History of Architecture prehistoric period onwards

History of Architecture

1. History of Architecture

2. Prehistoric Period Pre historic period is the period before written records were devised and Historic Period was post the development of written records Eventually as human body developed so did the understanding of seasons and need for domestication of animals 2 forces were responsible for dwellings and settlements to be formed Functional needs Availability of materials and the technological advancement Settlements started developing near caves or on shores of rivers and streams Man and his appearance as a hunter ( 13 million years ago) Purely wild life, man was apes, hunting on animals, no communication and no settlements Man in Barbaric stage (3-4 lakhs years ago) man learnt to live in groups and still leading a nomadic life and hunting for food, water and security ( defensive and offensive activities against animals) Man into a settled life with discovery of fire, tools and agriculture etc.

3. Egyptian Architecture

4. Time Period : From 5000 B.C – 1 ST Century A.D Geological Influence: Egypt known as “ The Land of Pharaoh” & “Desert Land” Despite being a desert Egyptians were wealthy and flourished owing to the flooding Nile River leaving behind rich fertile soil Nile yearly flooding cycle was predictable- flood, plant and harvest The Nile River was their means of commutation, highway for trading and lifeline Beyond the riverbank, barren desert and rugged cliffs prevented attack from invaders Starting from the third millennium B.C to the Roman Period , Egypt was a part of the Persian Empire for 2 centuries , before the invasion of Alexander the Great

5. Historical Influence The name “Egypt” comes from the Greek “ Aegyptos ” which was the Greek pronunciation of the name Egyptian which means “House of the Spirit of Ptah” who was a very early God of the Ancient Egyptians The form of Government was Monarchy The Pharaoh was considered the King of Egypt, Ruler Deserts on both sides of Nile provided natural protection from invaders and reduced interaction with other civilizations. Egypt developed mostly in isolation and is therefore quite unique as a culture Nile was worshipped as a God being the giver of life and benevolence Most of Egypt’s history focused around Lower Egypt around the Nile delta which flows into the Mediterranean Sea Upper Egypt developed later upstream when reliable transportation was developed Menes the king of Upper Egypt united the two regions Upper and Lower with the capital being- Memphis

6. Old Kingdom (2660-2180 BC) Referred to as the “ Age of Pyramids” The Great Pyramids of Khufu , Khafre, Menkaure are built at Giza. Pyramids of Sahure, Neferikare , Raneferef , Neuserre are built at Abusir Pharaoh Pepe II ruled till the end of Old Kingdom was a Pharaoh for around 90 years Ships were built to travel in the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea Middle Kingdom (2180-1550 BC) Referred to as the “Period of Reunification” or the “Classical Age” Fragmentation of centralized power. Kings in Thebes established control over whole Europe. Chaos leads central administration in Lower Egypt to disappear following infiltration by Hyksos an Asiatic people in the Nile Delta. Upper Egypt was dominated by Kings in Thebes New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC ) Referred to as the golden period of the Egyptian Civilization, it was the time of wealth, prosperity and power Theban king Ahmose expels the Hyksos and reunites Egypt. Reigns of such kings as Amenhotep and Thutmose Memphis was the main residential city and thus was the capital of the kingdom Ramses II (1290-1224 BC) divides power in Middle East with the Hittites. Qantir capital of Egypt. Invasions of mysterious sea peoples wreck havoc throughout Mediterranean Region Pharaoh Akhenaten converted from the traditional religion of Egypt to the worship of one all powerful God named “Aten” He Built a new capital city named “Amarna” in honour of Aten

7. Social Structure and Religious Influence Pyramids were built owing to the belief that “Life after Death” and for preservation of the dead body. Pharaoh was considered not only the God but also “God” and after death he became “Osiris” i.e “The God of Dead” Egyptians were “Monotheistic” in theory and “Polytheistic” in practice Pharaohs were also the Political and Religious Rulers and spent most of their life and resources in building a lavish life after death for themselves

8. Major milestones of the Egyptian Era Domestication of animals to pull ploughs Irrigation Canals were dug from the river to the fields as well Storage of grains and other perishable goods had been started for drought and adverse climatic situations Papyrus plants that grew on the coast were used to make sails, ropes and paper Hunting, Fishing and Harvesting and Cultivation activities were carried out Dikes were built on the sides of the Nile to protect villages and farm land from over flooding Egyptians developed stone tools and made bricks with mud and clay

9. Architectural Style Roof was not an important consideration Flat roofs sufficed to cover and exclude heat No windows to cut heat penetration and sandstorm. Spaces were lit by skylights, roof slits, clerestories Structures built had no downspouts, drainage, gutters due to absence of rain. Religion is the dominant element in Egyptian architecture The architectural character reflected the belief that the house on Earth is temporary and the one afterlife is considered the permanent one. Thus tombs were more lavishly and intricately designed

10. Wall and Mouldings The Batter Wall with a diminishing width towards the top for stability Unbroken massive walls for creating uninterrupted spaces Moulding designs were inspired by reeds Art and Art Forms Hieroglyphics were pictorial representations of religion, history and daily life Hieroglyphics is derived from the practice of scratching pictures on mud plaster walls Common capital shape forms used were the lotus, papyrus, palm which depicted the Egyptian plants and were symbols of fertility as well. The shaft of the capitals represented bundle of stems

11. Capitals and Coloumns

12. Architectural Forms Mastabas Pyramids Tombs Temples Pylons Dwellings Obelisks

13. Greek Architecture

14. Chronology • The ancient Greek period is subdivided into four periods on a pragmatic basis of pottery styles and political events: • The Greek Dark Ages (c.1100-c.750 BC) feature the use of geometric designs on pottery. • The Archaic period (c.750-c.480 BC) follows, in which artists made larger free-standing sculptures in stiff, hieratic poses with the dreamlike 'archaic smile'. The Archaic period is often taken to end with the overthrow of the last tyrant of Athens in 510 BC. • The Classical period (c.500-323 BC) is characterised by a style which was considered by later observers to be exemplary (i.e. 'classical')—for instance the Parthenon. • The Hellenistic period (323-146 BC) is when Greek culture and power expanded into the near and middle east. This period begins with the death of Alexander and ends with the Roman conquest.

15. Geography The mainland of Greece is rocky and mountenious with few substantial forests Almost completely surrounded by Mediterranean Sea Greece has more than 1400 islands Geology The most freely available building material is stone Limestone was readily There was abundance of high quality marble both on the mainland and islands, particularly Paros and Naxos Climate The Greek climate is a pure Mediterranean type of climate( the nice sun and the heavy rains) that encouraged outdoor activity and made the architecture type opened to outside . • That’s made the Greek structures tried to be in harmony with the natural landscape),applied by 2 points : 1. most public ceremonies took place in the open air, which resulted in building types such as the Greek theatre . 2. The sunny climate with sudden showers necessitated the porticoes & colonnades that were important features of the of the Greek Architecture . 3. Climatic factor: Greek Architecture • Greece enjoyed a position intermediate between (the rigorous surroundings of the Northern nations) and (the relaxing conditions of Eastern life) . Hence the Greek character combined the activity of the North with the passivity of the East in a way that lead to the growth of a unique civilization

16. Religious factor • Greeks people considered as a religious people. • That’s appeared by the Worship centered on sacrificial : Altars in open-air enclosures, small chapels or household shrines, and countless temples . • The Greek religion was in the main a worship of natural phenomena (nature-worship ,: major and minor), of which the gods were personifications. • Gods were conceived in human form, and represented by small idols, rocks and stone pillars . • When temple architecture began, the Greeks began to represent their gods by large statues. • The religious ceremonies of classical Greek included sacred games, ritual dances, athletic contests and arts. • The Greek gods were personifications of particular elements, or were deified heroes, and each town or district has its own local preferences, ceremonies and traditions

17. The building system for these two periods structure is the column trabeate

18. The two types of molding developed by the Greeks, and still in use today, are the  cyma recta, with an outward S shaped curve, and the cyma reversa , with an inward S curve . These were used primarily under the main gables of a temple roofline while rounded moldings, such as the astragal, appeared on the flat surfaces. The ancient Greek moulding profiles tend to use irregular curves while Roman examples tend to use regular curves. The interest and vitality created by irregular curves is thought by some to be preferable to the more regular (and potentially monotonous) effect of regular curves. Certain refinements in mouldings provided correct optical illusions using the convex method

19. Orders The Greeks are credited with originating the three orders of the classical language of architecture Columns were understood by the Greeks to be anthropomorphic or representative of the body of a human The base suggests the feet, the shaft the torso and the capital the head Each order had its own conventions about the design of the entablature and divided into 3 section Cornice Frieze Architrave

20. Doric Oder It represents the proportions of a man’s body, it’s strength and beauty. It is made up of three elements viz. Stylobate Coloumn Entablature Ionic Order It is said to represent the shape of a woman with its delicacy and feminine slenderness It is designed to be seen from the front only Corianthian order The Corianthian coloumn , the most beautifully ornate of the three orders represents the figure of a maiden The Corianthian order takes its name from the city of Corinth in Greece It’s rportions are similar to the ionic order but has a different capital It is designed to be seen from all directions

21. Building System Dominant lines are horizontal and vertical All buildings had architectural scale and size Columns are an essential element of any building Walls are made of regular ashlars ( masonry of large square cut stones used as a facing on walls of brick and stone rubble) Buildings were polychromatic Building materials were limestone, white marble, timber and terracotta Natural lighting method was preferred but there were no windows, skylights made of thin translucent marble were made to facilitate it Structures like theatres were acoustically efficient too The streets were planned in the space available after the buildings and structures were built

22. The Greek Architectural Wonders Propylaea Pinacotheca Statue of Athena Promachos Erectheion Parthenon Temple of Nike Apteros Old Temple of Athena Stoa of Eumeses Theatre of Dionysus Odeon of Herodes Atticus Temenos Acropolis at Pergamon Prytaneion , Bouleuterion or Assembly Hall Odeion

23. Roman Architecture

24. After the Emperor came his family, the royal / imperial family The Senators were the members of the senate who were responsible for major decisions for the kingdom by casting their votes. They held important positions and offices The Equestrian order of people were the Patricians and Plebians. Patricians were wealthy land owners and descendants of the founding fathers. They were not allowed to marry plebians Plebians were lower in class to the patricians, they didn’t enjoy the rights to vote Rich freedmen were the former slaves who had been Social Hierarchy System

25. The Roman Style of Architecture The ancient Roman style is said to be a reproductive form of the Greek and Etruscan architecture Although the Romans have borrowed much of the Greek style, they have used their own knowledge in construction to improve the arch and vault for the architectural community The Romans built their foundations out of compact sub soil and sometimes even rock The foundation was often 2-3 m thick Often when the ground was damp, floor boards would be placed on short pillars allowing the ground beneath to dry out In important public buildings small clay pipes and vents were placed in the walls to form a sort of chimney and the exterior face was covered with plaster Romans used proportions of buildings which didn’t relate to human body measures Romans focused primarily on street systems as a basis for city planning and then came the arrangements of other buildings and houses since by then military troupes had started being maintained. Ancient Romans were responsible for significant developments in housing and public hygiene for eg. Public baths and latrines, under floor heating in the form of hypocaust, mica glazing and piped hot and cold water Romans built buildings such as warehouses, amphitheaters, libraries, museums and apartment blocks which redefined lifestyle of the people of that era Some of the major architectural achievements achieved in the Roman era are the arch, dome, vault, columns and aqueduct

26. Floors and Roofs In ancient Rome floors were normally constructed out of wooden structures and boards The floor boards were laid over cross beams that rested on supports from the surrounding walls For extra comfort wooden floors were often covered in straw and then covered over mortar. When this is done the floors can even be tiled Roofs were made out of wooden trusses supported by the walls and covered in tiles Constructing Walls In ancient Rome there were a series of techniques that could be used to create walls Opus reticulatum - a form of brick work that consists of diamond shaped tufa blocks and applied with mortar Opus incertum - constructing technique that uses irregular shaped uncut rocks that are applied with mortar Opus mixtum - application of diamond shaped tufa blocks and bricks that are applied with mortar

27. Columns Columns were very popular in ancient Roman architecture, they were often stacked on top of each other and at times used decorative purposes Columns were generally made out of wood or stone and mortar while more decorative ones were hand carved Arch It is said to be invented by the Romans however the arch has been around since prehistoric times Modified by the Romans, the arch during this times could support large amount of weight. It was used to provide extra support to a structure of a building and was constructed out of brick, stone or concrete

28. Building materials and tools The Romans used many materials to create everything from masonry pastes to walls and flooring These are a few of the materials used: Chalk Sand Pozzolanic concrete Broken pottery Pumice stone Limestone Sandstone Marble Granite Wood Terracotta Ceramics Tin Iron These are the few of the tools that were used : Dioptra Levelling staff Groma Axes Adze Lathes Saws Planes Files Callipers Saw blades Folding rule Chisels Gouge Hammer Trepan Romans used many different tools to survey the land and construct buildings

29. Sectional View of Road Construction The need to move legions and trade goods in all weather led to the development of roads

30. Iconic Constructions of the Roman Era The Colosseum The Partheon The Baths of Caracalla The Temple of Fortuna Primigenia Amphitheatre at Nimes The Aqueducts The Basilica Flavian Amphitheatre Domus