, 1981, was the Third Republic when we were
freed from Military Rule. During this period, it cannot be denied that many people seethed with rebellion and
protest because of the continued oppression and suppression.

Historical writing is very important for a person, a group or race and a country. These writings are the
means to understand our past. Our past is very important for us because without are past, we would not be
what we are right now. Our identification, beliefs, religions and our ideologies today are because of our past.
So, historical writings are very essential and must solely base on facts. With this, people can participate
first-hand in the historical research process, interpreting the findings to add new perspectives to an
existing area of study or to answer a question about the past.

History[edit | edit source]
The Philippine Islands were discovered by Magellen in 1521, and claimed by Spain. The first
successful settlements were made in 1565. Although the Spanish rulers did not generally mix with
the local populace, the Spanish language, religion and customs were imposed on the Filipinos. The
original peoples were largely Malay and Indonesian tribes, Negritos The earliest inhabitants were
Negritos, sometimes called Pygmies and mainly Chinese merchants.
The influence of Muslim traders and teachers was felt in the Philippines as early as the 11th century.
By the 14th century many Filipinos in the southern areas had been converted to Islam. They were
called Moros by the Spanish. The Spanish were not able to fully contain the Moros until the latter
half of the 19th century. In the early period the colony was quite isolated from Spain, which led to
near autonomy by the colonial leaders. The population was converted to Roman Catholicism, and a
strong centralized government with considerable clerical influence developed. Filipino groups
Tagalog, Visayan, Bikol, Ilokano, Igorot, Ifugao, Tinggian, Bukidnon, Bagobo, still maintained their
identity and languages, but Spanish was introduced throughout the country. Trade restrictions were
eased in the 19th century creating a wave of prosperity. Chinese immigration increased dramatically
during this period as did Spanish emigration from the newly independent countries of Latin America.
Filipino desire for independence led to numerous uprisings. The most important of these began in
1896 and continued until the United States defeated Spain in 1898 in the Spanish-American War.
Independence was declared at that time, but the terms of the treaty of Paris in 1898 ceded the
Islands to the United States. The War of Resistance from 1899 to 1902 against U.S. rule is now
referred to by many Filipinos as the Philippine-American War.
Although the insurrection was crushed by the United States, the U.S. declared that its administration
was temporary, and had as its goal the development of a free and democratic government. Public
education, sound legal systems, and a bicameral legislature were implemented and civil service was
gradually taken over by Filipinos. The English language was used in official documents during this
time period and in 1935 a ten year transition period was established, and although interrupted by
World War II, when the Philippines was taken over by Japan in 1942 to 1944, the United States and
the Philippines decided to move forward with plans for independence. The country suffered great
damage and complete organizational breakdown during the war in which over a million Filipinos lost
their lives. On July 4, 1946 the Philippine Islands became the independent Republic of the
Philippines.
[1]
Timeline[edit | edit source]
1521 - The Philippines are discovered by Europe
1571 - Regular trade was established between the Spaniards and the Chinese
1762 - The early Spanish colonization period
1762 - The later period of Spanish rule

1756 - 1763 The 1898 Seven Years’ War
1820 - Social and economic changes as the Port 72 of Manila opened to foreign commerce
1868 - Spanish Revolution when Queen Isabella II deposed
1898 - Spanish-American War
1898 - Declaration of Philippine independence from Spaniards
1899 - 1935 First phase of American rule
1934 - First constitution. 1941 - The Japanese occupied the Philippines
1946 - The Philippines became a republic
Historical Periods[edit | edit source]
There are reliable records for four main periods of Philippine history:
 Spanish rule (1521–1898)
 American rule (1898–1946)
 Japanese occupation (1941–1946)
 Philippine self rule (1946–present)

Local Histories[edit | edit source]
Local histories are some of the most valuable resources for family history research. Published
histories of municipalities, cities, and provinces usually have accounts of families. They describe the
settlement of the area and the founding of churches, schools, and businesses. You can also find lists
of early inhabitants, soldiers, patriots, and civil officials in these records. Even if your ancestor is
not listed, information on other relatives may give important clues for locating him or her. A local
history may also help a person think of other records to search.
Many histories of cities and provinces have sections or volumes of biographical information. These
may give information on up to 25 percent of the families in the area.
In addition, study and enjoy local histories for the background information about your family’s
lifestyle, community, and living environment.
In 1952 the Bureau of Public Schools began collecting and compiling local histories, legends,
customs, traditions, and even songs and poems. Local schoolteachers led this work and although
much of the information is undocumented and secondary, you can gather much information from
these sources. These records are in the Philippine National Library’s Filipiniana collection and in
libraries throughout the Philippines.
Local history research
1. 1. Local History Research Its importance to national history 
2. 2. Before there was national history There was local history National histories actually
sprouted from contributions from local history Local history should follow a common or a national
pattern 
3. 3. Local history is history in the local context The study of local history provides the foundation and
the substance of true national history It is more than the study of towns, provinces and regions of the
Philippines and the people who live there It provies us with the documentation and analysis of the
broad processes which are important to the life of the people Local history enriches our
understanding of our national history 
4. 4. Local history along with oral history are basic to autonomy Autonomy implies an exercise of
freedom with limited control or influence from the national government It provides more room for
local initiatives to develop and for local potentials to progress More importantly it encourages
creative and innovative responses to development with people with special talents and potentials 
5. 5. History is defined as an organized record of a meaningful past It is actually a reservoir of local data
and memories of events, realties, and things that provide the essences of local life From this
inexhaustible reservoir people can draw patriotic strength in times of crisis, inspiration in moments of
despair and directions in times of ambiguity and dilemma. 
6. 6. Local history provides the vital task of putting the meaningful essence of community in space and time Here we can see community life in the context orf social perspective The Philippines has a strong
and varied source of local history because it has 16 regions, 78 provinces, 1,537 municipalities, 69 cities,
41,925 barangaysand over a hundred ethnolinguistic groups

7. 7. Local and oral history are fundamental to national interests By their very nature both help unite
the nation as an example of unity in diversity National history seeks to bring together all diverse
groups National interest by reason of national purpose and will should represent the various
localities, sectors, and ethnic groups from Batanes to Tawi-Tawi, regardless of creed, origin, race and
gender 
8. 8. Colonial historiography This includes the Hispano-American historiographical tradition we have
preserved in our national historiography The difference of Hispanic historiography is that it is
autocratic and prescriptive while the American is liberal and democratic Filipino historiography
incorporates both approaches to national history 
9. 9. Nationalist Historiography Nationalist historiography aims to decolonize the old views which is the
task of the Filipino historian Local history is an important tool of decolonization It must derive
substance and sustenance from local history data before it can establish generalizations In short
national history without local history is shallow just as local history without national interest is parochial
and divisive. 
10. 10. Framework A framework is a theoretical and practical direction It teaches the historian to
guide the organization of data as well as the analysis although local histories are usually nondescript
presentations from A to Z While this type is useful it is necessary to develop and promote a coherent,
cogent and methodologically-determined construction of historical construction and if possibly an
artistically crafted proficiency of language and appropriateness of illustrations 
11. 11. Historical frameworks may vary from one local history to another It begins with an assumption
based on a broad survey of representative literature. In the end all data should provide the basis for
either supporting the tentative assumption or modifying and even altogether changing the framework. This may result in months of gathering deata and analysis Without this validation by a
preponderance of sources framework becomes a speculative and imaginative creation of mind usually taken
from personal biases and extraneous impositions 
12. 12. History without sources is unthinkable but not all historical works with sources are commendable This brings to the question on what sources to use and how to use them for historical construction 
13. 13. Historical sources may be generally divided into Written source such as reports, correspondences,
speeches, memorials, petitions and any printed matter available Oral historical sources gathered from
interviews which represent the main focus of oral history as a methodology Cultural sources which
are preserved evidences of human culture including archaeological artifacts as far back in time as
possible 
14. 14. By the very nature of the sources they are classified into: Primary accounts such as eyewitness
accounts Secondary accounts which include accounts by individuals with some valid information
from eyewitnesses 
15. 15. The organization and analysis of data This require either familiarity of the historian with the inter
or multi disciplinary methodologies or lacking in this, with access to disciplinary specialists concerned. 
16. 16. Methodology of Local History Interest in local history can be traced to four factors” Firstly
the perception of a Manila-centric research created a need to look beyond the metropolis. This type of
research tends to point to a national and political history National history reveals gaps and omissions
which can only be revealed through local history research 
17. 17. The effect of the fall of a monolith such as the Marcos dictatorship in 1986 triggered interest in local
history Elements of monoliths such as state-censorship and state-sponsored writing of an official
history and the suppression of counter thoughts prevented the emergence of “other views” With the
end of monoliths historians can now have more freedom and exercise cultural creativity including historical
research 
18. 18. Governments following the collapse of the monoliths actually encourage local research The
Philippine government actually encourages this through its agencies such as the National Commission for
Culture and the Arts which fund local history research Events such as the centennial of the
declaration of Philippine independence provided impetus. Instead of reliving national events there
are efforts to research the effect of national events in local situations 
19. 19. Even without assistance from Manila some local entities have started to assert themselves These
consist of individuals and organizations which have taken up the task of researching and writing local
history in the firm belief that the stories of the people must be heard now as a way of preserving local
heritage Many of them have not gained academic or local recognition but they have kept historical
research and writing alive 
20. 20. Local history actually has a long traditions in the country These take form ikn souvenir programs
by countless town fiestas and similar community celebrations Other forms of local histories are
features articles in local and national newspapers which contain stories about events in towns and cities

21. 21. However to be important local history must have these qualities: It must be an original work not a
recycling or rehashed work that has been written countless of times. It should present new information or at
least a new perspective, insight or interpretation It must deal with a subject of historical value. Note
everything which happened in the past is worth researching. History is an academic discipline in which we
look back where we came from, how things changed and what particular path we have taken for what
persons and why we are where we are now 
22. 22. Thirdly basic academic requirements must be met A good research must have good grammar Clarity of presentation or narrative proper attrributes through a bibiliography with footnotes and
end notes Any historical work that does not cite its sources is not credible because it cannot be cross-
verified. 
23. 23. The history of a region or a province can be best researched by the people of the locality themselves It is a source of pride for the local historians to have people of their own culture write about their ethnic
group, their hometown or home province. Local historians will have the authority to express their
own values and perceptions specific to his group or province. The local historian will have easy access
to local primary sources. He will have the advantage of knowing the vernacular or the local language
in using local sources especially oral histories. Local historians serve as interpreters to the larger
world and can conversely interpret the larger world to the local community 
24. 24. Prerequisites of local history research The local historian needs to have some preparation before
writing a historical account He/she must have a good grasp of the national history of the Philippines.
This does not mean the memorization of obscure or irrelevant trivia but a familiarity with the general
developments and trends of national significance. Examples are the nature of colonialism, the process of
nation-building, the building of anti-colonial sentiment and the impact of global trade on local economies The understanding of national history enables the local historian to place in a larger context the local
developments To achieve this one may use as reference national history textbooks such as History of
the Filipino People by T.A. Agoncillo, S.K. Tan’s A History of the Philippines and R. Constantino’s The
Philippines A Past Revisited as well as other textbooks like G.F. Zaide, E. Alip and A. Molina 
25. 25. A local historian must be familiar with the historical literature of his region These helps you from
duplicating earlier research They help you find leads in your own research These materials
are useful in learning activities and make lectures and class presentations relevant 
26. 26. Previous works may provide a guide in writing W.H. Scott’s Cracks in the Parchment Curtain and
Documentary Sources for the Study of the Prehistory of the Philippines- provide an excellent data as well as
theoretical framework Compilation of articles by Alfred McCoy and Ed de Jesus in Philippine Social
History: Global Trade and Local Transformation, etc. 
27. 27. Sources of data: Primary and Secondary sources Which is more important: facts or analysis? The quick answer was analysis but one must remember there cannot be analysis with out facts Historical sources can be obtained from primary and secondary sources Primary sources are those
written and oral are eyewitness or contemporaneous sources or observers in a particular historical era Secondary sources are based on primary sources the latter carry greater weight on the accuracy of
facts 
28. 28. Reliable sources of primary sources The Philippine Islands by James Alexander Robertson and
Emma Helen Blair which is a collection of documents and eyewitness accounts from the 15th to the 19th
centuries. Friar accounts – works by Ignacio Alcina, Pedro Chirino, Aduarte, Malumbres,
Plascencia Traveller accounts – writings by John Foreman, Jean Mallat, Feodor Jagor, Unpublished primary sources can be found in the UST archives, the archdiocesan archives of Manila and
other ecclesiastical archives 
29. 29. One must be critical in using these sources There might be racial prejudice and bias which tend to
distort their observations and perceptions 
30. 30. For those who can read Spanish may consult Erecciones de Pueblos – for those studying the
formation of towns Sediciones y Rebelliones - for studying the Philippine Revolution Filipinos
Ilustres – illustrious Filipinos Asuntoscriminales – crimes Bautismos – baptisms Difunciones - deaths Many other sources in the PNA 
31. 31. Other primary sources These include maps, sketches, plans, 
32. 32. Selecting a research topic Get a topic that interests you most; one that attracts your curiosity; one
that is an original topic The topic must have a definite scope and limitation Determine your
access to research resources Be sure that you will finish your research on time; have a schedule or
timetable. Some topics are fairly common such as the history of a barangay, town or province. This
type of research usually highlights the remarkable events in the locality such as the beginning or end of a
period 
33. 33. Other topics maybe biographical Such biographies should include previously unknown
information Another topic would be the story of a site or structure such as a church or even a series of
historical sites. One may research a particular era such as the Philippine Revolution, Peacetime or the
Japanese Occupation One may do an economic history such as the history of the mining sector, the

weaving industry Another area is institutional history such as the history of an academic institution
or a business company 
34. 34. Social movements History of the Pulajanes, the Colorums and other messianic groups Cultural history includes changes in the practices of the communties such as the Tingguianes and the
Apayaos. Women’s histories – now increasingly popular Local primary sources are now
available for all these topics. It is up for the researcher to use his creativity and insight in unearthing
and retrieving data from local sources 
35. 35. Practical Guidelines for data-gathering Use note cards or note paper because papers of a uniform
size are easier to carry, store and organize. Take notes carefully especially of direct quotes, to ensure
accuracy Do not mix two or more topics in one note card. If you come across a new topic start with a
new note card to avoid confusion later. Do not alter data that you encounter just because it runs
against what you believe is the correct information or your projected conclusion. 
36. 36. Always indicate the source of information, such as the title and date of a document, or the bibliographic
data for the printed materials such as books, pamphlets and magazines. Organize your data into
primary and secondary sources or according to major topics or chronologically. Take proper care of
primary materials such as old photographs, manuscripts, or maps. Such materials are extremely rare and are
one-of-a kind and need special handling. There maybe other practical steps which you have found
useful and which work is best for you. 
37. 37. Making an outline Before you begin to write it would be helpful to prepare an outline to serve as
your guide in organizing your data and your narrative. The outline may contain the following: Introduction – this is a short essay on what your topic is all about, its scope and time frame and possibly
what made you choose the topic for your research Chronology – this is optional but useful especially
for complex narratives and would help you identify possible conflicting dates of the events that occurred. 
38. 38. Text – this is the main bulk of your written account. This must be organized and coherent. An outline for
this section is necessary. Analysis – this is your explanation and interpretation of the data that you
have provided and this explains your analytical framework or theory that you employed. Conclusions
and recommendations – these are based on the text and analysis and a summation of your findings. 
39. 39. Appendix and glossary – these are materials which could not be incorporated into the text but would add
to the clarity and depth of your research. Endnotes/footnotes – these are required in academic
research but may not be always applicable Bibliography – this is the listing of sources including books
that were used which could be classified as primary or secondary, published or unpublished, oral or
written 
40. 40. Writing a Historical Account: Perspectives and Concepts Language – first decide on what language
to use. You may choose to write in the vernacular but if you decide to have a wider audience English would
be the best language. Writing in English does not mean a lack of nationalism but is simply a matter of getting
your message heard across a wide spectrum of society. Writing down history is not simply putting
down facts on paper but it should be done through a proper framework or context. Contemporary
historians utilize a nationalist perspective. This is not anti-foreign but it reflects our nationalist
consciousness and sentiment. 
41. 41. What this means is we think and write about our history in a way that is not seen as filtered through the
mentality and perspective of foreign historians Rather we should see ourselves in the following
light: That we are leading actors in the historical events rather than merely acting to the
colonizers As being in the center of our localities instead of just accepting being relegated to the
peripheries of power and culture As people who can also determine their destiny instead of just being
driven willy-nilly by great external historical forces As creators and originators of our own ethnic
identity which is unique and original rather an molding ourselves in imitation of the dominant power’s
culture 
42. 42. Philippine history as taught today is the most colonially-driven disciplines which need
reinterpretation Many terms are derogatory such as infieles, piratas, insurrectos, brujaswhcih were
uncritically accepted Tausug, Tagalog, Pampangos were seen as dialects or tribes but should be
recognized as languages and ethnolinguistic groups instead 
43. 43. Shortcomings of local history writing There maybe difficulty in relating cause and efffect. The
historian should take to account various local and external forces There maybe rigid conformity to
periodization which conforms to national history i.e. Pre-Spanish, Spanish and American periods. Indiscriminate presentation of facts in the belief that all data gathered must not go to waste. There
is too much emphasis on local celebrities and personalities who may appear important but they are not i.e.
Longest-serving mayor or councillor. Tendency of local historians to slant their narrative in favor of
powerful families or portray a national personality in the hope of achieving reflected glory or gaining
patronage and reward from that family. In many instances local historians allow their personal biases
to distort their work by hiding certain unfavorable facts, misrepresenting events and passing off false

information as true which result in the work becoming a propaganda instead of an accurate rendering of the
past 
44. 44. Ethical issues Never plagiarize – always acknowledge and provide citation of your sources. Always
cite in quotation marks every statement and phrase you lifted verbatim from a source. Do not pass off
somebody else’s work as your own – because this will be eventually found out. Plagiarism is an intellectual
theft which discredits the author and a plagiarized work has no value to the scholars 
45. 45. Do not make students and/or subordinates do your research work Nor should you use their
output/data without your permission and without giving them due credit. Doing so constitutes an
abuse of one’s position. 
46. 46. Respect the wishes of your sources When they ask that the information they gave you is off the
record. Publishing and revealing something that an informant wanted to keep confidential will cause harm to
other people. 
47. 47. Always tell your informant that you are using their information in a written account Tell them
about your purpose If you are going to use the information for some other purpose you should also
tell them. 
48. 48. Finally do not conduct your research under false pretenses Just as you do not want to be fooled, so
you should not fool others in dealing with them. Always tell the informants or sources that you are
going to use their material 
49. 49. Conclusions All these points are meant to be guidelines and the historian should know what
works what and what weill not only go through the processes of research and writing All of us need to
realize the urgency of the work of local historians With the beginning of a new millennium it is
imperative that we should do the utmost effort in retrieving oral and documentary sources and data before
they finally disappear If not us, then who? 
50. 50. Oral history is a historical source of a special nature Its special nature lies in the fact that it is an
unwritten source of information which consists of verbal testimonies which are reported statements
involving the past 
51. 51. The Methodology and Practice of Oral History Its Importance to Modern Historiography 
52. 52. What are the types of verbal testimonies? Oral tradition – this comes from a collective
consciousness of a people These come in the form of epics, tales, genealogies and legends Though not suited for historical analysis oral tradition can be used as traditional material 
53. 53. Eyewitness account Eyewitness accounts are given by people who are actually in the place of a
historical event or were actually its participants. Eyewitness accounts do not fall into the realm of oral
tradition hearsay does not qualify as eyewitness account because the event was not witnessed by the
narrator and remembered by the informant himself 
54. 54. What about rumor? A rumor is a verbal account which does not always concern the present. It is transmitted from one person to another It becomes useful as a historical source if it is
corroborated by other sources, otherwise it should be dismissed as an uncorroborated hearsay. 
55. 55. Oral history is not a discipline of history It is only a methodology of history in which first-hand
historical events are recounted by the eyewitness through the intervention of a historian 
56. 56. The main technique of oral history is the interview This technique goes as far back as ancient time
including that of Homer and Herodotus who used the technique in their practice of historical discourse. However the popular use of oral history as a methodology is relatively new even among professional
historians. Filipino historians like T.A. Agoncillo and Isabelo de los Reyes used oral history in
obtaining historical information 
57. 57. Recently historical bodies have engaged in oral history The best example was created by Dr.
MarcelinoForonda of De la Salle University who organized students to conduct interviews of important
personalities starting from the 70s. Where written documents are lacking oral history maybe used as
long as this is corroborated by other sources 
58. 58. Being a “talking people” Filipinos are full of oral histories Oral history also gives the power to the
marginalized people who have no access to writing or could not write or those who have no time to write
history, their views of the past 
59. 59. The practice of oral history Definition of terms: An eyewitness account is the sum of the
testimonies made by an informant concerning a single series of events or a single event The
informant - is a person or group of person who gives an account of a referent or that of which the account is
given – the thing observed. The informant is the one who transmits the information and he plays an
important role in the process of oral history. 
60. 60. Things to see: The credibility and the reliability of the informant – one important task of the
researcher is to determine the reliability of the eyewitness account. Oral history helps fill the gaps in
written history. One should not use it as a justification to use uncorroborated accounts 
61. 61. How reliable is the informant? How involved was he in the event? Is he capable of lying or
fond of telling untrue things? Is he suffering from memory lapses? Will he have ulterior

motives or capable of having ulterior motives? Is he fearful of legal complications? Care must
be taken in evaluating the materials being used. 
62. 62. Louis Gottchalk in understanding history says: Is the source able to tell the truth? Is the
primary witness willing to tell the truth? Is the primary witness accurately reported with regard to
the detail under examination? Is there any independent corroboration of the detail under
examination? 
63. 63. William Moss in Oral History Program Manual says: “If the interviewee is committed to the
purpose of the interview, if he is also by nature a candid and reflective person, and if he is also articulate and
expansive in the exposition of his memories then the artifacts maybe plentiful and significant” 
64. 64. Get to know the environment The researcher must know the language and culture If the
interviewer is not adept in these elements then the information obtained by him maybe unintelligible. The interviewer must make a careful study of the cultural system of the interviewee otherwise he would
not be able to obtain the information he truly needed. 
65. 65. The search for informants Not everyone is capable of supplying the information he needed The informants must have the following: Conversant with the information required Their
status must equip them with the certain necessary information Their reputation is not tainted by
dishonesty 
66. 66. Collection of sources The collection must be systematic He must be interesting in finding as
much information as much as possible. Complete collection of information would increase the chance
of an accurate reconstruction In research one must devise what is the practicable way of obtaining
information given the time and financial means 
67. 67. Recording of sources The researcher must dispel the tension between himself and the
informant Failure to do this results in an incomplete testimony Make sure that the informant is
at ease. The researcher should acquaint himself with the informant either with him or through a third
party Make sure that he is not afraid or overconfident The researcher must be observant that
the informant does not distort his information or make the informant say things that he wanted to hear The informant must not know that the researcher is interested in his information otherwise the risk of
distortion becomes great 
68. 68. The Interview Technique: According to Willa Baums in Oral History for Local Historical Society
“Tips” Always begin with preliminaries Ask the informant his name, age, occupation especially
if it has something to do with the topic 
69. 69. Types of Interviews Interviews can be structured or unstructured Structured interviews
require preparing a set of questions to be answered by the informant Therefore it is best to prepare
questions on notecards Unstructured interviews are more freewheeling interviews in which the
informant can talk freely and free from time constraints 
70. 70. The interview is NOT a dialogue – the whole purpose is to get the informant to tell his or her
story. The interviewer must therefore limit his remarks to a few pleasantries to break the ice. Then ask
questions to guide him along 
71. 71. The interviewer must ask questions that require more than “yes” or “no” answers Start with
questions with how, where, what, or what kind 
72. 72. The interviewer should ask one question at a time Interviewers who ask multiple questions while
informants will only answer the first question or the last one Multiple questions will confuse the
inf0rmant and deliver confused answers 
73. 73. Ask brief questions It is unlikely that the informant is so dull that it takes more than a sentence or
two for him to understand the question 
74. 74. Begin with non-controversial questions Save the delicate questions if there are any until you have
become sufficiently acquainted with your informant Avoid ambiguous questions. These results in
vague answers You may repeat the questions to verify the answers. 
75. 75. Do not interrupt a good story Especially when you forgot a good question or because your
informant is straying from the planned outline. If this happens try to pull him back as gently and as
quickly as possible. 
76. 76. It is often hard for an informant to describe persons Begin by asking him how to describe a
person’s appearance. From there the informant is more likely to move into character description 
77. 77. Try to establish every important point in the story on the role of the informant It is important to
indicate his role in the event in order to indicate how much is eyewitness information and how much is
based on the reports of others 
78. 78. Do not challenge accounts which you may think that is inaccurate Your informant may be telling
you quite accurately what he saw rather than what you think. Tactfully point out to the informant that
there is a different account what he is describing. Begin with “I have read...” This is not a
challenge to his account but rather an opportunity to refute the opposing view or to explain how that view
got established. If done carefully some of your best information can come from the juxtaposition of
different accounts.

79. 79. Do not switch the recorder one and off It is better to waste a little more tape on irrelevant
material than to call attention to the tape recorder by constant switching on and off. Bring as more
tape as possible Also bring enough batteries 
80. 80. End the interview at a reasonable time An hour and a half is probably a reasonable time for a
single session. Informants cannot speak forever 
81. 81. Do not be a show-off Do not try to flaunt your knowledge about the subject matter. It turns off the
informant or makes him hostile. Nor try to impress him with charm, vocabulary or other abilities. Good interviewers do not shine only their interviewees do. 
82. 82. Be observant Take note of the non-verbal acts such as gestures and body language. These may add
message Observe the tone of voice of the informant. You may detect sarcasm, outright admiration and
other emotions which may be useful in the gathering of information Some verbal taboos such as cuss
words could also serve as signals 
83. 83. Post Interview The interview can be written down or put on tape. The advantage of putting
the interview on tape is that it gives the exact wording of the testimony and allows the informant to speak at
the speed and rythm that is natural to him. Post interview recording requires the reading back on the
tape to put in writing what has been recorded Although it takes time it is preferable to record on tape
when the words themselves become part of the testimony 
84. 84. Create a transcript of the interview This should be done as soon as the interview is completed. The interviewer may go back to the informant to clarify vague matters and ask for follow-ups Upon
finalizing the interview ask the informant if he is willing to sign his testimony this strengthens the
interview 
85. 85. Questionnaire It is important to make a note of all the necessary information Have a
questionnaire ready to include a bio-data of the informant, the language used, the manner of the giving of
testimony and controls exercised in getting the testimony A note must be given on the characteristics
of the matter such as payment given to the informant as to give some information on what the informant will
have for testifying. There is no one type of questionnaire and the researcher has to devise his
own 
86. 86. Prepared questionnaires These contain questions to be answered by the informant by writing the
testimony himself Should be brief, concise and to the point As in the interview the researcher
should ask for the informant’s background 
87. 87. Conclusion Oral history is very important in gathering eyewitness information It is
important in social history and it reveals aspects of working class life and other experiences Oral
history empowers the inarticulate in history and it gives us what preliterate societies think. However
oral evidence requires critical evaluation and must be deployed in conjuction with the canons of historical
method. Transcriptions of oral history are not history themselves but raw materials for writing
history. It needs corroboration and cross-referencing. <br /

The Spanish period
Spanish colonial motives were not, however, strictly commercial. The Spanish at first viewed the
Philippines as a stepping-stone to the riches of the East Indies (Spice Islands), but, even after the
Portuguese and Dutch had foreclosed that possibility, the Spanish still maintained their presence
in the archipelago.

The Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan headed the first Spanish foray to the
Philippines when he made landfall on Cebu in March 1521; a short time later he met an untimely
death on the nearby island of Mactan. After King Philip II (for whom the islands are named) had
dispatched three further expeditions that ended in disaster, he sent out Miguel López de Legazpi,
who established the first permanent Spanish settlement, in Cebu, in 1565. The Spanish city
of Manila was founded in 1571, and by the end of the 16th century most of the coastal and lowland
areas from Luzon to northern Mindanao were under Spanish control. Friars marched with soldiers
and soon accomplished the nominal conversion to Roman Catholicism of all the local people under
Spanish administration. But the Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu, whom the Spanish called Moros,
were never completely subdued by Spain.

Ferdinand Magellan
Ferdinand Magellan, painting, 1970.
© G. Dagli Orti—DeA Picture Library/age fotostock
Spanish rule for the first 100 years was exercised in most areas through a type of tax farming
imported from the Americas and known as the encomienda. But abusive treatment of the local
tribute payers and neglect of religious instruction by encomenderos (collectors of the tribute), as
well as frequent withholding of revenues from the crown, caused the Spanish to abandon the
system by the end of the 17th century. The governor-general, himself appointed by the king, began
to appoint his own civil and military governors to rule directly.
Central government in Manila retained a medieval cast until the 19th century, and the governor-
general was so powerful that he was often likened to an independent monarch. He dominated
the Audiencia, or high court, was captain-general of the armed forces, and enjoyed the privilege of
engaging in commerce for private profit.
Manila dominated the islands not only as the political capital. The galleon trade with Acapulco,
Mex., assured Manila’s commercial primacy as well. The exchange of Chinese silks for Mexican
silver not only kept in Manila those Spanish who were seeking quick profit, but it also attracted a
large Chinese community. The Chinese, despite being the victims of periodic massacres at the
hands of suspicious Spanish, persisted and soon established a dominance of commerce that
survived through the centuries.

Manila was also the ecclesiastical capital of the Philippines. The governor-general was civil head of
the church in the islands, but the archbishop vied with him for political supremacy. In the late 17th
and 18th centuries the archbishop, who also had the legal status of lieutenant governor, frequently
won. Augmenting their political power, religious orders, Roman Catholic hospitals and schools,
and bishops acquired great wealth, mostly in land. Royal grants and devises formed the core of
their holdings, but many arbitrary extensions were made beyond the boundaries of the original
grants.
The power of the church derived not simply from wealth and official status. The priests and friars
had a command of local languages rare among the lay Spanish, and in the provinces they
outnumbered civil officials. Thus, they were an invaluable source of information to the colonial
government. The cultural goal of the Spanish clergy was nothing less than the full Christianization
and Hispanization of the Filipino. In the first decades of missionary work, local religions were
vigorously suppressed; old practices were not tolerated. But as the Christian laity grew in number
and the zeal of the clergy waned, it became increasingly difficult to prevent the preservation of
ancient beliefs and customs under Roman Catholic garb. Thus, even in the area of religion, pre-
Spanish Filipino culture was not entirely destroyed.
Economic and political institutions were also altered under Spanish impact but perhaps less
thoroughly than in the religious realm. The priests tried to move all the people into pueblos, or
villages, surrounding the great stone churches. But the dispersed demographic patterns of the
old barangays largely persisted. Nevertheless, the datu’s once hereditary position became subject
to Spanish appointment.
Agricultural technology changed very slowly until the late 18th century, as shifting
cultivation gradually gave way to more intensive sedentary farming, partly under the guidance of
the friars. The socioeconomic consequences of the Spanish policies that accompanied this shift
reinforced class differences. The datus and other representatives of the old noble class took
advantage of the introduction of the Western concept of absolute ownership of land to claim as
their own fields cultivated by their various retainers, even though traditional land rights had been
limited to usufruct. These heirs of pre-Spanish nobility were known as the principalia and played
an important role in the friar-dominated local government.
The 19th century
By the late 18th century, political and economic changes in Europe were finally beginning to
affect Spain and, thus, the Philippines. Important as a stimulus to trade was the gradual
elimination of the monopoly enjoyed by the galleon to Acapulco. The last galleon arrived in Manila
in 1815, and by the mid-1830s Manila was open to foreign merchants almost without restriction.
The demand for Philippine sugar and abaca (hemp) grew apace, and the volume of exports to
Europe expanded even further after the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869.
The growth of commercial agriculture resulted in the appearance of a new class. Alongside the
landholdings of the church and the rice estates of the pre-Spanish nobility there arose haciendas of
coffee, hemp, and sugar, often the property of enterprising Chinese-Filipino mestizos. Some of the
families that gained prominence in the 19th century have continued to play an important role in
Philippine economics and politics.
Not until 1863 was there public education in the Philippines, and even then the church controlled
the curriculum. Less than one-fifth of those who went to school could read and write Spanish, and
far fewer could speak it properly. The limited higher education in the colony was entirely under
clerical direction, but by the 1880s many sons of the wealthy were sent to Europe to study.
There, nationalism and a passion for reform blossomed in the liberal atmosphere. Out of this
talented group of overseas Filipino students arose what came to be known as the Propaganda
Movement. Magazines, poetry, and pamphleteering flourished. José Rizal, this movement’s most
brilliant figure, produced two political novels—Noli me tangere (1887; Touch Me Not) and El

filibusterismo (1891; The Reign of Greed)—which had a wide impact in the Philippines. In 1892
Rizal returned home and formed the Liga Filipina, a modest reform-minded society, loyal to Spain,
that breathed no word of independence. But Rizal was quickly arrested by the overly fearful
Spanish, exiled to a remote island in the south, and finally executed in 1896. Meanwhile, within the
Philippines there had developed a firm commitment to independence among a somewhat less
privileged class.
Shocked by the arrest of Rizal in 1892, these activists quickly formed the Katipunan under the
leadership of Andres Bonifacio, a self-educated warehouseman. The Katipunan was dedicated to
the expulsion of the Spanish from the islands, and preparations were made for armed revolt.
Filipino rebels had been numerous in the history of Spanish rule, but now for the first time they
were inspired by nationalist ambitions and possessed the education needed to make success a real
possibility.
The Philippine Revolution
In August 1896, Spanish friars uncovered evidence of the Katipunan’s plans, and its leaders were
forced into premature action. Revolts broke out in several provinces around Manila. After months
of fighting, severe Spanish retaliation forced the revolutionary armies to retreat to the hills. In
December 1897 a truce was concluded with the Spanish. Emilio Aguinaldo, a municipal mayor and
commander of the rebel forces, was paid a large sum and was allowed to go to Hong Kong with
other leaders; the Spanish promised reforms as well. But reforms were slow in coming, and small
bands of rebels, distrustful of Spanish promises, kept their arms; clashes grew more frequent.

Emilio Aguinaldo
Emilio Aguinaldo.
Brown Brothers
Meanwhile, war had broken out between Spain and the United States (the Spanish-American
War). After the U.S. naval victory in the Battle of Manila Bay in May 1898, Aguinaldo and his
entourage returned to the Philippines with the help of Adm. George Dewey. Confident of U.S.
support, Aguinaldo reorganized his forces and soon liberated several towns south of Manila.
Independence was declared on June 12 (now celebrated as Independence Day). In September
a constitutional congress met in Malolos, north of Manila, which drew up a fundamental law
derived from European and Latin American precedents. A government was formed on the basis of
that constitution in January 1899, with Aguinaldo as president of the new country, popularly
known as the “Malolos Republic.”
Meanwhile, U.S. troops had landed in Manila and, with important Filipino help, forced the
capitulation in August 1898 of the Spanish commander there. The Americans, however, would not
let Filipino forces enter the city. It was soon apparent to Aguinaldo and his advisers that earlier
expressions of sympathy for Filipino independence by Dewey and U.S. consular officials in Hong
Kong had little significance. They felt betrayed.

Spanish-American War
U.S. soldiers in a trench near Manila, Philippines, during the Spanish-American War, 1898.
Hulton Archive/Getty Images
U.S. commissioners to the peace negotiations in Paris had been instructed to demand from Spain
the cession of the Philippines to the United States; such cession was confirmed with the signing of
the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. Ratification followed in the U.S. Senate in February
1899, but with only one vote more than the required two-thirds. Arguments of “manifest destiny”
could not overwhelm a determined anti-imperialist minority.
By the time the treaty was ratified, hostilities had already broken out between U.S. and Filipino
forces. Since Filipino leaders did not recognize U.S. sovereignty over the islands and U.S.
commanders gave no weight to Filipino claims of independence, the conflict was inevitable. It took
two years of counterinsurgency warfare and some wise conciliatory moves in the political arena to
break the back of the nationalist resistance. Aguinaldo was captured in March 1901 and shortly
thereafter appealed to his countrymen to accept U.S. rule.

Philippine-American War: Manila
Portion of the ruins of Manila, Philippines, after shelling by U.S. forces in 1899.
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
The Filipino revolutionary movement had two goals, national and social. The first goal,
independence, though realized briefly, was frustrated by the American decision to continue
administering the islands. The goal of fundamental social change, manifest in the nationalization
of friar lands by the Malolos Republic, was ultimately frustrated by the power and resilience of
entrenched institutions. Share tenants who had rallied to Aguinaldo’s cause, partly for economic
reasons, merely exchanged one landlord for another. In any case, the proclamation of a republic in
1898 had marked the Filipinos as the first Asian people to try to throw off European colonial rule.
The period of U.S. influence
The juxtaposition of U.S. democracy and imperial rule over a subject people was sufficiently
jarring to most Americans that, from the beginning, the training of Filipinos for self-government
and ultimate independence—the Malolos Republic was conveniently ignored—was an essential
rationalization for U.S. hegemony in the islands. Policy differences between the two main political
parties in the United States focused on the speed with which self-government should be extended
and the date on which independence should be granted.
In 1899 Pres. William McKinley sent to the Philippines a five-person fact-
finding commission headed by Cornell University president Jacob G. Schurman. Schurman
reported back that Filipinos wanted ultimate independence, but this had no immediate impact on
policy. McKinley sent out the Second Philippine Commission in 1900, under William Howard Taft;
by July 1901 it had established civil government.
In 1907 the Philippine Commission, which had been acting as both legislature and governor-
general’s cabinet, became the upper house of a bicameral body. The new 80-member Philippine
Assembly was directly elected by a somewhat restricted electorate from single-member districts,
making it the first elective legislative body in Southeast Asia. When Gov.- Gen. Francis B.
Harrison appointed a Filipino majority to the commission in 1913, the American voice in the
legislative process was further reduced.

Harrison was the only governor-general appointed by a Democratic president in the first 35 years
of U.S. rule. He had been sent by Woodrow Wilson with specific instructions to prepare the
Philippines for ultimate independence, a goal that Wilson enthusiastically supported. During
Harrison’s term, a Democratic-controlled Congress in Washington, D.C., hastened to fulfill long-
standing campaign promises to the same end. The Jones Act, passed in 1916, would have fixed a
definite date for the granting of independence if the Senate had had its way, but the House
prevented such a move. In its final form the act merely stated that it was the “purpose of the people
of the United States” to recognize Philippine independence “as soon as a stable government can be
established therein.” Its greater importance was as a milestone in the development of
Philippine autonomy. Under Jones Act provisions, the commission was abolished and was
replaced by a 24-member Senate, almost wholly elected. The electorate was expanded to include
all literate males.
Some substantial restrictions on Philippine autonomy remained, however. Defense and foreign
affairs remained exclusive U.S. prerogatives. American direction of Philippine domestic affairs was
exercised primarily through the governor-general and the executive branch of insular government.
There was little more than one decade of thoroughly U.S. administration in the islands, however—
too short a time in which to establish lasting patterns. Whereas Americans formed 51 percent of
the civil service in 1903, they were only 29 percent in 1913 and 6 percent in 1923. By 1916 Filipino
dominance in both the legislative and judicial branches of government also served to restrict the
U.S. executive and administrative roles.
By 1925 the only American left in the governor-general’s cabinet was the secretary of public
instruction, who was also the lieutenant governor-general. This is one indication of the high
priority given to education in U.S. policy. In the initial years of U.S. rule, hundreds of
schoolteachers came from the United States. But Filipino teachers were trained so rapidly that by
1927 they constituted nearly all of the 26,200 teachers in public schools. The school population
expanded fivefold in a generation; education consumed half of governmental expenditures at all
levels, and educational opportunity in the Philippines was greater than in any other colony in Asia.
As a consequence of this pedagogical explosion, literacy doubled to nearly half in the 1930s, and
educated Filipinos acquired a common language and a linguistic key to Western civilization. By
1939 some one-fourth of the population could speak English, a larger proportion than for any of
the native dialects. Perhaps more important was the new avenue of upward social mobility that
education offered. Educational policy was the only successful U.S. effort to establish a sociocultural
basis for political democracy.
American attempts to create equality of economic opportunity were more modest and less
successful. In a predominantly agricultural country the pattern of landownership is crucial. The
trend toward greater concentration of ownership, which began in the 19th century, continued
during the American period, despite some legal barriers. Vast American-owned plantations were
forestalled, but legal restrictions had little effect on those politically well-connected Filipinos who
were intent on amassing fortunes. The percentage of farmers under share tenancy doubled
between 1900 and 1935, and the frustration of the tenants erupted in three small rebellions in
central Luzon during the 1920s and ’30s.
Nor was U.S. trade policy conducive to the diffusion of economic power. From 1909 the Payne-
Aldrich Tariff Act allowed free entry of Philippine products into the U.S. market, at the same time
U.S. products, mostly manufactured, were exempted from tariff in the Philippines. The free flow of
U.S. imports was a powerful deterrent to Philippine industrial growth. Export agriculture,
especially sugar, prospered in the protected U.S. market. Owners of mills and large plantations
profited most, thus reinforcing the political dominance of the landed elite.
American preparation of the Philippines for democratic self-government suffered from
an inherent contradiction, perhaps not recognized at the time. Transferring governmental
responsibility to those capable of undertaking it was not consistent with building a social and

economic base for political democracy. Self-government meant, of necessity, assumption of power
by those Filipinos who were already in positions of leadership in society. But those men came for
the most part from the landed elite; preservation of their political and economic position was
incompatible with equalizing opportunity. Even the expansion of an educated middle class did not
necessarily result in a transformation of the pattern of power. Most middle-class aspirants for
political leadership adjusted to the values and the practices of the existing power elite.
Filipino leaders quickly and skillfully utilized the opportunities for self-government that the
Americans opened to them. The Filipino political genius was best reflected in an extralegal
institution—the political party. The first party, the Federal Party, was U.S.-backed and stressed
cooperation with the overlords, even to the point of statehood for the Philippines. But when openly
nationalist appeals were allowed in the 1907 election, the Nacionalista Party, advocating
independence, won overwhelmingly. The Federalists survived with a new name, Progressives, and
a new platform, ultimate independence after social reform. But neither the Progressives nor their
successors in the 1920s, the Democrats, ever gained more than one-third of the seats in the
legislature. The Nacionalista Party under the leadership of Manuel Quezon and Sergio
Osmeña dominated Philippine politics from 1907 until independence.
More significant than the competition between the Nacionalistas and their opposition was the
continuing rivalry between Quezon and Osmeña. In fact, understanding this personality conflict
provides more insight into the realities of prewar Philippine politics than any examination of
policy or ideology.
In 1933 the U.S. Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, which set a date for Philippine
independence. The act was a fulfillment of the vague pledge in the Jones Act; it was also responsive
to the demands of a series of “independence missions” sent to Washington by the Philippine
legislature. But this unprecedented transfer of sovereignty was decided upon in the dark days of
the Great Depression of the 1930s—and with the help of some incongruous allies. The Depression
had caused American farm interests to look desperately for relief, and those who suffered real or
imaginary hurt from the competition of Philippine products sought to exclude those products.
They had already failed in a direct attempt to amend the tariff on Philippine imports but found
that the respectable cloak of the advocacy of independence increased the effectiveness of their
efforts. Tied to independence was the end of free entry into American markets of Philippine
sugar, coconut oil, rope, and other less important items. That those economic interests were able
to accomplish what they did is partly explainable by the fact that their political clout was great
compared with that of the small group of American traders and investors in the Philippines.
The Philippine legislature rejected the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act, apparently as a result of the
Osmeña-Quezon feud, much to the displeasure of American officialdom. But, when Quezon came
to Washington the following year to work for a new bill, the same alliance of forces in the U.S.
Congress obliged by producing the almost identical Tydings-McDuffie Act. Endorsed by Quezon
and accepted with alacrity by the Manila legislature, it provided for a 10-year commonwealth
during which the U.S. would retain jurisdiction over defense and foreign affairs. Filipinos were to
draft their own constitution, subject to the approval of the U.S. president.
A constitutional convention was quickly elected and a constitution (which bore a strong
resemblance to its U.S. model) framed and approved by plebiscite and by Pres. Franklin D.
Roosevelt. The last governor-general, Frank Murphy, became the first high commissioner, with
more of a diplomatic than a governing role. The commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15,
1935. The Nacionalista Party patched up its internal quarrels and nominated Quezon for president
and Osmeña for vice president. They were elected overwhelmingly.

Manuel Quezon
Manuel Quezon, first president of the Philippine Commonwealth.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The commonwealth period was intended to be devoted to preparation for economic and political
independence and perfection of democratic institutions. But even before the tragic events of World
War II, the transition did not run smoothly.
World War II
Japanese aggression in China prompted much attention to military preparedness. Nearly one-
fourth of the national budget was devoted to defense. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, retiring as army
chief of staff in Washington, was called by President Quezon to direct plans and preparations.
Meanwhile, agrarian unrest festered, and leftist political activity grew. Quezon pushed significant
reform legislation through the National Assembly, but implementation was feeble, despite the
rapid accumulation of power in his hands.
The Japanese attack of the Philippines on December 8, 1941, came at a time when the U.S. military
buildup had hardly begun. Their advance was rapid; before Christmas, Manila was declared an
“open city,” while Quezon and Osmeña were evacuated to MacArthur’s headquarters on Corregidor
Island. Despite a desire, at one point, to return to Manila in order to surrender, Quezon was
persuaded to leave the Philippines in March 1942 on a U.S. submarine; he was never to return.
Osmeña also went. Filipino and American forces, under Gen. Jonathan M. Wainwright,
surrendered in May. An Executive Commission made up of more than 30 members of the old
Filipino political elite had been cooperating with Japanese military authorities in Manila since
January.
The Executive Commission lasted until September 1943, when it was superseded by an
“independent Philippine Republic.” The president, chosen by the Japanese, was José Laurel,
former associate justice of the commonwealth Supreme Court and the only Filipino to hold an
honorary degree from Tokyo Imperial University. More than half of the commonwealth Senate and
more than one-third of the House served at one time in the Japanese-sponsored regime. Yet
collaboration with Japan was neither as willing nor as widespread as elsewhere in Southeast Asia.

Even before the fall of Bataan Peninsula to the Japanese in April 1942, guerrilla units were forming
throughout the Philippines. Most were led by middle-class officers and were enthusiastically pro-
United States; in central Luzon, however, a major force was the Hukbalahap, which, under
communist leadership, capitalized on earlier agrarian unrest. Though in a number of instances
collaborators secretly assisted guerrillas, many guerrillas in the hills were bitter against those who
appeared to benefit from the occupation. The differences between the two groups became an
important factor in early postwar politics.
Soon after the U.S. landings on Leyte in October 1944, commanded by MacArthur, civil
government was returned to the commonwealth, at least in name. Sergio Osmeña, who had
become president in exile on the death of Quezon in August, had few resources to deal with the
problems at hand, however. Osmeña’s role was complicated by the fact that MacArthur chose to
lionize Manuel A. Roxas, a leading collaborator who had also been in contact with U.S. military
intelligence. As president of the Senate, Roxas became, in effect, MacArthur’s candidate for
president. Roxas was nominated in January 1946 in a separate convention of the “liberal wing” of
the Nacionalista Party, as it was first called. Thus was born the Philippines’ second major political
party, the Liberals.

Douglas MacArthur at the Battle of Leyte Gulf
Gen. Douglas MacArthur (centre) and others arriving ashore during the initial U.S. landings at Leyte,
Philippines, October 20, 1944.
NARA
Osmeña, though he had the advantages of incumbency, was old and tired and did not fully use the
political tools he possessed. In April Roxas was elected by a narrow margin. The following month
he was inaugurated as the last chief executive of the commonwealth, and on July 4, 1946, when the
Republic of the Philippines was proclaimed, he became its first president.
The early republic
Roxas, as expected, extended amnesty to all major collaborators with Japan. In the campaign for
the election of 1949 there was an attempt to raise the collaboration issue against José Laurel, the
Nacionalista presidential candidate, but it was not effective. In the fluidity of Philippine politics,
“guerrillas” and “collaborators” were by that time to be found on both sides of all political fences.

The Philippines had gained independence in the “ashes of victory.” Intense fighting, especially
around Manila in the last days of the Japanese retreat (February–March 1945), had nearly
destroyed the capital. The economy generally was in disarray. Rehabilitation aid was obviously
needed, and President Roxas was willing to accept some onerous conditions placed implicitly and
explicitly by the U.S. Congress. The Bell Act in the United States extended free trade with the
Philippines for 8 years, to be followed by 20 years of gradually increasing tariffs. The United States
demanded and received a 99-year lease on a number of Philippine military and naval bases in
which U.S. authorities had virtual territorial rights. And finally, as a specific requirement for
release of U.S. war-damage payments, the Philippines had to amend its constitution to give U.S.
citizens equal rights with Filipinos in the exploitation of natural resources—the so-called Parity
Amendment.

World War II: Allied forces recaptured Manila, Philippines
Manila, Philippines, in the aftermath of its recapture by Allied forces in early 1945.
U.S. Navy
The changing character of Philippine–U.S. relations was a major theme in Philippine history for
the first several decades after the war. The trend was toward weakening of the link, achieved partly
by diversifying Philippine external ties and partly by more articulate anti-American feeling.
Economic nationalism, though first directed against the local Chinese community’s dominance
of retail trade, by the 1950s was focused on the special status of American business firms.
At independence the military ties with the United States were as strong as the economic ones.
Filipino troops fought against communist forces in Korea, and noncombatant engineers
augmented U.S. forces in the Vietnam War. Crucial to U.S. military action in Vietnam were bases
in the Philippines. The Military Bases Agreement was the greatest single cause of friction in
relations between the United States and the Philippines. Beginning in 1965, however, a series of
agreements between the two countries reduced the size and number of the U.S. bases and
shortened base leases. In 1979 formal jurisdiction over the base areas passed to the Philippine
government; and the constitution of 1987 formalized the process by which the bases agreement
could be extended beyond the expiration in 1991 of base leases. Extension of the agreement was
ultimately rejected by the Philippine Senate, however, and U.S. forces were pulled from the
Philippine bases in 1992.

The nature and effectiveness of Filipino political institutions since independence has been a special
concern of the former colonial power that helped establish them. For Filipinos, those institutions
have determined the ability or inability to maintain domestic social order. Clumsy repression of
dissent and the fraudulent election of the country’s second president, Elpidio Quirino, in 1949 set
the stage for an intensification of the communist-led Hukbalahap (Huk) Rebellion, which had
begun in 1946. The rebellion also reflected a growing sense of social injustice among tenant
farmers, especially in central Luzon. Suppression of the rebellion five years later, however, was
attributable to American military aid as well as to the opening of the political process to greater
mass participation, particularly during the campaign of Ramon Magsaysay, a
uniquely charismatic figure in Filipino politics who was elected president in 1953. Magsaysay’s
attempts at social and economic reform failed largely because of the conservative outlook of the
legislature and the bureaucracy. When Magsaysay died in a plane crash in 1957, leadership of the
country fell to his vice president, Carlos P. Garcia. During Garcia’s presidential term and that of his
reform-minded successor, Diosdado Macapagal (1961–65), unrest was usually channeled through
the electoral process and peaceful protest.
The Marcos and early post-Marcos era
In November 1965, Ferdinand E. Marcos was elected to the presidency. His administration faced
grave economic problems that were exacerbated by corruption, tax evasion, and smuggling.
In 1969 Marcos became the first elected president of the Philippines to win reelection. His
campaign platform included the renegotiation of major treaties with the United States and trade
with communist countries. These promises reflected a change in the self-concept of the country
during the 1960s. The idea of the Philippines as an Asian outpost of Christianity was increasingly
supplanted by a desire to develop an Asian cultural identity. Artists, musicians, and writers began
to look to pre-Spanish themes for inspiration. More important was the trend toward seeking
cultural identity through the national language, Pilipino. English, however, remained the language
of business, of most government documents, and of the greater part of higher education. Demands
that the government meet the social and economic needs of its citizenry continued.
A short-lived sign that the Filipino political system was again attempting to respond constructively
to those needs was the choosing in 1970 of a widely representative Constitutional Convention in
one of the most honest and peaceful elections in Philippine history. Large student demonstrations
urged the convention to undertake a fundamental restructuring of political power.
Marcos, who was approaching the end of his constitutionally delimited eight years in office, had
narrower goals: he pressed for the adoption of a parliamentary style of government, which would
allow him to remain in power. He feared that the new constitution would not come into force
before he lost the advantages of incumbency. At the same time, foreign investors, predominantly
American, felt increased pressure from economic nationalists in the legislature.
Martial law
In September 1972 Marcos declared martial law, claiming that it was the last defense against the
rising disorder caused by increasingly violent student demonstrations, the alleged threats of
communist insurgency by the new Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), and the Muslim
separatist movement of the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF). One of his first actions was
to arrest opposition politicians in Congress and the Constitutional Convention. Initial public
reaction to martial law was mostly favourable except in Muslim areas of the south, where a
separatist rebellion, led by the MNLF, broke out in 1973. Despite halfhearted attempts to negotiate
a cease-fire, the rebellion continued to claim thousands of military and civilian casualties.
Communist insurgency expanded with the creation of the National Democratic Front (NDF), an
organization embracing the CPP and other communist groups.

Ferdinand Marcos
Ferdinand Marcos, 1972.
Slim Aarons/Getty Images
Under martial law the regime was able to reduce violent urban crime, collect unregistered
firearms, and suppress communist insurgency in some areas. At the same time, a series of
important new concessions were given to foreign investors, including a prohibition on strikes
by organized labour, and a land-reform program was launched. In January 1973 Marcos
proclaimed the ratification of a new constitution based on the parliamentary system, with himself
as both president and prime minister. He did not, however, convene the interim legislature that
was called for in that document.
General disillusionment with martial law and with the consolidation of political and economic
control by Marcos, his family, and close associates grew during the 1970s. Despite growth in
the country’s gross national product, workers’ real income dropped, few farmers benefited
from land reform, and the sugar industry was in confusion. The precipitous drop in sugar prices in
the early 1980s coupled with lower prices and less demand for coconuts and coconut products—
traditionally the most important export commodity—added to the country’s economic woes; the
government was forced to borrow large sums from the international banking community. Also
troubling to the regime, reports of widespread corruption began to surface with increasing
frequency.
Elections for an interim National Assembly were finally held in 1978. The opposition—of which the
primary group was led by the jailed former senator Benigno S. Aquino, Jr.—produced such a bold
and popular campaign that the official results, which gave Marcos’s opposition virtually no seats,
were widely believed to have been illegally altered. In 1980 Aquino was allowed to go into exile in
the United States, and the following year, after announcing the suspension of martial law, Marcos
won a virtually uncontested election for a new six-year term.

Ferdinand Marcos
Ferdinand Marcos waving, 1983.
A1C Virgil C. Zurbruegg//U.S. Department of Defense
The downfall of Marcos and return of democratic
government
The assassination of Benigno Aquino as he returned to Manila in August 1983 was generally
thought to have been the work of the military; it became the focal point of a renewed and more
heavily supported opposition to Marcos’s rule. By late 1985 Marcos, under mounting pressure both
inside and outside the Philippines, called a snap presidential election for February 1986. Corazon
C. Aquino, Benigno’s widow, became the candidate of a coalition of opposition parties. Marcos was
declared the official winner, but strong public outcry over the election results precipitated a revolt
that by the end of the month had driven Marcos from power. Aquino then assumed the presidency.

Corazon Aquino
Corazon Aquino (right), 1986.
Gerald B. Johnson/U.S. Department of Defense
Aquino’s great personal popularity and widespread international support were instrumental in
establishing the new government. Shortly after taking office, she abolished the constitution of 1973
and began ruling by decree. A new constitution was drafted and was ratified in February 1987 in a
general referendum; legislative elections in May 1987 and the convening of a new bicameral
congress in July marked the return of the form of government that had been present before the
imposition of martial law in 1972.
Euphoria over the ouster of Marcos proved to be short-lived, however. The new government had
inherited an enormous external debt, a severely depleted economy, and a growing threat from
Moro and communist insurgents. The Aquino administration also had to weather considerable
internal dissension, repeated coup attempts, and such natural disasters as a major earthquake and
the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. The resumption of active partisan politics, moreover, was
the beginning of the end of the coalition that had brought Aquino to power. Pro-Aquino candidates
had won a sweeping victory in the 1987 legislative elections, but there was less support for her
among those elected to provincial and local offices in early 1988. By the early 1990s
the criticisms against her administration—i.e., charges of weak leadership, corruption, and human
rights abuses—had begun to stick.

Clark Air Base
Buildings and vegetation at Clark Air Base, Philippines, destroyed by a thick, wet layer of ash following the
gigantic explosion of Mount Pinatubo on June 15, 1991.
Willie Scott/U.S. Geological Survey
Gregorio C. Borlaza
The Philippines since c. 1990
The presidential election of May 1992, in which Aquino was not a candidate, was a seven-way race
in which the winner, Fidel Ramos, received less than 24 percent of the overall vote. Ramos was a
former army chief of staff and defense minister under Aquino; he was unpopular in some quarters
because he had headed the agency charged with enforcing martial law under Marcos before
turning against Marcos to give crucial support to Aquino in 1986. Some observers had wryly noted
during the election that the winner might come to envy the losers, and indeed Ramos inherited the
onus of having to deal with insurgencies from the right and the left, a severe energy crisis that
produced daily electricity outages, an infrastructure in decay, a large foreign debt, and the troubles
of a population half of whom lived in deep poverty.
The Ramos administration remedied the energy crisis and proceeded to create a
hospitable environment for economic recovery. Peace was successfully negotiated with the military
rebels and the MNLF; it proved to be more elusive with the NDF. A more open economy was
created through a series of macroeconomic reforms. Consequently, by the time of the Asian
financial crisis that swept the region in 1997, the Philippine economy was stable enough to escape
serious damage. A proactive foreign and security policy prevented the deterioration of relations
with China, one of several countries with which the Philippines disputed a claim to certain islands
and islets in the South China Sea. Ramos’s foreign policy also earned positive diplomatic gains for
the country abroad.
The election of Joseph Ejercito Estrada—former movie star, mayor of a small town in Metro
Manila, senator, and vice president under Ramos—to the presidency in May 1998 brought a
reversal of many of the economic, political, and diplomatic accomplishments of the Ramos
administration. Although Estrada generally maintained economic growth and political stability in

the first year of his administration, he subsequently came under fire largely because of his failure
to fulfill promises to reduce poverty and to open the economy further to private enterprise. Estrada
was impeached in November 2000, charged with bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of the
public trust, and culpable violation of the constitution. The refusal of Estrada’s senatorial allies to
open an envelope that allegedly held evidence against him during the impeachment trial triggered
a popular revolt; the uprisings ultimately led to Estrada’s ouster, subsequent arrest, detention, and
trial before the Sandiganbayan, the country’s corruption court.
In January 2001 Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, Estrada’s former vice president, was sworn in as the
country’s 14th president. A daughter of former president Diosdado Macapagal with a doctorate in
economics, Arroyo was faced with the challenges of leading a democracy that had remained
dominated by the elite, stimulating the economy to grow faster than the country’s population,
providing jobs for an abundance of the country’s large group of college graduates each year, and
relieving poverty. Despite some reduction of poverty, as well as the curbing of corruption in certain
arenas, Arroyo struggled with political instability and widespread crime, including the increasingly
common kidnappings for ransom. She herself became implicated in corruption, which stirred
disillusioned soldiers to attempt a coup in 2003. The coup failed, and Arroyo was reelected to the
presidency in 2004. Later allegations of election fixing and an increasingly repressive approach to
government, however, sparked a call for impeachment and another coup plot in 2006; once again
the coup failed. Arroyo subsequently declared a “state of emergency” and banned all public
demonstrations. Although the declaration was quickly lifted, the gesture was broadly perceived as
emblematic of authoritarian rule. In September 2007 Estrada, who had been under house
arrest outside of Manila since 2001, was convicted on additional graft charges and given a life
sentence; however, Arroyo soon pardoned him of all charges.

Gloria Macapagal Arroyo
Gloria Macapagal Arroyo.
Lance Cpl. Ethan Hoaldridge/U.S. Marine Corps
Throughout the turmoil in the executive branch, political and economic issues continued to
animate the Philippines in other realms. In the Muslim south, increasingly militant and
widespread unrest was a growing concern. In the north, a concerted movement was under way to
reformulate the country’s constitution. In the international arena, remittances from overseas

Filipinos (which have become an important component of the economy) were jeopardized as
neighbouring countries rewrote their laws regarding foreign employment and threatened to deport
undocumented workers.
Carolina G. HernandezGregorio C. Borlaza
In 2009, underscoring the delicacy of the situation in the south, members of a powerful ruling clan
in Mindanao were implicated in a November incident in which a political opponent of the clan and
his entourage were massacred. Until then the Arroyo government had been allied with the clan as a
means of counteracting Moro separatists. However, in early December Arroyo broke with the clan
and declared martial law in a portion of Mindanao—the first time it had been imposed since the
Marcos era—precipitating considerable domestic debate. The decree was lifted several days later,
after the government declared it had thwarted a potential rebellion in Mindanao.
The 2010 presidential and parliamentary elections featured a number of candidates with familiar
names. Benigno S. (“Noynoy”) Aquino III, son of Benigno and Corazon, defeated a field of
presidential hopefuls led by Joseph Estrada. In addition, Arroyo, Imelda Marcos,
and boxing star Manny Pacquiao each won seats in the House of Representatives. In October 2012
Aquino announced the conclusion of a peace deal with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF)
that would grant a significant degree of autonomy to a Muslim-majority region on the southern
island of Mindanao. The four-decade conflict had claimed roughly 120,000 lives and displaced
some two million people.
In early November 2013, large portions of the central Philippines were devastated by Super
Typhoon Haiyan, a massive tropical cyclone that cut a broad swath some 500 miles (800 km) long
across several islands before exiting into the South China Sea. Thousands of people were killed,
and hundreds of thousands were made homeless. It was the most severe of several
natural calamities to hit the country that year, including typhoons in August and October and a
magnitude-7.1 earthquake, also in October.

Super Typhoon Haiyan destruction
Community devastated in November 2013 by Super Typhoon Haiyan (or Yolanda) along the coast of Panay
island in Iloio province, central Philippines.

Reuters/Landov
Perhaps the most-pressing foreign policy issue for the Philippines in the 2010s was China’s
increasingly assertive posture in the South China Sea. As the Philippines worked to shore up its
weak military forces, in 2014 it filed a case with the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague.
It sought a ruling under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea concerning a reef that was
within Philippine territorial waters. China claimed ownership of waters close to the Philippines
and in April 2015 began construction of an artificial island at Fiery Cross Reef, heightening tension
in the region. In July 2016 the court concluded that there was no evidence of any historical
Chinese claim to the waters, and it ruled that China had violated the Philippines’ sovereign rights.
In addition, it stated that China’s island-building program had caused serious environmental
damage. Officials from the Philippines greeted the decision, but China dismissed the ruling,
claiming that the court lacked both jurisdiction and any kind of enforcement mechanism.
On the domestic front, a crowded field in the 2016 presidential election was headed by Rodrigo
Duterte, the longtime mayor of Davao City. Duterte rode to the top of the polls
with incendiary populist rhetoric and a broad anticorruption platform, and he was elected
president on May 9, 2016. Duterte had campaigned on a promise to execute 100,000 criminals,
and upon his inauguration in June there was a dramatic spike in extrajudicial killings of suspected
illegal drug dealers. Human rights groups protested Duterte’s draconian methods, and in 2018
the International Criminal Court (ICC) opened an investigation into the more than 12,000 deaths
associated with his “war on drugs.” Duterte responded by withdrawing the Philippines from the
ICC and instructing police to shoot activists if they were seen “obstructing justice.” Independent
journalists and political rivals were imprisoned on spurious charges, but Duterte retained
significant popularity with the Filipino public. In May 2019 voters endorsed Duterte’s agenda in
legislative elections, giving him majorities in both houses and removing the final obstacle to his
consolidation of power.

Rodrigo Duterte
Rodrigo Duterte.
Bullit Marquez/AP Images
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica

This article covers the history of the Philippines from the recognition of independence in 1946 to the end of the
presidency of Diosdado Macapagal that covered much of the Third Republic of the Philippines, which ended
on January 17, 1973 with the ratification of the 1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines.

Contents
 1Recognition of independence
o 1.1Independence Day shifted
 2The Roxas administration (1946–1948)
 3The Quirino administration (1948–1953)
 4The Magsaysay administration (1953–1957)
 5The Garcia administration (1957–1961)
 6The Macapagal administration (1961–1965)
 7References
 8External links
Recognition of independence[edit]
Not to be confused with Philippine Declaration of Independence or Independence Day (Philippines).
Play media
Proclamation of independence

The Flag of the United States of America is lowered while the Flag of the Philippines is raised during the Independence Day
ceremonies on July 4, 1946
See also: Treaty of Manila (1946) and Republic Day (Philippines)

The United States of America granted independence to the Philippines on July 4, 1946. In accordance with
the Philippine Independence Act (more popularly known as the "Tydings–McDuffie Act"), President Harry S.
Truman issued Proclamation 2695 of July 4, 1946 officially recognizing the independence of the Philippines.
[1]

On the same day, representatives of the United States of America and of the Republic of the Philippines signed
a Treaty of General Relations between the two governments. The treaty provided for the recognition of the
independence of the Republic of the Philippines as of July 4, 1946, and the relinquishment of American
sovereignty over the Philippine Islands.
[2]

The U.S. retained dozens of military bases, including a few major ones. In addition, independence was qualified
by legislation passed by the U.S. Congress. For example, the Bell Trade Act provided a mechanism whereby
U.S. import quotas might be established on Philippine articles which "are coming, or are likely to come, into
substantial competition with like articles the product of the United States". It further required U.S. citizens and
corporations be granted equal access to Philippine minerals, forests, and other natural resources.
[3]
In hearings
before the Senate Committee on Finance, Assistant Secretary of State for Economic Affairs William
Clayton described the law as "clearly inconsistent with the basic foreign economic policy of this country" and
"clearly inconsistent with our promise to grant the Philippines genuine independence."
[4]

The Philippine government had little choice but to accept these terms for independence. Congress was
threatening to withhold post-World War II rebuilding funds unless the Bell Act was ratified. The Philippine
Congress obliged on July 2, 1946.
[5]

After independence, the US continued to direct the country through Central Intelligence Agency operatives
like Edward Lansdale. As Raymond Bonner and other historians note, Lansdale controlled the career of
President Ramon Magsaysay, going so far as to physically beat him when the Philippine leader delivered a
speech written by a Filipino and that American agents also drugged sitting President Elpidio Quirino and
discussed assassinating Senator Claro Recto.
[6][7]
Prominent Filipino historian Roland G. Simbulan has called the
CIA "US imperialism's clandestine apparatus in the Philippines."
[8]

Independence Day shifted[edit]
Main article: Independence Day (Philippines)
The Philippines currently celebrates its Independence Day on June 12, the anniversary of Emilio
Aguinaldo's declaration of independence from Spain in 1898. The declaration was not recognised by the United
States which, after defeating the Spanish in the Battle of Manila Bay in May that year, acquired the Philippine
Islands via the Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish–American War.
From 1946 to 1961, the Philippines observed Independence Day on July 4. On May 12, 1962, President
Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28 proclaiming June 12, 1962 as a special public holiday
throughout the Philippines.
[9][10]
In 1964, Republic Act No. 4166 changed the date of Independence Day from July
4 to June 12 and renamed the July 4 holiday as Philippine Republic Day.
[11]

The Roxas administration (1946–1948)[edit]

Manuel Roxas, president from 1946–1948
When the Congress of the Philippines was convened in 1945, the legislators elected in 1941 chose Manuel
Roxas as Senate President. In the Philippine national elections of 1946, Roxas ran for president as the nominee
of the liberal wing of the Nacionalista Party. He had the staunch support of General MacArthur. His opponent
was Sergio Osmeña, who refused to campaign, saying that the Filipino people knew his reputation. In the April
23, 1946 election, Roxas won 54 percent of the vote, and the Liberal Party won a majority in the legislature.
When the Philippines gained independence from the United States on July 4, 1946, Roxas became the first
president of the new republic.

Although Roxas was successful in getting rehabilitation funds from the United States after independence, he
was forced to concede military bases (23 of which were leased for 99 years), trade restrictions for the Philippine
citizens, and special privileges for U.S. property owners and investors. His administration was marred by graft
and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-
wing Hukbalahap (Huk) movement in the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to
widespread peasant disaffection.
[c itation needed]

During Roxas' term of office administration of the Turtle Islands and Mangsee Islands was transferred by
the United Kingdom to the Republic of the Philippines. By an international treaty concluded in 1930 between
the United States (in respect of its then overseas territory, the Philippine Archipelago) and the United
Kingdom (in respect of its then protectorate, the State of North Borneo) the two powers agreed the international
boundaries between those respective territories.
[12]
In that treaty the United Kingdom also accepted that the
Turtle Islands as well as the Mangsee Islands were part of the Philippines Archipelago and therefore under US
sovereignty. However, by a supplemental international treaty concluded at the same time, the two powers
agreed that those islands, although part of the Philippines Archipelago, would remain under the administration of
the State of North Borneo's British North Borneo Company.
[13]
The supplemental treaty provided that the British
North Borneo Company would continue to administer those islands unless and until the United States
government gave notice to the United Kingdom calling for administration of the islands to be transferred to the
U.S. The U.S. never gave such a notice. On the 4th of July, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines was born. It
became the successor to the U.S. under the treaties of 1930. On July 15, 1946, the United Kingdom annexed
the State of North Borneo and, in the view of the United Kingdom, became the sovereign power with respect to
what had been the State of North Borneo.
[14]
On September 19, 1946, the Republic of the Philippines notified the
United Kingdom that it wished to take over the administration of the Turtle Islands, Tawi-Tawi and the Mangesse
Islands. Pursuant to a supplemental international agreement, the transfer of administration became effective on
October 16, 1947.
[15][16]

Roxas did not stay long in office because of a heart attack as he was speaking at Clark Air Base on April 15,
1948. He was succeeded by his vice president Elpidio Quirino.
[17]

The Quirino administration (1948–1953)[edit]

Elpidio Quirino, president from 1948–1953
Quirino assumed the presidency on April 17, 1948, taking his oath of office two days after the death of Manuel
Roxas. In 1949 the wartime president, Jose P. Laurel of the Nacionalista Party, ran against Quirino in what has
been described as a particularly corrupt and venal exercise in democracy. Although historians in general accept
that Laurel was elected, he refused to challenge Quirino's declared victory with force.
[18]

Since Quirino was a widower, his surviving daughter Vicky would serve as the official hostess and perform the
functions traditionally ascribed to the First Lady.
Quirino's administration faced a serious threat in the form of the communist Hukbalahap movement. Though the
Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese guerrilla army in Luzon, communists steadily gained control over the
leadership, and when Quirino's negotiation with Huk commander Luis Taruc broke down in 1948, Taruc openly
declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow of the government.
His five years as president were marked by notable postwar reconstruction, general economic gains, and
increased economic aid from the United States. Basic social problems, however, particularly in the rural areas,
remained unsolved, and his administration was tainted by widespread graft and corruption.

In 1953, in his second term, the Korean War began and resulted in over 7,450 Filipino soldiers being sent to
Korea under the designation of the Philippine Expeditionary Forces to Korea or PEFTOK.
Although ill, Quirino ran for re-election in 1953, but he was overwhelmingly defeated by Ramon Magsaysay.
The Magsaysay administration (1953–1957)[edit]

Ramon Magsaysay, president from 1953–1957
In the Election of 1953, Magsaysay was elected president over the incumbent Elpidio Quirino, with the scarcely
concealed help of American officials and funds.
[18]
He was sworn into office wearing the Barong Tagalog, a first
by a Philippine president.
As president, he was a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal spokesman against
communism during the Cold War. He led the foundation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization also known
as the Manila Pact of 1954, that aimed to defeat Marxist-Leninist movements in Southeast Asia, South Asia and
Oceania. During his term, he made Malacañang Palace literally a "house of the people", opening its gates to the
public.
[19]

One example of his integrity followed a demonstration flight aboard a new plane belonging to the Philippines Air
Force (PAF). President Magsaysay asked what the operating costs per hour were for that type of aircraft, then
wrote a personal check to the PAF, covering the cost of his flight.
On March 16, 1957 Magsaysay left Manila for Cebu City where he spoke at three educational institutions. That
same night, at about 1 a.m., he boarded the presidential plane "Mt. Pinatubo", a C-47, heading back to Manila.
In the early morning hours of March 17, his plane was reported missing. It was late in the afternoon that day that
newspapers reported that the airplane had crashed on Mt. Manunggal in Cebu and that 25 of the 26 passengers
and crew aboard were killed. Only newspaperman Néstor Mata survived. Vice President Carlos P. García, who
was on an official visit to Australia at the time, assumed the presidency to serve out the last eight months of
Magsaysay's term.
An estimated 2 million people attended Magsaysay's burial on March 22, 1957.
[20][21][22]

The Garcia administration (1957–1961)[edit]

Carlos P. Garcia, president from 1957–1961
Garcia assumed the presidency after Ramón Magsaysay died in a plane crash on March 17, 1957, and was
elected later the same year, in the Election 1957, to a full term.
[23]

During his administration, he acted on the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement which shortened the lease of the US
Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it renewable after every five years.
He was well known when he exercised the Filipino First policy during his term in office. This policy heavily
favored Filipino businessmen over foreign investors. He was also responsible for changes in retail trade which
greatly affected the Chinese businessmen in the country. He also made a program focused on thriftiness.
At the end of his second term, he ran for re–election in the Election 1961 in November 1961, but was defeated
by Diosdado Macapagal, who served as vice-president under him, but belonged to the opposing Liberal Party —
in the Philippines the president and the vice-president are elected separately.
The Macapagal administration (1961–1965)[edit]

Diosdado Macapagal, president from 1961–1965
In the 1961 presidential election, Macapagal ran against Garcia and defeated the incumbent president by a 55%
to 45% margin. Seeking to stimulate economic development, Macapagal took the advice of supporters and
allowed the Philippine peso to float on the free currency exchange market. His reform efforts were blocked by
the Nacionalistas, who dominated the House of Representatives and the Senate at that time. Nonetheless, his
presidency achieved growth and prosperity for the nation.
[23]

Among the most significant achievements of Macapagal as president were the abolition of tenancy and
accompanying land reform program in the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. He also changed the date of
celebration of Philippine independence from July 4 to June 12, the latter date having been the day when in
1898, Emilio Aguinaldo declared independence from Spain. Later, Macapagal told author Stanley Karnow that
the reason for the change was that American embassy celebrations were visited more than the Filipino reception
on the July 4 American independence day.
[24]

Macapagal was defeated for re-election in 1965 by Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, a former Liberal Party
ally who defected to the Nacionalista Party to challenge the incumbent president.

Beginnings of the Archipelago (1)
Some 50 million years ago, the archipelago was formed by volcanic eruptions. About
30,000 years ago the earliest inhabitants had arrived from the Asian mainland, perhaps
over land bridges built during the ice ages. By the tenth century A.D. coastal villagers
welcomed Chinese commerce and settlers, followed by Muslim traders from Borneo.
The early inhabitants of the Philippines were Mongoloid descent which are predominant
today. The gradual spread of Islam from Borneo into the central and northern islands
was interrupted by the arrival of the Spanish Christians.

Discovery of the Philippines by the West and Revolution (2)

The Philippines were claimed in the name of Spain in 1521 by
Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer sailing for Spain, who named
the islands after King Philip II of Spain. They were then called Las
Felipinas. By the 1830's Spanish culture and thought had penetrated into
Filipino culture to the extent that the Filipino people began thinking about
liberation from Spain. The government of Spain developed Filipino
agriculture to the point that it was self-sufficient.
After some attempts at independence, and an equal number of atrocities on the part
of Spain, Filipino Nationalists began to speak out. One of the most famous of the time
was Jose Rizal. He studied medicine at the University of Santo Tomas in the
Philippines and the University of Madrid. Rizal wrote two important novels that
portrayed the abuses of Spanish rule. Although the books were banned, they were
smuggled into the Philippines and widely read. On the night of his execution, on
December 30, 1896, Rizal proclaimed the Philippines "the Pearl of the Oriental Seas".
His death is annually commemorated on December 30.

Rizal's execution gave impetus to the revolution. Although the Filipino
rebels, lead by Emilio Aguinaldo, did not win complete independence, the
Spanish were not able to end the rebellion. In December of 1897,
negotiations with Spain resulted in the the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. All of the rebels were
granted anmisty and the leaders of the revolution returned in voluntary exile to Honk
Kong. While in Hong Kong, Aguinaldo and his compatriots designed what is today the
Philippine national flag.

The American Era and Independence (2)
At the same time that the Philippines were fighting
for independence, Cuba, also a colony of Spain, was
trying to liberate itself from Spanish rule. Cuba,
however, had the backing of the United States. When
the American battleship, USS Maine, sank in the
Havana harbor, war between the United States and
Spain became imminent.
On April 25, 1898, the United States declared war
on Spain and the commander of the U.S. Asiatic
Squadron, Commodore George Dewey was sent to
engage the Spanish navy in the Philippines. Dewey
attacked the Spanish fleet on the morning of May 1, 1898 from his ship USS Olympia.
The battle lasted only a few hours resulting in the complete destruction of the Spanish
fleet at Manila Bay. The American fleet suffered only minor damage.
The Spanish-American war officially ended with the Treaty of Paris on December 10,
1898. However, the American government was only interested in Cuba's
independence, not that of the Philippines. By the Treaty, Cuba gained its independence

and Spain ceded the Philippines, Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States for the
sum of US$20 million. Given its own history of colonial revolution, American opinion
was uncomfortable and divided on the moral principle of owning colonial dependencies.
Having acquired the Philippines almost by accident, the United States was not sure
what to do with them. On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First
Philippine Commission (Schurman Commission) to make recommendations.
The Treaty of Paris and subsequent actions by the United States were not well
received by the Filipinos - who were not even consulted. The Philippine War of
Independence began on February 4, 1899 and continued for two years. The United
States needed 126,000 soldiers to subdue the Philippines. The war took the lives of
4,234 Americans and 16,000 Filipinos. The Commonwealth of the Philippines was
established by the United States government in 1935 with a view to granting Filipino
independence within 10 years.
However, on December 8, 1941 ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor, the
Japanese military invaded the Philippines. United States forces under the command of
General Douglas MacArthur withdrew to Java on December 12, 1941. MacArthur
promised: "I shall return". General MacArthur kept his promise and returned with a
massive amphibious force on the island of Leyte in October of 1944. Over the next four
months, U.S. forces, with the help of Filipino guerrillas routed the Japanese army.
After the war, the United Stated restored the pre-war Commonwealth government.
By 1946 the Philippines had transformed from a Commonwealth to an independent
republic.
BAYBAYIN: THE ANCIEN T FILIPINO SCRIPT LI VES
ON
Baybayin is one of the precolonial writing systems used by early Filipinos. The term “baybayin” comes
from the Tagalog root word baybay, which means “to spell.”
For many years the script was incorrectly referred to as “alibata,” based on the arrangement of another
alphabet system – Arabic, in which the first letters are called alif, ba, and ta.
When the Spaniards arrived in the Philippine archipelago, they observed that most of the natives, not just the
elite, could read and write. The script was used not only to record but also to write poetry, incantations, and
letters.

T H E M O N R E A L S T O N E,
D I S C O V E R E D B Y S T U D E NT S I N T H E T O W N O F M O N R E A L O N T I C A O I S L A ND
I N T H E P R O V I N C E O F M A S B A T E , F EA T U R E S I NS C R I P T I O N S I N B A Y B A YI N .

Technically, the Baybayin is what is called an alphasyllabary. Each character is based on a consonant letter,
with a vowel notation indicating the corresponding vowel sound. It has 14 syllabic consonant characters (15
if the “da” and “ra” consonants are separated, as shown in the images below) and three vowel characters (a,
e-i, o-u).
Each consonant character combines the consonant sound and the vowel sound “a.” To change this to the “e-
i” sound, a kudlit or mark is placed on top of the character; for the “o-u” sound, the mark is placed at the
bottom.
The Spanish friars studied Baybayin and used it to teach the Catholic religion to Filipinos. In fact, part of
the Doctrina Christiana, one of the first books printed in the country, contains Baybayin script, along with
Latinized Tagalog.

P A G ES F R O M T H E
D O C T R I N A C H R I S T I A N A P U B L I S H E D I N 1 5 9 3 S HO W I N G B A Y B A Y I N
C H A R A C T E R S B EF O R E T HE S P A N I S H A N D T A G A L OG T R A N S L A T I O N S O F
T H E “ H A I L M A R Y ” P R A YE R .

The Spanish also added a cross mark at the bottom of Baybayin characters to indicate consonants that stand
alone. The word for God, Bathala, when written in the original Baybayin, reads Bahala. With the cross
mark, the Spanish writers used another character, ta, and put a cross at the bottom to cancel out the “a”
sound.
As the colonizers introduced their own system of writing, Baybayin began to be replaced with the Latin
alphabet, and use of the script began to dwindle and eventually die out. Later versions of the catechism
book Doctrina Christiana did not contain the script anymore.
However, there has been a resurgence of the use of Baybayin in recent years. Government organizations,
cultural groups, and artists are actively bringing the ancient writing system back to life. It’s being taught in
schools, workshops, and lectures. Words in Baybayin script are printed on clothing, posters, accessories, and
even on the current batch of the Philippine Peso bills. Many have also started getting tattoos in Baybayin.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

It is well known among educators that, the educational experiences involving the learner actively
participating in concrete examples are retained longer than abstract experiences. Instructional materials add
elements of reality by providing concrete examples to learning. Many authors have written on the use of
instructional materials both in teaching Social Studies and other related subjects in order to enhance teaching for
desired social and behavioural change. These authors include; Mcluhan (1964), Alaka (1978), Kochar (1986),
Okafor (1988), Mkpa (1989), UNDP (1998), Heeks (1999), World Bank (1999), Aguokogbuo (2000), Koert (2000),
Greenwood (2001), Bozimo (2002), Nwanna-Nzewunwa (2003) and Adekeye (2008). More specially, it was
emphasized in the work of these authors that the use of instructional materials is a sine qua non in affecting
behaviour of learners of every field, especially social studies. It was equally shown by some of the authors that
these materials are important catalysts of social re-engineering and change. It is obvious that social studies
teaching and learning cannot be well accomplished without the use of instructional materials.
The reason is not far fetched. Advances in technology have brought instructional materials especially the
projected and electronic materials to the forefront as the most radical tools of globalization and social development
which have affected the classroom teaching learning situation positively. Such technology or technological
breakthroughs as networked and non networked projected and non projected, visual, auditory, audio-visual
electronic materials are important landmarks in knowledge transfer. With them both teaching and learning become
very pleasant experiences.
Instructional materials possess some inherent advantages that make them unique in social studies teaching.
For one thing, they provide the teacher with interesting and compelling platforms for conveying information since
they motivate learners to want to learn more and more. Also, by providing opportunities for private study and
references, the learners’ interest and curiosity are increasingly stimulated. Further, the teacher is assisted in over
coming physical difficulties that could have hindered his effective presentation of a given topic. They generally
make teaching and learning easier and less stressful. They are equally indispensable catalysts of social and
intellectual development of the learners.
Bolick (2003) pointed to a good relationship between the teachings of the social studies and using of
instructional materials. He argued that while some educators have been fascinated by the potential of instructional
materials to enhance teaching and learning teachers’ lagged behind in using instructional materials during teaching
and learning. Others expressed doubts that instructional materials will ever incite teaching reform in social studies.
Instructional materials are integral components of teaching learning situation. It is not just to supplement learning
but to complement its process.
Instructional materials are made up of objects such as printed materials, audio, visual that aid in the
successful delivery of social studies lesson (Chuba 2000: 101). To this end, instructional materials are said to be
objects or things the teacher can use in the classroom while teaching in order to ease off his teaching activities.
However, instructional materials cannot address all the teaching learning problem but it can go a long way in
solving them, simply because they are additional apparatus that can influence the reality of teaching and learning
activities.
Joof (1995: 85) explained that, the concept of teaching aids has gone through several evolutionary stage
from the simple aids, instructional technology, media to communication and educational technology. This however,
tells us that instructional materials are not just objects or equipments used during teaching learning process but
there those objects improvised by the teacher to make conceptual abstraction more concrete and practical to the
learners. Instructional materials are the relevant materials utilized by a teacher during social studies instructional
process for the purpose of making the contents of the instructions more practical and less vague. Instructional
materials are indispensable factors of in any teaching learning process. Ordinary words or verbalization has been
found to be inadequate for effective teaching. Instructional materials serve as a channel through which message,
information, ideas and knowledge are disseminated more easily. They can therefore be manipulated, seen, heard,
feet or talked about. They facilitate activities. They are anything or anybody the teacher turns to for help in his
learning process (ESU & Umoren 1998).
Instructional materials group the learners’ intellect and eliminated boredom. Some of the unique qualities of
instructional materials is speedy learning and accuracy. They make the work easier, more appeal, accurate, neater
and boosting for clarity of social studies concept. If social studies is to be learned effectively, it must be
experienced. Social studies is so close to the life of every child that no teacher needs ever be without instructional
materials for teaching of social studies. One of the biggest draw backs in the use of instructional materials is
inadequate supply of instructional materials.
Teaching of social studies in respect to its scope and nature, which is multidimensional, integrative and
dynamic, cannot effectively take effects without the use of instructional materials, the teaching of social studies
contents must focus not only on making teachers competent at using instructional materials, but at the same time,
promote strategies that enables the integration of instructional materials that enhances teaching and learning of
social studies goals and objectives.
Instructional materials as an act of giving help normally by teachers to provide help and encouragement in
students or pupils learning activities. They further described instructional materials as a tool, which can easily be

used by a teacher to correct wrong impressions and to illustrate things that learners cannot forget. The major aim
of using instructional materials in social studies instructional is to achieve excellent result.

The use of instructional materials is an indispensable tool that enhances qualitative teaching and learning especially at the
primary level. Instructional materials are used to facilitate comprehension of ideas in the learners as well as ensure long term
retention of ideas and topics taught to pupils. This study examined the relevance of using instructional materials at primary
schools in Katsina metropolitan, Nigeria. It employed survey design using cluster sampling technique. The questionnaire was
used to gather data for analysis, and statistical and frequency tables were used to analyze the data gathered. The results show
that teachers and students alike have realized the effectiveness of modern instructional materials in teaching and learning for
the attainment of set objectives in the basic primary education policy. It also discovered that reluctance in the use of
instructional materials will hamper the achievement of qualitative primary education. The study therefore suggests that there
should be the provision of adequate and up-to-date instructional materials to all primary schools in Katsina State for effective
teaching and learning.

As classroom teachers, it is essential that we become conversant with the type of instructional materials, which can be used
in any teaching/ learning situations. Instructional materials as it is said are synonymous with what we call 'teaching aids' here
in Nigeria. Instructional materials constitute alternative channels of communication, which a teacher can use to convey more
vividly instructional information to learners. They represent a range of materials which can be used to 'extend the range of
vicarious experience' of learners in a teaching-learning situation. Recently, in Nigeria, Educationists have realized the
importance of these instructional materials for effective classroom teaching. Hence in 1945 and in 1985, the federal ministry
of Education organized an exhibition of improvised materials by instructional developers all over the federation. A major aim
of these exhibitions was to identify materials, which teachers have improvised as preclude hopefully, to their further
refinement through the process of formative evaluation. Though a center for educational technology has sprung up in colleges
of education and universities all over the country, it is doubtful if practicing teachers in Nigeria are aware of procedures for
selecting appropriate instructional materials. This paper however, presents an overview of the relevance of instructional
materials in our school system and thus recommended among others that the use of several kinds of instructional materials to
explain one particular concept must also take cognizance of individual differences among the learners. Meaning/definition of
instructional materials: Instructional materials refer to those alternative channels of communication, which a classroom
teacher can use to concretize a concept during teaching and learning process. Traditionally, classroom teachers have relied
heavily on the 'talk-chalk' method during their teaching. But recently, instructional materials help to provide variations in the
ways in which messages are sent across. In using instructional materials teachers and students do not only extend the range
of sense organs we use but also extend the range of materials used for convening the same message through the same organ.
For instance, in teaching a topic a teacher can manipulate real objects or use their stimulators. Instructional materials therefore
constitute the media of exchange through which a message transaction is facilitated between a source and a receiver. In
addition to extending the range of materials that can be used to convey the same instructional message to learners instructional
materials also facilitate the 'process' nature of communication. In this passage, the process nature of communication implies
that both the source and the receiver of a message are actively involved in a communication encounter. Infarct, it means that
both the receiver and the source share and exchange ideas, feelings in any communication (Tyler, 1987, Dike 1989)..

What is Instructional Materials
1.
Instructional materials refer to the human and non-human materials and facilities that can be used to ease,
encourage, improved and promote teaching and learning activities. They are whatever materials used in the process
of instruction. They are a broad range of resource which can be used to facilitate effective instruction. They indicate a
systematic way of designing, carrying out and employing the total process of learning and communication and
employing human and non-human resources to bring out a more meaningful and effective instruction. They are human
and non-human material that a teacher uses to pass information to the learner in his/her class. Learn more in:
Relevance of the Use of Instructional Materials in Teaching and Pedagogical Delivery: An Overview
2.
Instructional materials are defined as resources that organize and support instruction, such as textbooks, tasks, and
supplementary resources (adapted from Remillard & Heck, 2014 ). Learn more in: Transforming Preservice
Mathematics Teacher Knowledge for and with the Enacted Curriculum: The Case of Digital Instructional Materials

Issues Regarding the Educational System
When it comes to influence, the educational system of the Philippines has been affected immensely by the country's
colonial history including the Spanish period, American period, and Japanese rule and occupation. Although having been
significantly influenced by all its colonizers with regard to the educational system, the most influential and deep-rooted
contributions arose during the American occupation (1898); it was during this aforementioned period that 1. English was
introduced as the primary language of instruction and 2. A public education system was first established - a system
specifically patterned after the United States school system and further administered by the newly established
Department of Instruction. Similar to the United States of America, the Philippines has had an extensive and extremely
inclusive system of education including features such as higher education.
The present Philippine Educational system firstly covers six years of compulsory education (from grades 1 t o 6), divided
informally into two levels - both composed of three years. The first level is known as the Primary Level and the second
level is known as the Intermediate Level.
However, although the Philippine educational system has extensively been a model for other Southeast Asian countries,
in recent years such a matter has no longer stood true, and such a system has been deteriorated - such a fact is
especially evident and true in the country's more secluded poverty-stricken regions.
Nationwide the Philippines faces several issues when it comes to the educational system.
Quality of Education
First of which, is the quality of education. In the year 2014, the National Achievement Test (NAT) and the National C areer
Assessment Examination (NC AE) results show that there had been a decline in the quality of Philippine education at the
elementary and secondary levels. The students' performance in both the 2014 NAT and NC AE were excessively below the
target mean score. Having said this, the poor quality of the Philippine educational system is manifested in the
comparison of completion rates between highly urbanized city of Metro Manila, which is also happens to be not only the
country's capital but the largest metropolitan area in the Philippines and other places in the country such as Mindanao
and Eastern Visayas. Although Manila is able to boast a primary school completion rate of approximately 100 percent,
other areas of the nation, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, hold primary school completion rate of only 30 percent
or even less. This kind of statistic is no surprise to the education system in the Philippine context, students who hail from
Philippine urban areas have the financial capacity to complete at the very least their primary school education.
Budget for Education
The second issue that the Philippine educational system faces is the budget for education. Although it has been mandated
by the Philippine C onstitution for the government to allocate the highest proportion of its government to education, the
Philippines remains to have one of the lowest budget allocations to education among ASEAN countries.
Affordability of Education
The third prevalent issue the Philippine educational system continuously encounters is the affordability of education (or
lack thereof). A big disparity in educational achievements is evident across various social groups. Socioeconomically
disadvantaged students otherwise known as students who are members of high and low -income poverty-stricken
families, have immensely higher drop-out rates in the elementary level. Additionally, most freshmen students at the
tertiary level come from relatively well-off families.
Drop-out Rate (Out-of-school youth)
France C astro, secretary of Alliance of C oncerned Teachers (AC T), stated that there is a graved need to address the

alarming number of out-of-school youth in the country. The Philippines overall has 1.4 million children who are out-of-
school, according to UNESC O's data, and is additionally the only ASEAN country that is included in the top 5 countries
with the highest number of out-of-school youth. In 2012, the Department of Education showed data of a 6.38% drop -out
rate in primary school and a 7.82% drop-out rate in secondary school. C astro further stated that "the increasing number
of out-of-school children is being caused by poverty. The price increases in prices of oil, electricity, rice, water, and other
basic commodities are further pushing the poor into dire poverty." Subsequently, as more families become poorer, the
number of students enrolled in public schools increases, especially in the high school level. In 2013, the Department of
Education estimated that there are 38, 503 elementary schools alongside 7,470 high schools.
Mismatch
There is a large mismatch between educational training and actual jobs. This stands to be a major issue at the tertiary
level and it is furthermore the cause of the continuation of a substantial amount of educated yet unemployed or
underemployed people. According to Dean Salvador Belaro Jr., the C ornell -educated C ongressman representing 1-Ang
Edukasyon Party-list in the House of Representatives, the number of educated unemployed reaches around 600,000 per
year. He refers to said condition as the "education gap".
Brain Drain
Brain Drain is a persistent problem evident in the educational system of the Philippines due to the modern phenomenon
of globalization, with the number of Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) who worked abroad at any time during the period
April to September 2014 was estimated at 2.3 million. This ongoing mass emigration subsequently inducts an
unparalleled brain drain alongside grave economic implications. Additionally, Philippine society hitherto is footing the bill
for the education of millions who successively spend their more productive years abroad. Thus, the already poor
educational system of the Philippines indirectly subsidizes the opulent economies who host the OFWs.
Social Divide
There exists a problematic and distinct social cleavage with regard to educational opportunities in the country. Most
modern societies have encountered an equalizing effect on the subject of education. This aforementioned divide in the
social system has made education become part of the institutional mechanism that creates a division between the poor
and the rich.
Lack of Facilities and Teacher Shortage in Public Schools
There are large-scale shortages of facilities across Philippine public schools - these include classrooms, teachers, desks
and chairs, textbooks, and audio-video materials. According to 2003 Department of Education
Undersecretary Juan Miguel Luz, reportedly over 17 million students are enrolled in Philippine public schools, and at an
annual population growth rate of 2.3 per cent, about 1.7 million babies are born every year which means that in a few
years time, more individuals will assert ownership over their share of the (limited) educational provisions. To sum it up,
there are too many students and too little resources. Albeit the claims the government makes on increasing the allocated
budget for education, there is a prevalent difficulty the public school system faces with regard to shortages. Furthermore,
state universities and colleges gradually raise tuition so as to have a means of purchasing facilities, thus making tertiary
education difficult to access or more often than not, inaccessible to the poor. However, it is worth taking note of what the
Aquino administration has done in its five years of governance with regard to classroom -building - the number of
classrooms built from 2005 to the first half of the year 2010 has tripled. Additionally, the number of classrooms that were
put up from the year 2010 to February 2015 was recorded to be at 86,478, significantly exceeding the 17,305
classrooms that were built from 2005 to 2010 and adequ ate enough to counterbalance the 66,800 classroom deficit in
the year 2010.
In President Aquino's fourth state of the nation address (SONA), he spoke of the government's achievement of zero
backlog in facilities such as classrooms, desks and chairs, and textbooks which has addressed the gap in the shortages of
teachers, what with 56,085 new teachers for the 61, 510 teaching items in the year 2013. However, the data gathered
by the Department of Education shows that during the opening of classes (June 2013), the shortages in classrooms was
pegged at 19, 579, 60 million shortages when it came to textbooks, 2.5 million shortages with regard to chairs, and 80,
937 shortages of water and sanitation facilities. Furthermore, 770 schools in Metro Manila, C ebu, and Davao were
considered overcrowded. The Department of Education also released data stating that 91% of the 61, 510 shortages in
teachers was filled up alongside appointments (5, 425 to be specific) are being processed
Issues regarding the K -12
There is dispute with regard to the quality of education provided by the system. In the year 2014, the National
Achievement Test (NAT) and the National C areer Assessment Examination (NC AE) results show that there had been a
decline in the quality of Philippine education at the elementary and secondary levels. The students' performance in both
the 2014 NAT and NC AE were excessively below the target mean score. Having said this, the poor quality of the
Philippine educational system is manifested in the comparison of completion rates between highly urbanized city of Metro
Manila, which is also happens to be not only the country's capital but the largest metropolitan area in the Philippines and
other places in the country such as Mindanao and Eastern Visayas. Al though Manila is able to boast a primary school
completion rate of approximately 100 percent, other areas of the nation, such as Eastern Visayas and Mindanao, hold
primary school completion rate of only 30 percent or even less. This kind of statistic is no surprise to the education
system in the Philippine context, students who hail from Philippine urban areas have the financial capacity to complete at
the very least their primary school education.
The second issue that the Philippine educational system faces is the budget for education. Although it has been mandated
by the Philippine C onstitution for the government to allocate the highest proportion of its government to education, the
Philippines remains to have one of the lowest budget allocations to education among ASEAN countries. The third
prevalent issue the Philippine educational system continuously encounters is the affordability of education (or lack
thereof). A big disparity in educational achievements is evident across various social groups. Socioeconomically

disadvantaged students otherwise known as students who are members of high and low -income poverty-stricken
families, have immensely higher drop-out rates in the elementary level. Additionally, most freshmen students at the
tertiary level come from relatively well-off families. Lastly, there is a large proportion of mismatch, wherein there exists a
massive proportion of mismatch between training and actual jobs. This stands to be a major issue at the tertiary level
and it is furthermore the cause of the continuation of a substantial amount of educated yet unemployed or
underemployed people.
THE 1987 CONSTITUTIONS
Article XIV Sections 1-5(5)
Section 1. The state shall protect and promote the right of all the citizens to quality
education at all levels and shall take appropriate steps to make such education accessible
to all.
Section 2. The state shall:
1. Establish, maintain and support a complete, adequate and integrated system
of education relevant to the needs of the people and society;
2. Establish and maintain s system of free public education in the elementary and
high school levels. Without limiting the natural rights of parents to rear their
children, elementary education is compulsory for all children of school age;
3. Establish and maintain a system of scholarship grants, student loan programs,
subsidies and other incentives which shall be available to deserving students in
both public and private schools, especially to the underprivileged;
4. Encourage non- formal, informal and indigenous learning system, as well as
self- learning independent and out-of-school study programs particularly
those that respond to community needs; and
5. Provide adult citizens, the disabled and out-of-school youth with training in
civics, vocational efficiency and skills.
Section 3.
1. All educational institutions shall include the study of the Constitution as part
of the curricula.
2. They shall inculcate patriotism and nationalism, foster love of humanity,
respect for human rights, appreciation of the role of national heroes in the
historical development of the country, teach the rights and duties of
citizenship, strengthen ethical and spiritual values, develop moral character
and personal discipline, encourage critical and creative thinking, broaden
scientific and technological knowledge and promote efficiency.
3. At the option expressed in writing by the parent or guardians, religion shall be
allowed to be taught to their children or wards in the public elementary and
high schools within the regular class hours by instructors designated or
approved by the religious authorities of the religion to which the children or
wards belong, additional cost to the Government.
Section 4.

1. The state recognizes the complementary roles of the public and private
institutions in the educational system and shall exercise reasonable
supervision and regulation of all educational institutions.
2. Educational institutions, other than those established by religious groups and
mission boards, shall be allowed solely by citizens of the Philippines or
corporations or associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is
owned by such citizens. The Congress may, however, require increased Filipino
equity participation in all educational institutions. The control and
administration of educational institutions shall vested in citizens of the
Philippines. No educational institution shall be established exclusively for
aliens and no group of aliens shall comprise more than one third of the
enrollment in any school. The provisions of this subsection shall not apply to
schools established for foreign diplomatic personnel and their dependents
and, unless otherwise provided by law, for other foreign temporary residents.
3. All revenues and assets of non- stock, non- profit educational institutions used
actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes shall be exempt
from taxes and duties. Upon the dissolution or cessation of the corporate
existence of such institutions, their assets shall be disposed of in the manner
provided by law. Proprietary educational institutions, including those
cooperatively owned, may likewise be entitled to such exemptions subject to
the limitations provided by law including restrictions on dividends and
provisions for reinvestment.
4. Subject to conditions prescribed by law, all grants endowments, donations or
contributions used actually, directly and exclusively for educational purposes
shall be exempt from tax.
Section 5.
1. The State shall take into account regional and sectoral needs and conditions
and shall encourage local planning in the development of educational policies
and programs.
2. Academic freedom shall be enjoyed in all institutions of higher learning.
3. Every citizen has a right to select a profession or course of study, subject to
fair, reasonable and equitable admission and academic requirements.
4. The State shall enhance the right of teachers to professional advancement.
Non- teaching academic and non-academic personnel shall enjoy the
protection of the State.
5. The State shall assign the highest budgetary priority to education and ensure
that teaching will attract and retain its rightful share of the best available
talents through adequate remuneration and other means of job satisfaction
and fulfillment.
BATAS PAMBANSA BLG. 232 (THE
EDUCATION ACT OF 1982)

This was an act providing for the establishment and maintenance of an integrated system
of education. In accordance with Section 2, this act shall apply to and govern both formal
and non- formal system in public and private schools in all levels of the entire educational
system.
As provided by this Act, the national development goals are as follows:
1. To achieve and maintain an accelerating rate of economic development and
social progress.
2. To assure the maximum participation of all the people in the attainment and
enjoyment of the benefits of such growth; and
3. To achieve and strengthen national unity and consciousness and preserve,
develop and promote desirable cultural, moral and spiritual values in changing
world.
It is also stated in Section 3 that:
The State shall promote the right of every individual to relevant quality education,
regardless of sex, age, creed socio- economic status, physical and mental conditions, racial
or ethnic origin, political or other affiliation. The State shall therefore promote and
maintain equality of access to education as well as the benefits of education by all its
citizens.
RIGHTS OF STUDENTS IN SCHOOL (Section 9)
1. The right to receive competent instruction, relevant quality education.
2. The right to freely choose their field of study subject to the existing curricula
and continue their course up to graduation, except in cases of academic
deficiency or violations of disciplinary regulations.
3. The right to school guidance and counseling services.
4. The right to access to his owns school records and the confidentiality of it.
5. The right to issuance of official certificates, diplomas, transcript of records,
grades, transfer credentials and similar document within thirty days from
request.
6. The right to publish a student newspaper and invite resource persons during
symposia, assemblies and other activities.
7. The right to free expression of opinions and suggestions and to effective
channels of communication with appropriate academic and administrative
bodies of the school or institutions.
8. The right to form or establish, join and participate in organizations and
societies recognized by the school…, or to form, join and maintain
organizations and societies for purposes not contrary to law.
9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions except those approved by
their organizations and societies.

RIGHT OF ALL SCHOOL PERSONNEL (Section
10)
1. Free expression of opinions and suggestions.
2. To be provided with free legal service by the appropriate government office in
case of public school personnel and the school authorities concerned in case
of private school personnel, when charged in administrative, civil and/or
criminal proceedings, by parties other than the school authorities concerned,
for actions committed directly in the lawful discharged of professional duties
and/or in defense of school policies.
3. Establish join, maintain labor organization of their choice to promote their
welfare and defend their interest.
4. To be free from involuntary contributions except those imposed by their own
organizations.
SPECIAL RIGHTS and/or PRIVILEGES OF
TEACHING OR ACADEMIC STAFF (Section 11)
1. Right to be free compulsory assignment not related to their duties defined in
their appointment or employment contracts unless compensated thereof.
(additional compensation Sec. 14 R.A. 4670- at least 25% his regular
remuneration)
2. Right to intellectual property………
3. Teachers are persons in authority when in lawful discharge of duties and
responsibilities… shall therefore be accorded due respect and protection
(Commonwealth Act No. 578)
4. Teachers shall be given opportunity to choose career alternatives for
advancements.
RIGHTS OF ADMINISTRATORS (Section 12)
1. School administrators shall be deemed persons in authority while in the lawful
discharge of their duties and responsibilities…. Shall be accorded due respect
and protection (Commonwealth Act No. 578)
RIGHTS OF SCHOOLS (Section 13)
1. The right of their governing boards…….to adopt and enforce administrative or
management systems.
2. The right of institutions of higher learning to determine on academic grounds
who shall be admitted to study, who may teach, and who shall be the subjects
of the study and research.

MAINTENANCE OF QUALITY EDUCATION
1. Voluntary Accreditation (Section 29)
2. Teachers and Administrators obligations and qualification (Sections 176 and
17)
3. Government Financial Assistance to Private Schools (Section 41)
OTHER LEGAL BASES
1. Act No. 74
This law was enacted on January 21, 1901 by the Philippine Commission, and provided:
a. establishment of the Department of Public Instruction headed by the General
superintendent
b. the archipelago was divided into school divisions and districts for effective management
of the school system.
c. English was made as medium of instruction in all levels of schooling
d. optional religious instructions in all schools (Section 16)
e. establishment of a Trade school in Manila (Philippine College of Arts and Trade- PCAT
now known as Technological University of the Philippines), a school of Agriculture in
Negros, a Normal school in Manila (Philippine Normal School) (Section 18)
• Philippine Normal School, however, was renamed Philippine Normal College (PNC) by
virtue of Republic Act No. 416 on June 18, 1949. And on December 26, 1991, the PNC was
converted to Philippine Normal University as provided by Republic Act No. 7168.
2. Act No. 2706
This was known as the “Private School Law”, enacted on March 10, 1917 by the Philippine
Legislature, which made obligatory the recognition and inspection of private schools and
colleges by the Secretary of Public Instruction so as to maintain a standard of efficiency in
all private schools and colleges in the country.
This law was amended by Commonwealth Act No. 180 passed on November 13, 1936
which provided that:
The Secretary of Public Instruction was vested with power to “supervise, inspect and
regulate said schools and colleges in order to determine the efficiency of instruction given
in the same.”
And all private schools come under the supervision and regulation of the Secretary of DPI,
thus eliminating “diploma mills” and substandard schools.
3. Commonwealth Act No. 1 (Amended by R.A. 9163)

Known as the “National Defense Act” passed by the Philippine Assembly on December 21,
1935, which provided in Section 81 that:
“Preparatory Military training shall be given with the youth in the elementary grade school
at the age of ten years and shall extend through the remainder of his schooling into
college or post-secondary education.
By virtue of Presidential Decree 1706, issued by the late President Marcos on August 8,
1980, otherwise known as the “National Service Law”, Commonwealth Act No. 1 was
amended, and required all citizens to render, civic welfare service, law enforcement service
and military service.
4. Commonwealth Act No. 80
This law created the Office of Adult Education on October 26, 1936, so as to eliminate
illiteracy and to give vocational and citizenship training to adult citizens of the country.
5. Commonwealth Act No. 578
Enacted on June 8, 1940, conferred the status of “persons in authority” upon the teachers,
professors, and persons charged with the supervision of public or duly recognized private
schools, colleges and universities.
This Act also provided a penalty of imprisonment ranging from six months and one day to
six years and a fine ranging from 500 to 1, 000 pesos upon any person found guilty of
assault upon those teaching personnel.
6. Commonwealth Act No. 586 (Repealed by R.A. 896)
This is known as Education Act of 1940. It was approved on August 7, 1940 by the
Philippine Assembly.
The law provided for the following:
a. reduction of seven- year elementary course to six- year elementary course.
b. fixing the school entrance age to seven.
c. national support of elementary education.
d. compulsory attendance in the primary grades for all children who enroll in Grade I.
e. introduction of double- single session- one class in the morning and another in the
afternoon under one teacher to accommodate more children.
7. Commonwealth Act No. 589

This law, approved on August 19, 1940, established a school ritual in all public and private
elementary and secondary schools in the Philippines.
The ritual consists of solemn and patriotic ceremonies that include the singing of the
National Anthem and Patriotic Pledges.
8. Republic Act No. 139 (Repealed by R. A. 8047)
Enacted on June 14, 1947, and the Board of Textbooks. This law provided that all public
schools must only use books that are approved by the Board for a period of six years from
the date of their adoption.
The private schools may use books of their choice, provided the Board of Textbooks has no
objections with those books.
9. Republic Act No. 896
Enacted on June 20, 1953 and known as the Elementary Education Act of 1953, it repealed
Commonwealth Act 586 and provided for the following:
a. restoration of Grade VII (but never implemented due to lack of funds)
b. abolition of the double- single session and return to the former practice of only one
c. class under one teacher in the primary and three teachers to two classes or five teachers
to three classes in the intermediate level
d. compulsory completion of the elementary grades
e. compulsory enrollment of children in the public schools upon attaining seven years of
age.
10. Republic Act No. 1124 (Repealed by R. A. 7722)
Approved on June 16, 1954, this law created the Board of National Education charged with
the duty of formulating general educational policies and directing the educational interests
of the nation.
However, this Board which was later renamed National Board of Education (P.D. No. 1), was
abolished bu virtue of the Creation of the board of Higher Education as stipulated in Batas
Pambansa Blg. 232. The Board’s function is now assumed by the commission on Higher
Education or CHED by virtue of Republic Act No. 7722.
11. Republic Act No. 1265 (amended by R. A. 8491)

This law was approved on June 11, 1955, and provided that a daily flag ceremony shall be
compulsory in all educational institutions. This includes the singing of the Philippine
National Anthem.
12. Republic Act No. 1425
It was approved on June 12, 1956, it prescribed the inclusion in the curricula of all schools,
both public and private, from elementary schools to the universities, the life, works and
writings of Jose Rizal especially the Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo.
13. Republic Act No. 4670
Known as the “Magna Carta for Public School Teachers”. This was approved on June 18,
1966 to promote and improve the social and economic status of public school teachers,
their living and working conditions, their employment and career prospects.
It also provided the following:
1. Recruitment qualifications for teachers
2. Code of Professional Conduct for Teachers
3. Teaching hours- 6 hours of classroom teaching (maximum load)
4. Additional compensation- 25% of the regular remuneration
5. Health and injury benefits (thru the GSIS)
6. One year study leave (sabbatical leave) after seven years of continuous
teaching, the teacher should receive 60% of the monthly salary.
7. One range salary increase upon retirement (basis computing the retirement
fee).
8. Freedom to form organizations.
14. Republic Act No. 1079
Approved on June 15, 1959, it provided that Civil Service eligibility shall be permanent and
shall have no time limit.
15. Republic Act No. 6655
Known as the “Free Public Secondary Education Act of 1988”, it was approved on May
26, 1988 and provided for:
a. Free public secondary education to all qualified citizens and promote quality education
at all level.
b. No tuition or other fees shall be collected except fees related to membership in the
school community such I.D., student organization and publication.

c. Non- payment of these shall not hinder a student from enrollment or graduation.
d. Nationalization of all public secondary schools ( Section 7)
e. A student who fails in majority of his academic subjects for two consecutive years could
no longer avail of their program.
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