HUMAN Psychology AND COUNSELLING NOTES.docx
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Oct 08, 2025
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About This Presentation
NOTES
Slide Content
THEORIES OF EMOTION
1. The James-Lange theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological
arousal. Theory states that emotional experience is a reaction to instinctive bodily events
that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment. We feel sorry
because we cry. We feel angry because we strike. We feel afraid because we tremble.
Event-----Physiological changes---Emotion
James and Lang proposed that human beings experience emotions as a result of
Physiological changes that produce specific sensations. The brain interprets the sensations
as particular kinds of emotional experiences.
2. The Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon (1932) and Phillip Bard disagreed with the James-Lange theory. According
to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional feelings and bodily arousal occur at the same time.
Thus, if you see a dangerous snake, brain activity will simultaneously produce bodily
arousal, running, and a feeling of fear.
3. The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and
cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the
emotional experience. The two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic
nervous system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and our experience is
that of fear.
4. Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory
Lazarus developed the cognitive-mediational theory that asserts our emotions are determined by
our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional
response, and it is immediate and often unconscious.
PERCEPTION
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
in order to give meaning to their environment. It is the process by which the brain integrates,
organizes, and interprets sensory impressions to create representations of the world.
1. The James-Lange theory
The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise from physiological
arousal. Theory states that emotional experience is a reaction to instinctive bodily events
that occur as a response to some situation or event in the environment. We feel sorry
because we cry. We feel angry because we strike. We feel afraid because we tremble.
Event-----Physiological changes---Emotion
James and Lang proposed that human beings experience emotions as a result of
Physiological changes that produce specific sensations. The brain interprets the sensations
as particular kinds of emotional experiences.
2. The Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon (1932) and Phillip Bard disagreed with the James-Lange theory. According
to the Cannon-Bard theory, emotional feelings and bodily arousal occur at the same time.
Thus, if you see a dangerous snake, brain activity will simultaneously produce bodily
arousal, running, and a feeling of fear.
3. The Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
According to this theory, emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and
cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is interpreted in context to produce the
emotional experience. The two-factor theory maintains that the snake elicits sympathetic
nervous system activation that is labeled as fear given the context, and our experience is
that of fear.
4. Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory
Lazarus developed the cognitive-mediational theory that asserts our emotions are determined by
our appraisal of the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the stimulus and the emotional
response, and it is immediate and often unconscious.
PERCEPTION
Perception is a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions
in order to give meaning to their environment. It is the process by which the brain integrates,
organizes, and interprets sensory impressions to create representations of the world.
Factors that influence perception:
These factors can reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived or in the
context of the situation in which the perception is made. When an individual looks at a target
and attempts to interpret what he/she sees that interpretation is heavily influenced by the
personal characteristic of the individual perceiver.
Personal characteristic that affect perception include person ‘s attitudes, personality motives,
interests, past experience and expectations.
Characteristic of the target being observed can effect what is perceived e.g. loud people are
more likely to be noticed in a group than quiet ones.
Factors in the perceiver
Attitudes Motives Interest Experience Expectations.
Factors in the situation
Time Work setting Social setting Factors in the target Novelty Motion Sounds Size
Background Proximity Similarity
The context in which objects are seen is important. The time at which an object or event is seen
can influence attention such as locations, light, heat and any number of situational factors.
Reasons as to why people see things differently.
Their physical senses vary e.g. colour blindness, less than perfect vision, poor hearing, and
imperfect sense of smell.
Healthy differences.
Their general intelligence levels vary.
Nature and effects of past experiences are different for individuals.
Individual values and attitudes cause people to see things differently
Personality differs and thus individuals tend to adopt particular stances towards outside events.
Individuals ‘aspirations and goals also differ widely and these affect the relative importance
attached to outside events.
Status also effect on perception.
The situation or context in which perception take place can have a major bearing on the
behavior of the perceiver.
These factors can reside in the perceiver, in the object or target being perceived or in the
context of the situation in which the perception is made. When an individual looks at a target
and attempts to interpret what he/she sees that interpretation is heavily influenced by the
personal characteristic of the individual perceiver.
Personal characteristic that affect perception include person ‘s attitudes, personality motives,
interests, past experience and expectations.
Characteristic of the target being observed can effect what is perceived e.g. loud people are
more likely to be noticed in a group than quiet ones.
Factors in the perceiver
Attitudes Motives Interest Experience Expectations.
Factors in the situation
Time Work setting Social setting Factors in the target Novelty Motion Sounds Size
Background Proximity Similarity
The context in which objects are seen is important. The time at which an object or event is seen
can influence attention such as locations, light, heat and any number of situational factors.
Reasons as to why people see things differently.
Their physical senses vary e.g. colour blindness, less than perfect vision, poor hearing, and
imperfect sense of smell.
Healthy differences.
Their general intelligence levels vary.
Nature and effects of past experiences are different for individuals.
Individual values and attitudes cause people to see things differently
Personality differs and thus individuals tend to adopt particular stances towards outside events.
Individuals ‘aspirations and goals also differ widely and these affect the relative importance
attached to outside events.
Status also effect on perception.
The situation or context in which perception take place can have a major bearing on the
behavior of the perceiver.
STRESS
Stress as a demanding or threatening event or situation. Stress is the physiological responses that
occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations. Stress is to view it as a process
whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or
threatening to his well-being.
Good Stress: Stress can motivate us to do things in our best interests. stress can be positive at
times, it can have deleterious health implications, contributing to the onset and progression of a
variety of physical illnesses and diseases.
Stress is an experience that evokes a variety of responses, including those that are physiological
(e.g., accelerated heart rate, headaches, or gastrointestinal problems), cognitive (e.g., difficulty
concentrating or making decisions), and behavioral (e.g., drinking alcohol, smoking, or taking
actions directed at eliminating the cause of the stress).
STRESSORS
Stressors are environmental events that may be judged as threatening or demanding;
stimuli that initiate the stress process. In general, stressors can be placed into one of two
broad categories: chronic and acute.
Chronic stressors include events that persist over an extended period of time, such as caring for
a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment, or imprisonment.
Acute stressors involve brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as
overwhelming well after the event has ended, such as breaking your leg.
Potential stressors can include major traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, as
well as other situations in which a person is regularly exposed to threat, challenge, or danger.
1. Traumatic Events
Some stressors involve traumatic events or situations in which a person is exposed to actual or
threatened death or serious injury. Stressors in this category include exposure to military combat,
Stress as a demanding or threatening event or situation. Stress is the physiological responses that
occur when faced with demanding or threatening situations. Stress is to view it as a process
whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or
threatening to his well-being.
Good Stress: Stress can motivate us to do things in our best interests. stress can be positive at
times, it can have deleterious health implications, contributing to the onset and progression of a
variety of physical illnesses and diseases.
Stress is an experience that evokes a variety of responses, including those that are physiological
(e.g., accelerated heart rate, headaches, or gastrointestinal problems), cognitive (e.g., difficulty
concentrating or making decisions), and behavioral (e.g., drinking alcohol, smoking, or taking
actions directed at eliminating the cause of the stress).
STRESSORS
Stressors are environmental events that may be judged as threatening or demanding;
stimuli that initiate the stress process. In general, stressors can be placed into one of two
broad categories: chronic and acute.
Chronic stressors include events that persist over an extended period of time, such as caring for
a parent with dementia, long-term unemployment, or imprisonment.
Acute stressors involve brief focal events that sometimes continue to be experienced as
overwhelming well after the event has ended, such as breaking your leg.
Potential stressors can include major traumatic events, significant life changes, daily hassles, as
well as other situations in which a person is regularly exposed to threat, challenge, or danger.
1. Traumatic Events
Some stressors involve traumatic events or situations in which a person is exposed to actual or
threatened death or serious injury. Stressors in this category include exposure to military combat,
threatened or actual physical assaults (e.g., physical attacks, sexual assault, robbery, childhood
abuse), terrorist attacks, natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, floods), and automobile accidents.
2. Life Changes
Many potential stressors we face involve events or situations that require us to make changes in
our ongoing lives and require time as we adjust to those changes. Examples include death of a
close family member, marriage, divorce, and moving.
3. Hassles
Daily hassles minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives and are capable
of producing stress (e.g. intolerable coworkers, severe weather, arguments with friends or
family).
4. Other Stressors
Stressors can include situations in which one is frequently exposed to challenging and unpleasant
events, such as difficult, demanding, or unsafe working conditions. Although most jobs and
occupations can at times be demanding, some are clearly more stressful than others (e.g. police
officer, firefighter, social worker, air traffic controller clerical and secretarial work).
STRESS AND ILNESS
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Psychophysiological disorders are physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought
about or worsened by stress and emotional factors.
Type of Psychophysiological DisorderExamples
Cardiovascular hypertension, coronary heart disease
Gastrointestinal irritable bowel syndrome
Respiratory asthma, allergy
Musculoskeletal low back pain, tension headaches
Skin acne, eczema, psoriasis
REGULATION OF STRESS
I. Coping Styles
Coping refers to mental and behavioral efforts that we use to deal with problems relating to
stress, including its presumed cause and the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produces.
abuse), terrorist attacks, natural disasters (e.g., earthquakes, floods), and automobile accidents.
2. Life Changes
Many potential stressors we face involve events or situations that require us to make changes in
our ongoing lives and require time as we adjust to those changes. Examples include death of a
close family member, marriage, divorce, and moving.
3. Hassles
Daily hassles minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our everyday lives and are capable
of producing stress (e.g. intolerable coworkers, severe weather, arguments with friends or
family).
4. Other Stressors
Stressors can include situations in which one is frequently exposed to challenging and unpleasant
events, such as difficult, demanding, or unsafe working conditions. Although most jobs and
occupations can at times be demanding, some are clearly more stressful than others (e.g. police
officer, firefighter, social worker, air traffic controller clerical and secretarial work).
STRESS AND ILNESS
PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS
Psychophysiological disorders are physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought
about or worsened by stress and emotional factors.
Type of Psychophysiological DisorderExamples
Cardiovascular hypertension, coronary heart disease
Gastrointestinal irritable bowel syndrome
Respiratory asthma, allergy
Musculoskeletal low back pain, tension headaches
Skin acne, eczema, psoriasis
REGULATION OF STRESS
I. Coping Styles
Coping refers to mental and behavioral efforts that we use to deal with problems relating to
stress, including its presumed cause and the unpleasant feelings and emotions it produces.
In problem-focused coping, one attempts to manage or alter the problem that is causing one to
experience stress. They typically involve identifying the problem, considering possible solutions,
weighing the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative.
A problem-focused approach to managing stress means we actively try to do things to address
the problem.
Emotion-focused coping, in contrast, consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative
emotions associated with stress. These efforts may include avoiding, minimizing, or distancing
oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others (“I’m not as bad off as she is”), or
seeking something positive in a negative event (“Now that I’ve been fired, I can sleep in for a
few days”).
In a certain sense, emotion-focused coping can be thought of as treating the symptoms rather
than the actual cause.
While many stressors elicit both kinds of coping strategies, problem-focused coping is more
likely to occur when encountering stressors, we perceive as controllable, while emotion-focused
coping is more likely to predominate when faced with stressors that we believe we are powerless
to change. Clearly, emotion-focused coping is more effective in dealing with uncontrollable
stressors.
II. Control and Stress
Control refers to the achievement of desired outcomes. Perceived control is our beliefs about our
personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes, and it has major implications for
our health and happiness. For example, researchers in one investigation found that higher levels
of perceived control at one point in time were later associated with lower emotional and physical
reactivity to interpersonal stressors (Charles, 2007). Perceptions of control and coping abilities
are important in managing and coping with the stressors we encounter throughout life.
III. Social Support
experience stress. They typically involve identifying the problem, considering possible solutions,
weighing the costs and benefits of these solutions, and then selecting an alternative.
A problem-focused approach to managing stress means we actively try to do things to address
the problem.
Emotion-focused coping, in contrast, consists of efforts to change or reduce the negative
emotions associated with stress. These efforts may include avoiding, minimizing, or distancing
oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others (“I’m not as bad off as she is”), or
seeking something positive in a negative event (“Now that I’ve been fired, I can sleep in for a
few days”).
In a certain sense, emotion-focused coping can be thought of as treating the symptoms rather
than the actual cause.
While many stressors elicit both kinds of coping strategies, problem-focused coping is more
likely to occur when encountering stressors, we perceive as controllable, while emotion-focused
coping is more likely to predominate when faced with stressors that we believe we are powerless
to change. Clearly, emotion-focused coping is more effective in dealing with uncontrollable
stressors.
II. Control and Stress
Control refers to the achievement of desired outcomes. Perceived control is our beliefs about our
personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes, and it has major implications for
our health and happiness. For example, researchers in one investigation found that higher levels
of perceived control at one point in time were later associated with lower emotional and physical
reactivity to interpersonal stressors (Charles, 2007). Perceptions of control and coping abilities
are important in managing and coping with the stressors we encounter throughout life.
III. Social Support
Humans are social beings. We live in families and communities, and we form relationships with
other people in a variety of different contexts. When faced with problems, we usually share these
with others and give and receive help. This is commonly referred to as social support.
Informational support. This refers to the giving or receiving of information or advice that
supports problem-focused coping. It has been shown to have a positive effect on health
outcomes. The advice given by a grandmother to a new mother about child care is one example.
The information sheet given to a patient is another. Health care professionals and self-help
groups are important sources of informational support with respect to health and illness.
Emotional support. Cobb (1976) described this as information that leads individuals to feel
cared for, loved and valued. Emotional support provides reassurance and encouragement. It
facilitates the individual’s sense of self- confidence and self-esteem and is associated with
positive health.
Instrumental (tangible) support. This refers to the receiving of practical help to deal with
problems. It is essential at the beginning and often the end of the lifespan, and is beneficial in the
short term. For example, it may involve caring for a young baby, or giving an older or disabled
person assistance with housework, or driving a friend to a clinic appointment, or giving money to
enable someone to receive specialist equipment. But too much practical help can lead to
dependence.
Social affiliation/social network. This refers to a sense of belonging. It usually involves a
system of mutual obligations and reciprocal informational, emotional and instrumental social
support. A social network of family and friends normally provides this. Self-help groups can also
provide it. Reciprocity, giving as well as receiving help, is an important component of successful
social networks
IV. Stress Reduction Techniques
1. Exercise
A common technique people use to combat stress is exercise. It is well-established that exercise,
both of long and short duration, is beneficial for both physical and mental health. One reason
exercise may be beneficial is because it might buffer some of the deleterious physiological
mechanisms of stress.
other people in a variety of different contexts. When faced with problems, we usually share these
with others and give and receive help. This is commonly referred to as social support.
Informational support. This refers to the giving or receiving of information or advice that
supports problem-focused coping. It has been shown to have a positive effect on health
outcomes. The advice given by a grandmother to a new mother about child care is one example.
The information sheet given to a patient is another. Health care professionals and self-help
groups are important sources of informational support with respect to health and illness.
Emotional support. Cobb (1976) described this as information that leads individuals to feel
cared for, loved and valued. Emotional support provides reassurance and encouragement. It
facilitates the individual’s sense of self- confidence and self-esteem and is associated with
positive health.
Instrumental (tangible) support. This refers to the receiving of practical help to deal with
problems. It is essential at the beginning and often the end of the lifespan, and is beneficial in the
short term. For example, it may involve caring for a young baby, or giving an older or disabled
person assistance with housework, or driving a friend to a clinic appointment, or giving money to
enable someone to receive specialist equipment. But too much practical help can lead to
dependence.
Social affiliation/social network. This refers to a sense of belonging. It usually involves a
system of mutual obligations and reciprocal informational, emotional and instrumental social
support. A social network of family and friends normally provides this. Self-help groups can also
provide it. Reciprocity, giving as well as receiving help, is an important component of successful
social networks
IV. Stress Reduction Techniques
1. Exercise
A common technique people use to combat stress is exercise. It is well-established that exercise,
both of long and short duration, is beneficial for both physical and mental health. One reason
exercise may be beneficial is because it might buffer some of the deleterious physiological
mechanisms of stress.
In the 1970s, Herbert Benson, a cardiologist, developed a stress reduction method called the
relaxation response technique.
The relaxation response technique combines relaxation with transcendental meditation, and
consists of four components:
1. sitting upright on a comfortable chair with feet on the ground and body in a relaxed position,
2. a quiet environment with eyes closed,
3. repeating a word or a phrase—a mantra—to oneself, such as “alert mind, calm body,”
4. passively allowing the mind to focus on pleasant thoughts, such as nature or the warmth of
your blood nourishing your body.
The relaxation response approach is conceptualized as a general approach to stress reduction that
reduces sympathetic arousal, and it has been used effectively to treat people with high blood
pressure.
2. Biofeedback
Another technique to combat stress, biofeedback, was developed by Gary Schwartz at Harvard
University in the early 1970s.
Biofeedback is a technique that uses electronic equipment to accurately measure a person’s
neuromuscular and autonomic activity—feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory
signals.
The main assumption of this approach is that providing somebody biofeedback will enable the
individual to develop strategies that help gain some level of voluntary control over what are
normally involuntary bodily processes.
A number of different bodily measures have been used in biofeedback research, including
facial muscle movement, brain activity, and skin temperature, and it has been applied
successfully with individuals experiencing tension headaches, high blood pressure, asthma, and
phobias.
FRUSTRATION
It can be defined as a negative emotional state experienced when one’s efforts to pursue one ‘s
goals are blocked or thwarted. Behavior theorists define frustration as an obstacle blocking
satisfaction of a need or goal. Typically, the emotion associated with frustration involves anxiety.
relaxation response technique.
The relaxation response technique combines relaxation with transcendental meditation, and
consists of four components:
1. sitting upright on a comfortable chair with feet on the ground and body in a relaxed position,
2. a quiet environment with eyes closed,
3. repeating a word or a phrase—a mantra—to oneself, such as “alert mind, calm body,”
4. passively allowing the mind to focus on pleasant thoughts, such as nature or the warmth of
your blood nourishing your body.
The relaxation response approach is conceptualized as a general approach to stress reduction that
reduces sympathetic arousal, and it has been used effectively to treat people with high blood
pressure.
2. Biofeedback
Another technique to combat stress, biofeedback, was developed by Gary Schwartz at Harvard
University in the early 1970s.
Biofeedback is a technique that uses electronic equipment to accurately measure a person’s
neuromuscular and autonomic activity—feedback is provided in the form of visual or auditory
signals.
The main assumption of this approach is that providing somebody biofeedback will enable the
individual to develop strategies that help gain some level of voluntary control over what are
normally involuntary bodily processes.
A number of different bodily measures have been used in biofeedback research, including
facial muscle movement, brain activity, and skin temperature, and it has been applied
successfully with individuals experiencing tension headaches, high blood pressure, asthma, and
phobias.
FRUSTRATION
It can be defined as a negative emotional state experienced when one’s efforts to pursue one ‘s
goals are blocked or thwarted. Behavior theorists define frustration as an obstacle blocking
satisfaction of a need or goal. Typically, the emotion associated with frustration involves anxiety.
Frustration is one of the causes of stress. It arises when one's motivation to achieve a desired goal
is blocked. For example, an employee wants to finish a report before the end of the day but finds
that something or the others keep interrupting him at work. This can lead to his frustration.
Signs and Symptoms of Frustration
Frustration can be considered a problem–response behavior, and can have a number of effects,
depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build
until a level that is too great for the individual to contend with, and thus produce action directed
at solving the inherent problem.
In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside of
their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further
problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction).
Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or
modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs.
Severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-adaptive behavior blindly: Either it
may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or,
by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of
frustration as well.
It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the
opposite of those desired.
Causes of Frustration
Frustration is experienced whenever the results (goals) you are expecting do not seem to fit the
effort and action you are applying. Frustration will occur whenever your actions are producing
less and fewer results than you think they should.
The frustration we experience can be seen as the result of two types of goal blockage, i.e. internal
and external sources of frustration.
is blocked. For example, an employee wants to finish a report before the end of the day but finds
that something or the others keep interrupting him at work. This can lead to his frustration.
Signs and Symptoms of Frustration
Frustration can be considered a problem–response behavior, and can have a number of effects,
depending on the mental health of the individual. In positive cases, this frustration will build
until a level that is too great for the individual to contend with, and thus produce action directed
at solving the inherent problem.
In negative cases, however, the individual may perceive the source of frustration to be outside of
their control, and thus the frustration will continue to build, leading eventually to further
problematic behavior (e.g. violent reaction).
Stubborn refusal to respond to new conditions affecting the goal, such as removal or
modification of the barrier, sometimes occurs.
Severe punishment may cause individuals to continue non-adaptive behavior blindly: Either it
may have an effect opposite to that of reward and as such, discourage the repetition of the act, or,
by functioning as a frustrating agent, it may lead to fixation and the other symptoms of
frustration as well.
It follows that punishment is a dangerous tool, since it often has effects which are entirely the
opposite of those desired.
Causes of Frustration
Frustration is experienced whenever the results (goals) you are expecting do not seem to fit the
effort and action you are applying. Frustration will occur whenever your actions are producing
less and fewer results than you think they should.
The frustration we experience can be seen as the result of two types of goal blockage, i.e. internal
and external sources of frustration.
Internal sources of frustration usually involve the disappointment that get when we cannot
have what we want as a result of personal real or imagined deficiencies such as a lack of
confidence or fear of social situations. Another type of internal frustration results when a person
has competing goals that interfere with one another.
The second type of frustration results from external causes that involve conditions outside
the person such as physical roadblocks we encounter in life including other people and things
that get in the way of our goals. One of the biggest sources of frustration in today's world is the
frustration caused by the perception of wasting time. When you're standing in line at a bank, or
in traffic, or on the phone, watching your day go by when you have got so much to do, that's one
big frustration.
External frustration may be unavoidable. We can try to do something about it, like finding a
different route if we are stuck in traffic, or choosing a different restaurant if our first choice is
closed, but sometimes there is just nothing we can do about it. It is just the way life is. Our goal
in dealing with external sources of frustration is to recognize the wisdom of the Serenity
Prayer..."God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change; courage to change the
things I can; and wisdom to know the difference."
One can learn that while the situation itself may be upsetting and frustrating, you do not have to
be frustrated. Accepting life is one of the secrets of avoiding frustration.
1. Environment: The workplace environment and natural environment both may frustrate the
employees. For example, there may be break down in machinery, no canteen facilities, a wet
rainy day or a hot sunny day may prevent the employees to perform their duties efficiently.
2. Co-workers: Co-workers may be a major source of frustration. They may place barriers in the
way of goal attainment by delaying work, withholding work inputs, poor presentation of work,
affecting its quality, etc.
3. Employee Himself: The employee himself is rarely recognized as a source of frustration. The
employee may set higher goals than his abilities.
4. Management: Management may act as the source of frustration; they may block the promotion
of an employee due to change in organization ‘s promotional policies.
have what we want as a result of personal real or imagined deficiencies such as a lack of
confidence or fear of social situations. Another type of internal frustration results when a person
has competing goals that interfere with one another.
The second type of frustration results from external causes that involve conditions outside
the person such as physical roadblocks we encounter in life including other people and things
that get in the way of our goals. One of the biggest sources of frustration in today's world is the
frustration caused by the perception of wasting time. When you're standing in line at a bank, or
in traffic, or on the phone, watching your day go by when you have got so much to do, that's one
big frustration.
External frustration may be unavoidable. We can try to do something about it, like finding a
different route if we are stuck in traffic, or choosing a different restaurant if our first choice is
closed, but sometimes there is just nothing we can do about it. It is just the way life is. Our goal
in dealing with external sources of frustration is to recognize the wisdom of the Serenity
Prayer..."God grant me the serenity to accept the things I cannot change; courage to change the
things I can; and wisdom to know the difference."
One can learn that while the situation itself may be upsetting and frustrating, you do not have to
be frustrated. Accepting life is one of the secrets of avoiding frustration.
1. Environment: The workplace environment and natural environment both may frustrate the
employees. For example, there may be break down in machinery, no canteen facilities, a wet
rainy day or a hot sunny day may prevent the employees to perform their duties efficiently.
2. Co-workers: Co-workers may be a major source of frustration. They may place barriers in the
way of goal attainment by delaying work, withholding work inputs, poor presentation of work,
affecting its quality, etc.
3. Employee Himself: The employee himself is rarely recognized as a source of frustration. The
employee may set higher goals than his abilities.
4. Management: Management may act as the source of frustration; they may block the promotion
of an employee due to change in organization ‘s promotional policies.
Ways of handling Frustration
It is unrealistic to believe you can rid yourself of frustration forever, but you can learn to do
things to minimize your frustrations and to make sure you do not engage in unhealthy responses
to frustration.
You will need to learn to distinguish between what you hope will happen, what will probably
happen, and what actually happened. Life inevitably has its ups and downs -- its moments of
relaxation and times of tension. When you learn to truly accept this reality, you come one step
closer to being able to deal with frustration in a healthy way.
There are several types of problems that we encounter in everyday living: those which you know
can be solved, those which you are not sure if they can be solved or not, those you know are
totally out of your control, and those you are so confused about that you do not even know what
the problem is.
You need to be able to accurately assess your abilities to alter situations that prevent you from
solving your problems and reaching your goal. Then you will be able to assess which of the types
of problems you have encountered, and you will then be able to develop a realistic plan.
Learning to take things in stride will also help you to be more content and happy which, in turn,
will help you to more easily overcome anger and frustration. If you are upset, sad, anxious, or
depressed, you will have less patience and tolerance for everything and everybody.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public relations (PR) are the practice of managing the spread of information between an
individual or an organization and the public. Public relations may include an organization or
individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that
do not require direct payment.
The aim of public relations is to persuade the public, prospective customers, investors, partners,
employees, and other stakeholders to maintain a certain point of view about it, its leadership,
products, or of political decisions.
Common activities include working with the press and supplying written content for news and
feature articles together with arranging interviews with expert spokespeople, speaking at
conferences, winning industry awards and internal/employee communication.
It is unrealistic to believe you can rid yourself of frustration forever, but you can learn to do
things to minimize your frustrations and to make sure you do not engage in unhealthy responses
to frustration.
You will need to learn to distinguish between what you hope will happen, what will probably
happen, and what actually happened. Life inevitably has its ups and downs -- its moments of
relaxation and times of tension. When you learn to truly accept this reality, you come one step
closer to being able to deal with frustration in a healthy way.
There are several types of problems that we encounter in everyday living: those which you know
can be solved, those which you are not sure if they can be solved or not, those you know are
totally out of your control, and those you are so confused about that you do not even know what
the problem is.
You need to be able to accurately assess your abilities to alter situations that prevent you from
solving your problems and reaching your goal. Then you will be able to assess which of the types
of problems you have encountered, and you will then be able to develop a realistic plan.
Learning to take things in stride will also help you to be more content and happy which, in turn,
will help you to more easily overcome anger and frustration. If you are upset, sad, anxious, or
depressed, you will have less patience and tolerance for everything and everybody.
PUBLIC RELATIONS
Public relations (PR) are the practice of managing the spread of information between an
individual or an organization and the public. Public relations may include an organization or
individual gaining exposure to their audiences using topics of public interest and news items that
do not require direct payment.
The aim of public relations is to persuade the public, prospective customers, investors, partners,
employees, and other stakeholders to maintain a certain point of view about it, its leadership,
products, or of political decisions.
Common activities include working with the press and supplying written content for news and
feature articles together with arranging interviews with expert spokespeople, speaking at
conferences, winning industry awards and internal/employee communication.
Factors Considered for Effective Public Relations
Planning
Timing
Messaging: It is important to develop the story in a way that will reach and resonate
Commitment: Everyone needs to be committed to the plan
COUNSELLING.
Counselling is a ‘professional’ relationship (safe, client-centered, dynamic) between a trained
counsellor and a client.
Counselling is a helping process with major goal to solve the problem of the person with
appropriate decision. Counselling demands a process of negotiation and problem solving.
Counselling gives no advice, only helps people to be able to face their problems, examine their
options, understand their feelings and choose alternatives that seem best to them.
Psychoanalysis is a very significant perspective in the field of psychology. It is a method of
analyzing psychic phenomena and treating emotional disorders that involves treatment sessions
during which the client or the patient is encouraged to talk freely about personal experiences and
especially about early childhood and dreams
Psychotherapy is a general name for therapeutic approaches which try to get the patient to bring
to the surface their true feelings, so that they can experience them and understand them. These
therapies assume that the mental disorders occur because something has gone seriously wrong in
the balance between these inner forces.
• Two forms of counselling; one on one and group therapy.
Helps clients to reach self-determined goals through meaningful well-informed choices.
Helps client explore, discover, & clarify ways of living more satisfyingly and resourcefully.
A range of skills and techniques used to facilitate positive change from:
• Dissatisfaction to satisfaction
• Pain to comfort
Planning
Timing
Messaging: It is important to develop the story in a way that will reach and resonate
Commitment: Everyone needs to be committed to the plan
COUNSELLING.
Counselling is a ‘professional’ relationship (safe, client-centered, dynamic) between a trained
counsellor and a client.
Counselling is a helping process with major goal to solve the problem of the person with
appropriate decision. Counselling demands a process of negotiation and problem solving.
Counselling gives no advice, only helps people to be able to face their problems, examine their
options, understand their feelings and choose alternatives that seem best to them.
Psychoanalysis is a very significant perspective in the field of psychology. It is a method of
analyzing psychic phenomena and treating emotional disorders that involves treatment sessions
during which the client or the patient is encouraged to talk freely about personal experiences and
especially about early childhood and dreams
Psychotherapy is a general name for therapeutic approaches which try to get the patient to bring
to the surface their true feelings, so that they can experience them and understand them. These
therapies assume that the mental disorders occur because something has gone seriously wrong in
the balance between these inner forces.
• Two forms of counselling; one on one and group therapy.
Helps clients to reach self-determined goals through meaningful well-informed choices.
Helps client explore, discover, & clarify ways of living more satisfyingly and resourcefully.
A range of skills and techniques used to facilitate positive change from:
• Dissatisfaction to satisfaction
• Pain to comfort
• Low esteem to high esteem
• Low social skill to high social skills
The purposes of counselling include:
• It helps people to understand themselves better in terms of their own needs, strengths,
limitations. It brings about changes through a supportive relationship aiming to make client
independent.
• It helps in establishing a trusting relationship between the care provider and the patient and the
family. Provide psychological support to patient and family members.
• Motivate patient and family for change in life style to promote health. The care provider as a
counselor should be able to express concern and use various communication techniques for
effective counselling.
• Empower the person/client to cope with his/her life.
• Explore options and help the client make his/her own choices and decisions.
• Client takes responsibility for his/her decisions.
GOALS OF COUNSELLING
Different individuals have different perceptions of what can be expected of counseling. The main
objective of counseling is to bring about a voluntary change in the client. For this purpose, the
counselor provides facilities to help achieve the desired change or make the suitable choice.
The goal of counseling is to help individuals overcome their immediate problems and also to
equip them to meet future problems.
Counseling, to be meaningful has to be specific for each client since it involves his unique
problems and expectations.
There are five commonly named goals of counseling.
1. FACILITATING BEHAVIOR CHANGE
The goal of counseling is to bring about change in behavior that will enable to the client to be
more productive. Goals can be measurable so that client can measure that program. According to
Rogers (1951) behavior change is a necessary result of the counseling process although specific
behaviors receive little or no emphasis during process.
2. IMPROVING RELATIONSHIP
• Low social skill to high social skills
The purposes of counselling include:
• It helps people to understand themselves better in terms of their own needs, strengths,
limitations. It brings about changes through a supportive relationship aiming to make client
independent.
• It helps in establishing a trusting relationship between the care provider and the patient and the
family. Provide psychological support to patient and family members.
• Motivate patient and family for change in life style to promote health. The care provider as a
counselor should be able to express concern and use various communication techniques for
effective counselling.
• Empower the person/client to cope with his/her life.
• Explore options and help the client make his/her own choices and decisions.
• Client takes responsibility for his/her decisions.
GOALS OF COUNSELLING
Different individuals have different perceptions of what can be expected of counseling. The main
objective of counseling is to bring about a voluntary change in the client. For this purpose, the
counselor provides facilities to help achieve the desired change or make the suitable choice.
The goal of counseling is to help individuals overcome their immediate problems and also to
equip them to meet future problems.
Counseling, to be meaningful has to be specific for each client since it involves his unique
problems and expectations.
There are five commonly named goals of counseling.
1. FACILITATING BEHAVIOR CHANGE
The goal of counseling is to bring about change in behavior that will enable to the client to be
more productive. Goals can be measurable so that client can measure that program. According to
Rogers (1951) behavior change is a necessary result of the counseling process although specific
behaviors receive little or no emphasis during process.
2. IMPROVING RELATIONSHIP
Many clients tend to have major problems relating to others due to poor self- image. Likewise,
inadequate social skills cause individuals to act defensively in relationships. The counselor
would then strive to help the client improve the quality of their lives by developing more
effective interpersonal relationships.
3. FACILITATE CLIENT’S POTENTIAL
Helping individuals to cope with new situation and challenges. We will inevitably run into
difficulties in the process of growing up. Most of us do not completely achieve all over our
development tasks within a life time. All of the unique expectations and requirements imposed
on us by others will eventually lead to problem learning coping patterns, however may not
always work.
4. PROMOTING DECISION MAKING
The goal of the counseling is to enable the individual to make critical decisions regarding
alternative courses of actions without outside influence. Counseling will help individuals obtain
individuals obtain information and to clarify emotional concern that may interfere with or be
related to the decision involved. These individuals will acquire an understanding of their
capabilities and interests. They will also come to identifying emotions and attitudes that could
influence their choice and decisions.
5. ENHANCE POTENTIAL AND ENRICH SELF DEVELOPMENT
Help individuals to cope with new situations and challenges. Counseling seek to maximize an
individual freedom by giving him or her control over their environment while analyzing
responsiveness and reach to the environment.
CATAGORIES OF COUNSELING GOALS
Counseling Goals may be simply classified in terms of counselor goals and client goals or the
immediate, intermediate, or long-range goals of therapy. Broadly speaking, counseling goals
may also be separated into the following categories:
1. DEVELOPMENTAL GOALS
Developmental Goals are those wherein the client is assisted in meeting or advancing her or his
anticipated human growth and development (that is socially, personally, emotionally,
cognitively, physical wellness and so on)
2. PREVENTIVE GOALS
inadequate social skills cause individuals to act defensively in relationships. The counselor
would then strive to help the client improve the quality of their lives by developing more
effective interpersonal relationships.
3. FACILITATE CLIENT’S POTENTIAL
Helping individuals to cope with new situation and challenges. We will inevitably run into
difficulties in the process of growing up. Most of us do not completely achieve all over our
development tasks within a life time. All of the unique expectations and requirements imposed
on us by others will eventually lead to problem learning coping patterns, however may not
always work.
4. PROMOTING DECISION MAKING
The goal of the counseling is to enable the individual to make critical decisions regarding
alternative courses of actions without outside influence. Counseling will help individuals obtain
individuals obtain information and to clarify emotional concern that may interfere with or be
related to the decision involved. These individuals will acquire an understanding of their
capabilities and interests. They will also come to identifying emotions and attitudes that could
influence their choice and decisions.
5. ENHANCE POTENTIAL AND ENRICH SELF DEVELOPMENT
Help individuals to cope with new situations and challenges. Counseling seek to maximize an
individual freedom by giving him or her control over their environment while analyzing
responsiveness and reach to the environment.
CATAGORIES OF COUNSELING GOALS
Counseling Goals may be simply classified in terms of counselor goals and client goals or the
immediate, intermediate, or long-range goals of therapy. Broadly speaking, counseling goals
may also be separated into the following categories:
1. DEVELOPMENTAL GOALS
Developmental Goals are those wherein the client is assisted in meeting or advancing her or his
anticipated human growth and development (that is socially, personally, emotionally,
cognitively, physical wellness and so on)
2. PREVENTIVE GOALS
Prevention is a goal in which the counselor helps the client avoid undesired outcome.
3. ENHANCEMENT GOALS
If the client possesses special skills and abilities, enhancement means they can be identified
and/or further developed through the assistance of a counselor.
4. REMEDIAL GOALS
Remediation involves assisting a client to overcome and/or treat an undesirable development.
5. EXPLORATORY GOALS
Exploration represents goals appropriate to the examining of options, testing of skills, and trying
new and different activities, environments, relationships and so on.
6. REINFORCEMENT GOALS
Reinforcement is used in those instances where clients need help in recognizing that what they
are doing, thinking, and/or feeling is okay.
7. COGNITIVE GOALS
Cognition involves acquiring the basic foundation of learning and cognitive skills.
8. PHYSIOLOGICAL GOALS
Physiology involves acquiring the basic understandings and habits for good health.
9. PSYCHOLOGICAL GOALS
Psychology aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning emotional control,
developing a positive self-concept, and so on.
Qualities of a good counsellor
• Good communicator
• Non-judgmental
• Acceptance
• Empathy/compassion
• Good Problem-Solver
• Rapport-Builder
• Recognizes the boundaries of their competence
• Possess high level of Self-Awareness
• Competent – (multicultural).
• Tactful
3. ENHANCEMENT GOALS
If the client possesses special skills and abilities, enhancement means they can be identified
and/or further developed through the assistance of a counselor.
4. REMEDIAL GOALS
Remediation involves assisting a client to overcome and/or treat an undesirable development.
5. EXPLORATORY GOALS
Exploration represents goals appropriate to the examining of options, testing of skills, and trying
new and different activities, environments, relationships and so on.
6. REINFORCEMENT GOALS
Reinforcement is used in those instances where clients need help in recognizing that what they
are doing, thinking, and/or feeling is okay.
7. COGNITIVE GOALS
Cognition involves acquiring the basic foundation of learning and cognitive skills.
8. PHYSIOLOGICAL GOALS
Physiology involves acquiring the basic understandings and habits for good health.
9. PSYCHOLOGICAL GOALS
Psychology aids in developing good social interaction skills, learning emotional control,
developing a positive self-concept, and so on.
Qualities of a good counsellor
• Good communicator
• Non-judgmental
• Acceptance
• Empathy/compassion
• Good Problem-Solver
• Rapport-Builder
• Recognizes the boundaries of their competence
• Possess high level of Self-Awareness
• Competent – (multicultural).
• Tactful
• Committed & persistent
• Knowledgeable
• Flexibility
• In control
• Be concrete/firm
Counselling Skills
Counselling skills are divided in to two categories;
• Supportive skills – these skills communicate warmth, unconditional positive regard and
concern for clients.
• Challenging skills - offer clients a view or perspective which is different from theirs and which
stimulates them to reconsider their current position or view.
Supportive skills may include:
1.Attending: Providers ability to demonstrate presence during a session. Involves; being kind and
polite, demonstrating availability, tuning yourself into the client world, minimizing distraction
etc. It uses S.O.L.E.R to demonstrate interest and attention by using body language.
Sit squarely- to communicate presence and availability
Open posture- signify that you are open to the client and to what the client is saying.
Lean forward (slightly) - towards the client is a natural sign of involvement
Eye contact- maintaining it without staring
Relax- Be relaxed and remain natural when doing all the above.
2.Listening skills: Ability to actually hear client to; detect common themes in the client
issues/story, reveal omissions and facilitate knowing of client’s experience/behavior/ feelings.
3.Questioning skills: Two types of question; Open ended and close ended questions. Open end
questions: Gives opportunity to the client to express him/herself freely and can help the
counsellor to identify the client’s needs and priorities. Close end questions: Questions where
answers are measured i.e. with a one word or short answer. They are good for gathering basic
information at the start of a counselling session.
• Knowledgeable
• Flexibility
• In control
• Be concrete/firm
Counselling Skills
Counselling skills are divided in to two categories;
• Supportive skills – these skills communicate warmth, unconditional positive regard and
concern for clients.
• Challenging skills - offer clients a view or perspective which is different from theirs and which
stimulates them to reconsider their current position or view.
Supportive skills may include:
1.Attending: Providers ability to demonstrate presence during a session. Involves; being kind and
polite, demonstrating availability, tuning yourself into the client world, minimizing distraction
etc. It uses S.O.L.E.R to demonstrate interest and attention by using body language.
Sit squarely- to communicate presence and availability
Open posture- signify that you are open to the client and to what the client is saying.
Lean forward (slightly) - towards the client is a natural sign of involvement
Eye contact- maintaining it without staring
Relax- Be relaxed and remain natural when doing all the above.
2.Listening skills: Ability to actually hear client to; detect common themes in the client
issues/story, reveal omissions and facilitate knowing of client’s experience/behavior/ feelings.
3.Questioning skills: Two types of question; Open ended and close ended questions. Open end
questions: Gives opportunity to the client to express him/herself freely and can help the
counsellor to identify the client’s needs and priorities. Close end questions: Questions where
answers are measured i.e. with a one word or short answer. They are good for gathering basic
information at the start of a counselling session.
4.Paraphrasing: Re-states or repeats the client’s words in own words in order to convey own
understanding of client’s issues, demonstrate attentiveness/presence in the session both physical
and psychologically and is listening actively.
5.Empathy: Tuning into client world/ “to get into client’s shoe”. Conveys in depth caring of the
client’s thoughts/feelings and to communicate/ reflect that back to the client.
6.Summarizing: Helps in threading together all the themes covered during a session in order to;
ensure understanding of each other correctly or identify the key points and highlight decisions
that need to be acted upon at the end of each session.
7.Focusing: Done with a view of enabling a client understand their issues at greater depth. It helps
the client to be clear and bring out priority issues. It gives direction to the session. It helps move
from;
• Talking about others to talking about self,
• Being general to being specific,
• Talking about the past to talking about the present & future and
• Talking about facts to talking about feelings, thoughts & wishes Skills
• Working silence: No verbal communication is taking place while provider is there for the
client: Helps the client to have dialogue with him/herself, Allows the client to communicate a
strong feeling or emotion to self.
• Affirmation: this encourages the provider to praise, appreciate the client for the efforts they
have put in place already in their lives.
• Structuring/contracting: This entails establishing with the client what the session will cover and
the boundaries of the service. Ensure both parties have a clear understanding about the session
and what roles and responsibilities each plays.
Challenging skills may include:
understanding of client’s issues, demonstrate attentiveness/presence in the session both physical
and psychologically and is listening actively.
5.Empathy: Tuning into client world/ “to get into client’s shoe”. Conveys in depth caring of the
client’s thoughts/feelings and to communicate/ reflect that back to the client.
6.Summarizing: Helps in threading together all the themes covered during a session in order to;
ensure understanding of each other correctly or identify the key points and highlight decisions
that need to be acted upon at the end of each session.
7.Focusing: Done with a view of enabling a client understand their issues at greater depth. It helps
the client to be clear and bring out priority issues. It gives direction to the session. It helps move
from;
• Talking about others to talking about self,
• Being general to being specific,
• Talking about the past to talking about the present & future and
• Talking about facts to talking about feelings, thoughts & wishes Skills
• Working silence: No verbal communication is taking place while provider is there for the
client: Helps the client to have dialogue with him/herself, Allows the client to communicate a
strong feeling or emotion to self.
• Affirmation: this encourages the provider to praise, appreciate the client for the efforts they
have put in place already in their lives.
• Structuring/contracting: This entails establishing with the client what the session will cover and
the boundaries of the service. Ensure both parties have a clear understanding about the session
and what roles and responsibilities each plays.
Challenging skills may include:
• Confrontation: Helps the client reflect on contradiction and incongruence’s that they express
during the session. It also helps the client to identify his/her blind spots. However, if the client
responds with persistent denial, the provider must let go.
• Immediacy: This includes protecting oneself from exploitation by the client by ensuring that
constant reflection on the current state of the relationship is undertaken especially by the
provider. This helps in ensuring that professionalism is maintained during the entire time.
• Concreteness/firmness: This means that the provider is specific, definite, and vivid rather than
vague and general. Provider uses specific facts and figures, is resolute in making some unpopular
decisions especially with a client and demonstrates that they are well grounded in their
profession.
• Self disclosure: Provider appropriately discloses/shares personal experiences, emotions,
attitudes with client to facilitate client growth and exploration.
Only share what you have successfully dealt with the issue they want to disclose and
What is going to help the client make a therapeutic movement i.e. move from one level to the
next.
Ethical considerations in counselling.
Fidelity: honoring the trust placed in the practitioner. Being trustworthy is regarded as
fundamental to understanding and resolving ethical issues. Not disclosing confidential
information.
Autonomy: respect for the client’s right to be self-governing. This principle emphasizes the
importance of the client’s commitment to participating in counselling or psychotherapy, usually
on a voluntary basis. freely given and adequately informed consent; protect privacy; protect
confidentiality; normally make any disclosures of confidential information conditional on the
consent of the person concerned; and inform the client in advance of foreseeable conflicts of
interest The principle of autonomy opposes the manipulation of clients against their will, even
for beneficial social ends
during the session. It also helps the client to identify his/her blind spots. However, if the client
responds with persistent denial, the provider must let go.
• Immediacy: This includes protecting oneself from exploitation by the client by ensuring that
constant reflection on the current state of the relationship is undertaken especially by the
provider. This helps in ensuring that professionalism is maintained during the entire time.
• Concreteness/firmness: This means that the provider is specific, definite, and vivid rather than
vague and general. Provider uses specific facts and figures, is resolute in making some unpopular
decisions especially with a client and demonstrates that they are well grounded in their
profession.
• Self disclosure: Provider appropriately discloses/shares personal experiences, emotions,
attitudes with client to facilitate client growth and exploration.
Only share what you have successfully dealt with the issue they want to disclose and
What is going to help the client make a therapeutic movement i.e. move from one level to the
next.
Ethical considerations in counselling.
Fidelity: honoring the trust placed in the practitioner. Being trustworthy is regarded as
fundamental to understanding and resolving ethical issues. Not disclosing confidential
information.
Autonomy: respect for the client’s right to be self-governing. This principle emphasizes the
importance of the client’s commitment to participating in counselling or psychotherapy, usually
on a voluntary basis. freely given and adequately informed consent; protect privacy; protect
confidentiality; normally make any disclosures of confidential information conditional on the
consent of the person concerned; and inform the client in advance of foreseeable conflicts of
interest The principle of autonomy opposes the manipulation of clients against their will, even
for beneficial social ends
Beneficence: a commitment to promoting the client’s well-being. The principle of beneficence
means acting in the best interests of the client based on professional assessment. It directs
attention to working strictly within one’s limits of competence and providing services on the
basis of adequate training or experience. Ensuring that the client’s best interests are achieved
requires systematic monitoring of practice and outcomes by the best available means. There is an
obligation to use regular and on-going supervision to enhance the quality of the services
provided and to commit to updating practice by continuing professional development. An
obligation to act in the best interests of a client may become paramount when working with
clients whose capacity for autonomy is diminished because of immaturity, lack of understanding,
extreme distress, serious disturbance or other significant personal constraints
Non-maleficence: a commitment to avoiding harm to the client Non-maleficence involves:
avoiding sexual, financial, emotional or any other form of client exploitation; avoiding
incompetence or malpractice; not providing services when unfit to do so due to illness, personal
circumstances or intoxication. The practitioner has an ethical responsibility to strive to mitigate
any harm caused to a client even when the harm is unavoidable or unintended. Holding
appropriate insurance may assist in restitution. Practitioners have a personal responsibility to
challenge, where appropriate, the incompetence or malpractice of others; and to contribute to any
investigation and/or adjudication concerning professional practice which falls below that of a
reasonably competent practitioner and/or risks bringing discredit upon the profession.
Justice: the fair and impartial treatment of all clients and the provision of adequate services The
principle of justice requires being just and fair to all clients and respecting their human rights and
dignity. It directs attention to considering conscientiously any legal requirements and
obligations, and remaining alert to potential conflicts between legal and ethical obligations.
Justice in the distribution of services requires the ability to determine impartially the provision of
services for clients and the allocation of services between clients. A commitment to fairness
requires the ability to appreciate differences between people and to be committed to equality of
opportunity, and avoiding discrimination against people or groups contrary to their legitimate
personal or social characteristics. Practitioners have a duty to strive to ensure a fair provision of
means acting in the best interests of the client based on professional assessment. It directs
attention to working strictly within one’s limits of competence and providing services on the
basis of adequate training or experience. Ensuring that the client’s best interests are achieved
requires systematic monitoring of practice and outcomes by the best available means. There is an
obligation to use regular and on-going supervision to enhance the quality of the services
provided and to commit to updating practice by continuing professional development. An
obligation to act in the best interests of a client may become paramount when working with
clients whose capacity for autonomy is diminished because of immaturity, lack of understanding,
extreme distress, serious disturbance or other significant personal constraints
Non-maleficence: a commitment to avoiding harm to the client Non-maleficence involves:
avoiding sexual, financial, emotional or any other form of client exploitation; avoiding
incompetence or malpractice; not providing services when unfit to do so due to illness, personal
circumstances or intoxication. The practitioner has an ethical responsibility to strive to mitigate
any harm caused to a client even when the harm is unavoidable or unintended. Holding
appropriate insurance may assist in restitution. Practitioners have a personal responsibility to
challenge, where appropriate, the incompetence or malpractice of others; and to contribute to any
investigation and/or adjudication concerning professional practice which falls below that of a
reasonably competent practitioner and/or risks bringing discredit upon the profession.
Justice: the fair and impartial treatment of all clients and the provision of adequate services The
principle of justice requires being just and fair to all clients and respecting their human rights and
dignity. It directs attention to considering conscientiously any legal requirements and
obligations, and remaining alert to potential conflicts between legal and ethical obligations.
Justice in the distribution of services requires the ability to determine impartially the provision of
services for clients and the allocation of services between clients. A commitment to fairness
requires the ability to appreciate differences between people and to be committed to equality of
opportunity, and avoiding discrimination against people or groups contrary to their legitimate
personal or social characteristics. Practitioners have a duty to strive to ensure a fair provision of
counselling and psychotherapy services, accessible and appropriate to the needs of potential
clients.
Self-respect: fostering the practitioner’s self-knowledge and care for self The principle of self-
respect means that the practitioner appropriately applies all the above principles as entitlements
for self. This includes seeking counselling or therapy and other opportunities for personal
development as required. There is an ethical responsibility to use supervision for appropriate
personal and professional support and development, and to seek training and other opportunities
for continuing professional development. Guarding against financial liabilities arising from work
undertaken usually requires obtaining appropriate insurance. The principle of self-respect
encourages active engagement in life-enhancing activities and relationships that are independent
of relationships in counselling or psychotherapy.
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS IN COUNSELLING
The law about libel and slander in counseling
A counsellor should know that there are certain things he may do or say in counselling which
would usually be actionable by the aggrieved clients. Among these are the misconduct of libel
and slander which is a form of defamation. This involves exposure of the victim to hatred,
ridicule and contempt; also damaging of reputation. Libel and slander involve false or malicious
statement aimed at damaging the victim’s reputation
The law about confidentiality of counseling information in group therapy
Counselors keep information revealed in group therapy for ethical reasons rather than legal
considerations. sanctity of information revealed in the context of one-to-one counselling
relationship also applies to information revealed in the context of group guidance and
counselling.
Right of privacy law and problem of psychological testing in counselling:
The right of privacy is the right to be left alone to be free of inspection and scrutiny of others.
Invasion of privacy is the intrusion into one’s private affairs and/or exposure of one’s paper to
the view of others. When it causes one emotional distress, it is actionable. Invasion of privacy
usually arises from truthful but damaging publications. Indeed, one area of biggest threat of
clients.
Self-respect: fostering the practitioner’s self-knowledge and care for self The principle of self-
respect means that the practitioner appropriately applies all the above principles as entitlements
for self. This includes seeking counselling or therapy and other opportunities for personal
development as required. There is an ethical responsibility to use supervision for appropriate
personal and professional support and development, and to seek training and other opportunities
for continuing professional development. Guarding against financial liabilities arising from work
undertaken usually requires obtaining appropriate insurance. The principle of self-respect
encourages active engagement in life-enhancing activities and relationships that are independent
of relationships in counselling or psychotherapy.
LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS IN COUNSELLING
The law about libel and slander in counseling
A counsellor should know that there are certain things he may do or say in counselling which
would usually be actionable by the aggrieved clients. Among these are the misconduct of libel
and slander which is a form of defamation. This involves exposure of the victim to hatred,
ridicule and contempt; also damaging of reputation. Libel and slander involve false or malicious
statement aimed at damaging the victim’s reputation
The law about confidentiality of counseling information in group therapy
Counselors keep information revealed in group therapy for ethical reasons rather than legal
considerations. sanctity of information revealed in the context of one-to-one counselling
relationship also applies to information revealed in the context of group guidance and
counselling.
Right of privacy law and problem of psychological testing in counselling:
The right of privacy is the right to be left alone to be free of inspection and scrutiny of others.
Invasion of privacy is the intrusion into one’s private affairs and/or exposure of one’s paper to
the view of others. When it causes one emotional distress, it is actionable. Invasion of privacy
usually arises from truthful but damaging publications. Indeed, one area of biggest threat of
privacy which has been entertained against counsellors is the issue of use of personality tests in
counselling. Personality tests probe deeply into feelings and attitudes which the individual
normally conceals. These are virtually all measures of personality that seek information in areas
which the subject has every reason to regard as private in normal social. If one is willing to admit
the counsellor into these private areas only if he sees the relevance of the questions to the
attainment of his goals in working with the counsellor.
When the counsellor has a genuine need of the information obtained, he is not invading privacy.
What we should note here is that a counsellor should seek the consent of his client before
administering him a test even though such consent may always not be formal.
Problem of counsellor malpractice and the law about negligent actions in counselling:
The term malpractice means any professional misconduct or any unreasonable lack of skill or
fidelity in the performance of professional duties. A counsellor can offend the law in the area of
criminal liability in four main ways:
• Becoming accessory to a crime after the fact
• Encouraging an illegal abortion
• Being a conspirator in a civil disobedience
• Contributing to the delinquency of a minor.
These legal considerations help practicing counsellors to really be able to determine when they
are working or not working under the provisions of the law; and indeed to help them to predict
when a negative consequence may follow their actions due to their deliberate attempt to work
against the limits set by law.
Procedure in the Counseling Process
1) Establish a safe, trusting environment
2) Help the person put their concern into words.
3) Active listening: find out the client’s agenda
a) paraphrase, summarize, reflect, interpret
b) focus on feelings, not events
4) Transform problem statements into goal statements.
5) Explore possible approaches to goal
counselling. Personality tests probe deeply into feelings and attitudes which the individual
normally conceals. These are virtually all measures of personality that seek information in areas
which the subject has every reason to regard as private in normal social. If one is willing to admit
the counsellor into these private areas only if he sees the relevance of the questions to the
attainment of his goals in working with the counsellor.
When the counsellor has a genuine need of the information obtained, he is not invading privacy.
What we should note here is that a counsellor should seek the consent of his client before
administering him a test even though such consent may always not be formal.
Problem of counsellor malpractice and the law about negligent actions in counselling:
The term malpractice means any professional misconduct or any unreasonable lack of skill or
fidelity in the performance of professional duties. A counsellor can offend the law in the area of
criminal liability in four main ways:
• Becoming accessory to a crime after the fact
• Encouraging an illegal abortion
• Being a conspirator in a civil disobedience
• Contributing to the delinquency of a minor.
These legal considerations help practicing counsellors to really be able to determine when they
are working or not working under the provisions of the law; and indeed to help them to predict
when a negative consequence may follow their actions due to their deliberate attempt to work
against the limits set by law.
Procedure in the Counseling Process
1) Establish a safe, trusting environment
2) Help the person put their concern into words.
3) Active listening: find out the client’s agenda
a) paraphrase, summarize, reflect, interpret
b) focus on feelings, not events
4) Transform problem statements into goal statements.
5) Explore possible approaches to goal
6) Help person choose one way towards goal
7) Make a contract to fulfill the plan (or to take the next step)
8) Summarize what has occurred, clarify, get verification
9) Get feedback and confirmation
Termination in counselling.
Termination is the end of the professional relationship with the client when the session goals
have been met. It is a phase of counselling that can determine the success of all previous phases
and must be handled skillfully.
A formal termination serves three functions:
• Counselling is finished and it is time for the client to face their life challenges.
• Changes which have taken place have generalized into the normal behavior of the client.
• The client has matured and thinks and acts more effectively and independently.
Clients and Counsellors may not want counseling to end. In many cases this may be the result of
feelings about the loss and grief or insecurities of losing the relationship. For clients, this is
something to process. For counsellors, this is an issue for supervision.
Many clients may end counselling before all goals are completed. This can be seen by not
making appointments, resisting new appointments etc. It is a good idea to try and schedule a
termination/review session with the client so closure may take place. At this time a referral may
be in order.
At times, counsellors have to end counselling prematurely. Whatever the reason for the
termination, a summary session is in order and referrals are made, if appropriate, to another
counsellor.
Referrals
At times, a counsellor needs to make a referral. When this is done, specific issues need to be
addressed with the client.
7) Make a contract to fulfill the plan (or to take the next step)
8) Summarize what has occurred, clarify, get verification
9) Get feedback and confirmation
Termination in counselling.
Termination is the end of the professional relationship with the client when the session goals
have been met. It is a phase of counselling that can determine the success of all previous phases
and must be handled skillfully.
A formal termination serves three functions:
• Counselling is finished and it is time for the client to face their life challenges.
• Changes which have taken place have generalized into the normal behavior of the client.
• The client has matured and thinks and acts more effectively and independently.
Clients and Counsellors may not want counseling to end. In many cases this may be the result of
feelings about the loss and grief or insecurities of losing the relationship. For clients, this is
something to process. For counsellors, this is an issue for supervision.
Many clients may end counselling before all goals are completed. This can be seen by not
making appointments, resisting new appointments etc. It is a good idea to try and schedule a
termination/review session with the client so closure may take place. At this time a referral may
be in order.
At times, counsellors have to end counselling prematurely. Whatever the reason for the
termination, a summary session is in order and referrals are made, if appropriate, to another
counsellor.
Referrals
At times, a counsellor needs to make a referral. When this is done, specific issues need to be
addressed with the client.
Reasons for the referrals
Note specific behaviors or actions which brought the need for a referral. Have the names of
several other counsellors ready for referral. It is important to remember that the counselor cannot
follow up with the new counsellor to see if the client followed through (Confidentiality issue).
Follow Up
At times, a follow-up may be scheduled for various reasons including evaluation, research, or
checking with client. It needs to be scheduled so as to not take the responsibility of change away
from the client.
COUNSELLING THEORIES
1.PERSON CENTERED THERAPY GENERAL
OVERVIEW OF THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH
The person centered approach, also known as the non-directive approach had its origin from the
ideas of humanistic psychology and the existential or experimental approaches and
psychoanalytic approaches. It was developed by Carl Rodger in the 1940s as a reaction against
the directive approach and psychoanalytic approach to counseling. Carl Rogers lived between
1902 and 1987. He led a life that reflected the ideas he developed. He showed a questioning
stance, a deep openness to change courage to forge into unknown territory both as a person and
as a professional.
He came from a family characterized by warm relations but also by strict religious standards. In
advancing the person centered theory, Carl Rogers challenged the widely held view that the
counselor knows best. He also challenged the validity of commonly accepted therapeutic
procedures such as advice, suggestion persuasion, teaching diagnosis and interpretation. Rogers
believed that every person has within himself or herself ―vast resources for self-understanding,
for altering his or her concept, attitudes and self-directed behavior and these resources can be
tapped only of a definable climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
Note specific behaviors or actions which brought the need for a referral. Have the names of
several other counsellors ready for referral. It is important to remember that the counselor cannot
follow up with the new counsellor to see if the client followed through (Confidentiality issue).
Follow Up
At times, a follow-up may be scheduled for various reasons including evaluation, research, or
checking with client. It needs to be scheduled so as to not take the responsibility of change away
from the client.
COUNSELLING THEORIES
1.PERSON CENTERED THERAPY GENERAL
OVERVIEW OF THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH
The person centered approach, also known as the non-directive approach had its origin from the
ideas of humanistic psychology and the existential or experimental approaches and
psychoanalytic approaches. It was developed by Carl Rodger in the 1940s as a reaction against
the directive approach and psychoanalytic approach to counseling. Carl Rogers lived between
1902 and 1987. He led a life that reflected the ideas he developed. He showed a questioning
stance, a deep openness to change courage to forge into unknown territory both as a person and
as a professional.
He came from a family characterized by warm relations but also by strict religious standards. In
advancing the person centered theory, Carl Rogers challenged the widely held view that the
counselor knows best. He also challenged the validity of commonly accepted therapeutic
procedures such as advice, suggestion persuasion, teaching diagnosis and interpretation. Rogers
believed that every person has within himself or herself ―vast resources for self-understanding,
for altering his or her concept, attitudes and self-directed behavior and these resources can be
tapped only of a definable climate of facilitative psychological attitudes can be provided.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
The person centered view of human nature is phenomenological, that is, view of the world from
the point of view of the client or internal frame of reference of the client. Rogers had deep faith
in the tendency of humans to develop in a positive and constructive manner if a climate of
respect and trust are established. His professional experience taught him that if he was able to get
to the core if an individual, he found a trustworthy positive centre. He firmly believed that people
were resourceful, capable of self-direction and able to live effective and productive lives. The
person—centered therapy lays emphasis on individual thoughts, believes and experience or the
self-concept as perceived by the client. That is the body image, the ideal self, self-esteem and
self-image. What the client thinks about himself or herself dictates their behaviorist is when the
client’s self is distorted unhappiness and mal-adaptive behavior arises.
The Therapeutic relationship may lead to realization of a self-concept that is healthy, realistic
and balanced. The unique therapist-client relationship is also characterized by equality and no
roles. The clients are able to experience the therapist listening in an accepting way to them and in
turn also gradually learn to accept themselves. As they begin to see the therapist as caring for and
valuing them, they begin to see worth and value in themselves. As they experience the readiness
of the therapist, they drop many of their practices and are real with both themselves and the
therapist.
Rodgers also argued that the actualizing tendency is the simple most basic motivating drive. It is
an active process representing the inherent tendency of the organism to its capacities on the
direction of maintaining, enhancing, and reproducing self. Person-centered therapy says that all
psychological difficulties are caused by blockages to this actualizing tendency and consequently
the task of counseling is to release further this fundamentally good motivating drive (Jones).
Rodgers describes People who are becoming increasingly actualized as having openness to
experience, a trust in themselves, an internal source of evaluation and a willingness to continue
growing.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THERAPIST AND THE CLIENT
Rogers maintained that there were therapist attributes that released growth-promoting climate in
which individuals could move forward and become what they were capable of becoming. These
are:
the point of view of the client or internal frame of reference of the client. Rogers had deep faith
in the tendency of humans to develop in a positive and constructive manner if a climate of
respect and trust are established. His professional experience taught him that if he was able to get
to the core if an individual, he found a trustworthy positive centre. He firmly believed that people
were resourceful, capable of self-direction and able to live effective and productive lives. The
person—centered therapy lays emphasis on individual thoughts, believes and experience or the
self-concept as perceived by the client. That is the body image, the ideal self, self-esteem and
self-image. What the client thinks about himself or herself dictates their behaviorist is when the
client’s self is distorted unhappiness and mal-adaptive behavior arises.
The Therapeutic relationship may lead to realization of a self-concept that is healthy, realistic
and balanced. The unique therapist-client relationship is also characterized by equality and no
roles. The clients are able to experience the therapist listening in an accepting way to them and in
turn also gradually learn to accept themselves. As they begin to see the therapist as caring for and
valuing them, they begin to see worth and value in themselves. As they experience the readiness
of the therapist, they drop many of their practices and are real with both themselves and the
therapist.
Rodgers also argued that the actualizing tendency is the simple most basic motivating drive. It is
an active process representing the inherent tendency of the organism to its capacities on the
direction of maintaining, enhancing, and reproducing self. Person-centered therapy says that all
psychological difficulties are caused by blockages to this actualizing tendency and consequently
the task of counseling is to release further this fundamentally good motivating drive (Jones).
Rodgers describes People who are becoming increasingly actualized as having openness to
experience, a trust in themselves, an internal source of evaluation and a willingness to continue
growing.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THERAPIST AND THE CLIENT
Rogers maintained that there were therapist attributes that released growth-promoting climate in
which individuals could move forward and become what they were capable of becoming. These
are:
1. Congruence
2. Unconditional positive regard
3. Accurate empathic understanding
CONGRUENCE
Congruence refers implies that counselor is real genuine and authentic during the therapy
session. Their inner experience and outer expression of that experience match. The counselor is
able to be authentic in the relationship without putting on professional façade or assuming the
role of an expert.
This will increase the chances of the client changing and developing in a positive and
constructive manner without having to look for external regard. The client may take more risks
disclosing themselves to their therapist hence in this unique relationship get an opportunity to
share parts of themselves that were previously embarrassing or frightening.
The client learns to trust in their own resources from deep within themselves and develop to
become whatever they are capable of becoming. Congruence helps the client to address real
issues and unblock progress of therapy and clients may be able to make their own decisions.
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
Unconditional positive regard is an attitude therapists need to communicate to clients. This
means therapists value and accept clients the way they are. It is caring that is not contaminated
by evaluation or judgment of the client’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, whether good or bad.
Acceptance is communicated by therapists through their behaviors that they value their clients as
they are and that clients are free to have feelings and experiences and not lose the therapeutic
acceptance. The caring must be non-possessive and should not steal from the therapists own need
to be liked and appreciated as this will inhibit the client ‘s constructive change.
EMPATHY
2. Unconditional positive regard
3. Accurate empathic understanding
CONGRUENCE
Congruence refers implies that counselor is real genuine and authentic during the therapy
session. Their inner experience and outer expression of that experience match. The counselor is
able to be authentic in the relationship without putting on professional façade or assuming the
role of an expert.
This will increase the chances of the client changing and developing in a positive and
constructive manner without having to look for external regard. The client may take more risks
disclosing themselves to their therapist hence in this unique relationship get an opportunity to
share parts of themselves that were previously embarrassing or frightening.
The client learns to trust in their own resources from deep within themselves and develop to
become whatever they are capable of becoming. Congruence helps the client to address real
issues and unblock progress of therapy and clients may be able to make their own decisions.
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
Unconditional positive regard is an attitude therapists need to communicate to clients. This
means therapists value and accept clients the way they are. It is caring that is not contaminated
by evaluation or judgment of the client’s feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, whether good or bad.
Acceptance is communicated by therapists through their behaviors that they value their clients as
they are and that clients are free to have feelings and experiences and not lose the therapeutic
acceptance. The caring must be non-possessive and should not steal from the therapists own need
to be liked and appreciated as this will inhibit the client ‘s constructive change.
EMPATHY
Is the ability to accurately understand what the other person is experiencing and communicate
that understanding to the person. It’s the therapist ability to tune in the client’s wavelength or the
phenomenological world of the client.
Empathy is a continuing process whereby the therapist lays aside her own way of experiencing
and perceiving reality preferring to sense and respond to the experiences and perceptions of the
client. Empathy dissolves alienation for it is almost to maintain an alienated position in the face
of someone who displays profound understanding at a very personal level. Use of empathy also
helps stimulate movement in a helping relationship and helps clients navigate the various stages
of life.
GOALS OF THERAPY
Rogers talks about self-actualization or a fully functioning individual
According to Rodgers a fully functioning individual is open to experiences without a need to
deny or distort.
Is able live in the moment without pre-conceived structures
Are able to trust in their own experiences, not bound by opinions of others
They are free to choose and assume responsibility for decisions and behaviors.
They are able to adjust to changes and seek new experiences and alternatives.
2.COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY
REBT was developed by Albert Ellis. He focuses on the therapeutic encounter with a client on
thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Ellis believes that people are happier and more productive
when they are behaving and acting rationally.
This approach stresses values of learning to be tolerant of oneself and others. When dealing with
his clients, in 1995, he combined humanistic philosophical and behavioral therapy. He developed
the therapy as a way of dealing with his own problems, for example shyness. Ellis said that
people are disturbed not by things but by their view of things.
To Ellis REBT theory provides tools to the client to deal with their issues. Consequences could
be emotional or behavioral. REBT therapist believes that as the client substitutes rational
thinking for irrational thinking, he will feel better.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
that understanding to the person. It’s the therapist ability to tune in the client’s wavelength or the
phenomenological world of the client.
Empathy is a continuing process whereby the therapist lays aside her own way of experiencing
and perceiving reality preferring to sense and respond to the experiences and perceptions of the
client. Empathy dissolves alienation for it is almost to maintain an alienated position in the face
of someone who displays profound understanding at a very personal level. Use of empathy also
helps stimulate movement in a helping relationship and helps clients navigate the various stages
of life.
GOALS OF THERAPY
Rogers talks about self-actualization or a fully functioning individual
According to Rodgers a fully functioning individual is open to experiences without a need to
deny or distort.
Is able live in the moment without pre-conceived structures
Are able to trust in their own experiences, not bound by opinions of others
They are free to choose and assume responsibility for decisions and behaviors.
They are able to adjust to changes and seek new experiences and alternatives.
2.COGNITIVE BEHAVIOR THERAPY
REBT was developed by Albert Ellis. He focuses on the therapeutic encounter with a client on
thoughts, emotions, and behavior. Ellis believes that people are happier and more productive
when they are behaving and acting rationally.
This approach stresses values of learning to be tolerant of oneself and others. When dealing with
his clients, in 1995, he combined humanistic philosophical and behavioral therapy. He developed
the therapy as a way of dealing with his own problems, for example shyness. Ellis said that
people are disturbed not by things but by their view of things.
To Ellis REBT theory provides tools to the client to deal with their issues. Consequences could
be emotional or behavioral. REBT therapist believes that as the client substitutes rational
thinking for irrational thinking, he will feel better.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
Human beings are born with a potential for thinking rationally/straight thinking and irrational
thinking/crooked thinking. People can develop happiness, can love, can communicate positively
and also they can lead themselves into destruction. He also says that people condition themselves
to be disturbed rather than being conditioned by external forces.
People have both biological and cultural tendencies to think irrationally and therefore get
disturbed. Humans are unique, they invent disturbing believes and keep themselves disturbed by
those believes. He says that people have the capacity to change their cognitive, emotive, and
behavioral responses. He went further and said human beings are self-talking, self-evaluating and
self-sustaining.
EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCES
He says blame is the core of most emotional disturbances. Accepting ourselves the way we are
could help in reducing the instability. He says that basing our preferences on dogmatic absolutes
(things that ought, shouldn’t) such as shoulds', oughts’, musts’, demands and commands make
people disturbed. Since we create frustrating feelings, we have the power to control our destiny.
When we are upset, we should look at our existing dogmas and deal with what is disturbing us.
Practically all human misery and serious emotional turmoil should not be there. We create them
by the way we feel. Most humans have a strong tendency to make and keep themselves
emotionally disturbed by internalizing self-defeating believes.
2.ABC MODEL OF PERSONALITY
The basic tenet of REBT is that emotional disturbances are largely the effort of irrational
thinking. Thee irrational demanding that the universe should, ought to, and must be different.
The ABC theory of personality is central to REBT theory and practice. We perpetuate emotional
disturbances by the way we interpret events. Ellis focuses on changing the unrealistic immature
and demanding style to realistic, mature, logical and empirical approach.
Ellis stresses the ABC model of understanding change.
A - Activating belief
B - Belief
C – Consequences
thinking/crooked thinking. People can develop happiness, can love, can communicate positively
and also they can lead themselves into destruction. He also says that people condition themselves
to be disturbed rather than being conditioned by external forces.
People have both biological and cultural tendencies to think irrationally and therefore get
disturbed. Humans are unique, they invent disturbing believes and keep themselves disturbed by
those believes. He says that people have the capacity to change their cognitive, emotive, and
behavioral responses. He went further and said human beings are self-talking, self-evaluating and
self-sustaining.
EMOTIONAL DISTURBANCES
He says blame is the core of most emotional disturbances. Accepting ourselves the way we are
could help in reducing the instability. He says that basing our preferences on dogmatic absolutes
(things that ought, shouldn’t) such as shoulds', oughts’, musts’, demands and commands make
people disturbed. Since we create frustrating feelings, we have the power to control our destiny.
When we are upset, we should look at our existing dogmas and deal with what is disturbing us.
Practically all human misery and serious emotional turmoil should not be there. We create them
by the way we feel. Most humans have a strong tendency to make and keep themselves
emotionally disturbed by internalizing self-defeating believes.
2.ABC MODEL OF PERSONALITY
The basic tenet of REBT is that emotional disturbances are largely the effort of irrational
thinking. Thee irrational demanding that the universe should, ought to, and must be different.
The ABC theory of personality is central to REBT theory and practice. We perpetuate emotional
disturbances by the way we interpret events. Ellis focuses on changing the unrealistic immature
and demanding style to realistic, mature, logical and empirical approach.
Ellis stresses the ABC model of understanding change.
A - Activating belief
B - Belief
C – Consequences
CONCEPTS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTURBANCES AND HEALTH
People get psychologically disturbed because of the irrational thoughts they hold on the
emerging events i.e. the illogical sentences that people repeat about themselves e.g. I’m a failure,
I’m useless, I’m ugly, I’m horizontally challenged.
One is psychologically healthy when one is able to rationalize and interpret events. One is
psychologically disturbed when there is self-damnation and self- condemnation. According to
Ellis people acquire psychological disturbances by focusing on irrational beliefs, views we hold
situations, self-blame and self- defeating statements.
The psychological disturbances are perpetuated by an individual withdrawing from support
services, self-blame without confronting where the issue is coming from, holding on standards
that are beyond his or her our accomplishment, and lack of social skills/life skills e.g.
assertiveness.
Client for REBT The clients fit for REBT include those with low self-esteem, those who are not
able to make informed choices, those who are not able to recognize and address their
problems/issues, those who lack ability to their and discriminate against their irrational beliefs,
those with phobias and anxieties, and those with current problems.
GOALS OF REBT
1. To assist the client acquire a more realistic philosophy of life
2. Reduce one’s tendency to blame oneself and others for the wrongs on their life
3. Learn ways of effectively dealing with future difficulties
4. The client to accept uncertainties in life.
5. Client to be able to cope and tolerate frustrations that come their way.
ROLE OF THE THERAPIST
1. Foster client awareness through challenging self-defeating ideas
2. Demonstrate to clients the illogical nature of their thinking by assisting them to look at things
logically.
3. To help client replace their irrational thoughts and ideas with more rational ideas
4. Assist them understand the vicious cycle of self-blaming process
People get psychologically disturbed because of the irrational thoughts they hold on the
emerging events i.e. the illogical sentences that people repeat about themselves e.g. I’m a failure,
I’m useless, I’m ugly, I’m horizontally challenged.
One is psychologically healthy when one is able to rationalize and interpret events. One is
psychologically disturbed when there is self-damnation and self- condemnation. According to
Ellis people acquire psychological disturbances by focusing on irrational beliefs, views we hold
situations, self-blame and self- defeating statements.
The psychological disturbances are perpetuated by an individual withdrawing from support
services, self-blame without confronting where the issue is coming from, holding on standards
that are beyond his or her our accomplishment, and lack of social skills/life skills e.g.
assertiveness.
Client for REBT The clients fit for REBT include those with low self-esteem, those who are not
able to make informed choices, those who are not able to recognize and address their
problems/issues, those who lack ability to their and discriminate against their irrational beliefs,
those with phobias and anxieties, and those with current problems.
GOALS OF REBT
1. To assist the client acquire a more realistic philosophy of life
2. Reduce one’s tendency to blame oneself and others for the wrongs on their life
3. Learn ways of effectively dealing with future difficulties
4. The client to accept uncertainties in life.
5. Client to be able to cope and tolerate frustrations that come their way.
ROLE OF THE THERAPIST
1. Foster client awareness through challenging self-defeating ideas
2. Demonstrate to clients the illogical nature of their thinking by assisting them to look at things
logically.
3. To help client replace their irrational thoughts and ideas with more rational ideas
4. Assist them understand the vicious cycle of self-blaming process
5. Establish a good relationship that encourages clients to talk
TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE IN THIS THEORY
A. Cognitive techniques
1. Cognitive homework
Clients are given assignments to carry home and work through their absolutistic beliefs and
dispute the irrational beliefs. They are also taken through the ABC model.
2. Changing one’s language
Imprecise language is one of the causes of disturbed thinking. Use of positive language. They
should check the pattern of language for absolutes instead of 1 must use, if possible. Let them
appreciate themselves.
3. Use of humor
Clients are taught to be humorous. Make them sing, make jokes.
4. Use visual aids e.g. video
B. Emotive techniques
1. Using rational emotive imagery Involves establishing new emotional patterns with your client.
Let the client imagine themselves thinking feeling and behaving exactly the way they would like
to think, feel or behave.
2. Role playing Clients recite certain behavior to bring what they feel in a given situation e.g. a
boss and an employee.
3. Labeling Assist your client to stop using labels e.g. I’m a divorcee. Let them use names
4. Stepping out of character It is reframing issues i.e. seeing activities as good when it is seen as
bad. It is casting new light on the problem.
5. Flooding Placing the client in an area of extreme fear
6. Penalization if agreement is broken
7. Modeling behavior for your client
8. Skills training- let them bring out skills they are inadequate with i.e. assertiveness
3.BECKS COGNITIVE THERAPY
OVERVIEW OF BECKS COGNITIVE THERAPY
TECHNIQUES APPLICABLE IN THIS THEORY
A. Cognitive techniques
1. Cognitive homework
Clients are given assignments to carry home and work through their absolutistic beliefs and
dispute the irrational beliefs. They are also taken through the ABC model.
2. Changing one’s language
Imprecise language is one of the causes of disturbed thinking. Use of positive language. They
should check the pattern of language for absolutes instead of 1 must use, if possible. Let them
appreciate themselves.
3. Use of humor
Clients are taught to be humorous. Make them sing, make jokes.
4. Use visual aids e.g. video
B. Emotive techniques
1. Using rational emotive imagery Involves establishing new emotional patterns with your client.
Let the client imagine themselves thinking feeling and behaving exactly the way they would like
to think, feel or behave.
2. Role playing Clients recite certain behavior to bring what they feel in a given situation e.g. a
boss and an employee.
3. Labeling Assist your client to stop using labels e.g. I’m a divorcee. Let them use names
4. Stepping out of character It is reframing issues i.e. seeing activities as good when it is seen as
bad. It is casting new light on the problem.
5. Flooding Placing the client in an area of extreme fear
6. Penalization if agreement is broken
7. Modeling behavior for your client
8. Skills training- let them bring out skills they are inadequate with i.e. assertiveness
3.BECKS COGNITIVE THERAPY
OVERVIEW OF BECKS COGNITIVE THERAPY
Cognitive therapy is based on a theory of personality that maintains that how one thinks largely
determine how he feel and behaves. Beck views personality as reflecting the individual’s
cognitive organization and structure which are biologically and socially influenced.
Personality as shaped by central values or super ordinate schemes. He sees psychological distress
as - caused by a number of factors i.e. Childhood depression may foreshadow depression later in
life. However, people respond to specific stressors because of their learning.
Psychopathology is on a continuum with normal emotional reactions. Sometimes emotions are
exaggerated. In depression, sadness, a loss of interest is intensified and prolonged in a manner
that leads to grandiosity and in anxiety. The concepts involved in Becks theory include
Cognitive, schemas and cognitive distortion or errors in logic.
COGNITIVE THERAPY/PSYCHOTHERAPY GOALS
Ultimate goal is to remove systematic biases in thinking by correcting family information
processing, thus helping to modify assumptions that maintain maladaptive behavior and
emotions. That cognitive and behavior methods are used to challenge dysfunctional beliefs and
to promote more realistic thinking.
Cognitive therapy fosters change in counseling by conceiving of beliefs as testable hypothesis to
be examined through behavioral experiments jointly agreed upon by client and counselor. The
cognitive therapist does not tell the client that the beliefs are irrational or wrong. Instead the
therapist asks questions that elicit meaning, function, usefulness, and consequences of the client
beliefs. It is up to the individual client to decide which beliefs to keep and which ones to
eliminate.
Cognitive therapy is present –centered, active, problem-oriented, and best suited for cases in
which problems can be delineated and cognitive distortion are apparent. It is not designation for
personal growth or development work. Cognitive therapy is widely recognized as an effective
treatment for unipolar depression.
Cognitive therapy consists of highly specified learning experiences designed to teach clients to
do five things;
determine how he feel and behaves. Beck views personality as reflecting the individual’s
cognitive organization and structure which are biologically and socially influenced.
Personality as shaped by central values or super ordinate schemes. He sees psychological distress
as - caused by a number of factors i.e. Childhood depression may foreshadow depression later in
life. However, people respond to specific stressors because of their learning.
Psychopathology is on a continuum with normal emotional reactions. Sometimes emotions are
exaggerated. In depression, sadness, a loss of interest is intensified and prolonged in a manner
that leads to grandiosity and in anxiety. The concepts involved in Becks theory include
Cognitive, schemas and cognitive distortion or errors in logic.
COGNITIVE THERAPY/PSYCHOTHERAPY GOALS
Ultimate goal is to remove systematic biases in thinking by correcting family information
processing, thus helping to modify assumptions that maintain maladaptive behavior and
emotions. That cognitive and behavior methods are used to challenge dysfunctional beliefs and
to promote more realistic thinking.
Cognitive therapy fosters change in counseling by conceiving of beliefs as testable hypothesis to
be examined through behavioral experiments jointly agreed upon by client and counselor. The
cognitive therapist does not tell the client that the beliefs are irrational or wrong. Instead the
therapist asks questions that elicit meaning, function, usefulness, and consequences of the client
beliefs. It is up to the individual client to decide which beliefs to keep and which ones to
eliminate.
Cognitive therapy is present –centered, active, problem-oriented, and best suited for cases in
which problems can be delineated and cognitive distortion are apparent. It is not designation for
personal growth or development work. Cognitive therapy is widely recognized as an effective
treatment for unipolar depression.
Cognitive therapy consists of highly specified learning experiences designed to teach clients to
do five things;
To monitor their negative, automatic thoughts or cognitions
To recognize the connections between cognition, affect and behavior
To examine the evidence for and against distorted automatic thoughts
To substitute more reality – oriented interpretations for these biased cognitions
To learn to identify and alter beliefs that predispose them to distort their experience
COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES
1. Decatastrophizing – known as what if – helps clients prepare for anticipated consequences.
2. Retribution test – test automatic thoughts and assumptions by using reality testing in the
present situation of therapy.
3. Re defining a problem – is used to mobilize clients who believe themselves to be out of
control.
4. Imagery – encourages clients foresee their imagination.
4.BEHAVIOR THERAPY
Behavior Therapy offers various action oriented methods to help people change what they are
doing and thinking.
The behavioral approach had its origin in the 1950‗s and early 1960‗s as a radical departure
from the dominant psycho analytic perspective. Contemporary behavior therapy arose in the
United States, South Africa, and the Great Britain in the 1950‗s. The approach was sharply
criticized by traditional psychotherapist but it managed to survive the test of times. In the
1960‗s Albert Bandura developed social learning theory, which combined classical and
conditioning with observational learning.
During the 1960‗s again a number of behavioral approaches sprang up, and they still have a
significant impact on therapeutics practice. Examples of these cognitive behavior approaches
are: Rational emotive behavior therapy by Albert Ellis and cognitive therapy by Aaron Beck.
By 1970‗s behavior therapy emerged as a massive force in psychology and made a significant
impact on education therapy, psychiatry and social work. Behavioral techniques and were also
applied to fields such as business, industry, and child psychological problems.
In the 1980‗s two significant developments in the field emerged: The emergence of cognitive
To recognize the connections between cognition, affect and behavior
To examine the evidence for and against distorted automatic thoughts
To substitute more reality – oriented interpretations for these biased cognitions
To learn to identify and alter beliefs that predispose them to distort their experience
COGNITIVE TECHNIQUES
1. Decatastrophizing – known as what if – helps clients prepare for anticipated consequences.
2. Retribution test – test automatic thoughts and assumptions by using reality testing in the
present situation of therapy.
3. Re defining a problem – is used to mobilize clients who believe themselves to be out of
control.
4. Imagery – encourages clients foresee their imagination.
4.BEHAVIOR THERAPY
Behavior Therapy offers various action oriented methods to help people change what they are
doing and thinking.
The behavioral approach had its origin in the 1950‗s and early 1960‗s as a radical departure
from the dominant psycho analytic perspective. Contemporary behavior therapy arose in the
United States, South Africa, and the Great Britain in the 1950‗s. The approach was sharply
criticized by traditional psychotherapist but it managed to survive the test of times. In the
1960‗s Albert Bandura developed social learning theory, which combined classical and
conditioning with observational learning.
During the 1960‗s again a number of behavioral approaches sprang up, and they still have a
significant impact on therapeutics practice. Examples of these cognitive behavior approaches
are: Rational emotive behavior therapy by Albert Ellis and cognitive therapy by Aaron Beck.
By 1970‗s behavior therapy emerged as a massive force in psychology and made a significant
impact on education therapy, psychiatry and social work. Behavioral techniques and were also
applied to fields such as business, industry, and child psychological problems.
In the 1980‗s two significant developments in the field emerged: The emergence of cognitive
behavior therapy as major force and the application of behavioral techniques to the prevention
and treatment of medical disorders. Contemporary behavior therapy can be understood by
considering four major areas of development.
Classical conditioning - is a form of learning that occurs when stimuli a neutral stimulus and
a conditioned stimulus that are ― Paired become associated with each other. The scientists
began to use this approach to treat phobias and enhance learning.
Operant conditioning - It is also known as instrumental conditioning. In operant
conditioning an organism operates on its environment to produce a change. In other words, the
organism behavior is instrumental it directly results in a change in the environment. Examples
of operant behaviors include reading, writing, driving a car, and eating with utensils. If the
environmental changes brought about by the behavior are reinforcing that is if they provide
some reused to the organism or eliminate aversive stimuli the chances are straightened that
the behavior will occur again. If the environmental changes produce to reinforcement, the
chances are loosened that the behavior will occur. A psychologist called B.F Skinner used the
principles of operant conditioning to treat psychotic patients. He theorized that learning
cannot occur in the absence of some form of reinforcement, either positive or negative.
The observational learning approach was developed by Albert Bandura. This is the learning
that occurs through watching and imitating the behaviors of others. Social learning theory
gives prurience to the reciprocal interactions between an individual’s behavior and the
environment. A basic assumption is that people are capable of self- directed behavior change.
For Bandura self-efficiency is the individual’s belief or expectations that he or she master a
situation and bring about desired change. Cognitive behavior Therapy represents the main
stream of contemporary behavior therapy. Emphasize cognitive process and private events
(such as then clients self- talk) as mediators of behavior change.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
Modern behavior therapy is grounded on a scientific view of human behavior that implies a
systematic and structured approach to counseling. The approach focuses on developing
and treatment of medical disorders. Contemporary behavior therapy can be understood by
considering four major areas of development.
Classical conditioning - is a form of learning that occurs when stimuli a neutral stimulus and
a conditioned stimulus that are ― Paired become associated with each other. The scientists
began to use this approach to treat phobias and enhance learning.
Operant conditioning - It is also known as instrumental conditioning. In operant
conditioning an organism operates on its environment to produce a change. In other words, the
organism behavior is instrumental it directly results in a change in the environment. Examples
of operant behaviors include reading, writing, driving a car, and eating with utensils. If the
environmental changes brought about by the behavior are reinforcing that is if they provide
some reused to the organism or eliminate aversive stimuli the chances are straightened that
the behavior will occur again. If the environmental changes produce to reinforcement, the
chances are loosened that the behavior will occur. A psychologist called B.F Skinner used the
principles of operant conditioning to treat psychotic patients. He theorized that learning
cannot occur in the absence of some form of reinforcement, either positive or negative.
The observational learning approach was developed by Albert Bandura. This is the learning
that occurs through watching and imitating the behaviors of others. Social learning theory
gives prurience to the reciprocal interactions between an individual’s behavior and the
environment. A basic assumption is that people are capable of self- directed behavior change.
For Bandura self-efficiency is the individual’s belief or expectations that he or she master a
situation and bring about desired change. Cognitive behavior Therapy represents the main
stream of contemporary behavior therapy. Emphasize cognitive process and private events
(such as then clients self- talk) as mediators of behavior change.
VIEW OF HUMAN NATURE
Modern behavior therapy is grounded on a scientific view of human behavior that implies a
systematic and structured approach to counseling. The approach focuses on developing
procedures that actually give control to clients and thus increase their range of freedom.
Behavior modification help us to increase people’s skills so that they have more options for
responding. By overcoming debilitating behaviors that restrict choices, people are free to select
from possibilities that were not available earlier. Debilitating behaviors are those behaviors that
limit growth of an individual.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS AND ASSUMPTIONS
There are seven recurrent theories that characterize behavior therapy.
1. Behavior therapy is based on the principles and procedures of the scientific method. This
means that experimentally desired principles of learning such as classical conditioning are
symptomatically applied to help people change their maladaptive behaviors. The convections
made are based on what has been observed rather than on personal beliefs.
2. Behavior therapy deals with the client’s current problems and the factors influencing them
as approved to historical determinants assumes that a client ‘s problems are influenced by
present conditions then use behavioral techniques to change the relevant current factors that
are influencing the client’s behaviors.
3. In behavior therapy clients are expected to be active by engaging in specific actions to deal
with their problems. They just don’t talk about their problems. They do something to bring
about change.
4. Behavior therapy is generally carried out in the client ‘s natural environment as much as
possible. The approach is largely educational in that learning is viewed as being at the core of
therapy. It emphasizes teaching client ‘s skills of self- management with the expectations that
they will be responsible for transforming what they learn in the therapist ‘s everyday lives. The
clients are given homework assignments.
5. Behavior therapy emphasizes a self- control approach. Therapists frequently train clients to
initiate, conduct and evaluate their own therapy. Clients are empowered through the process
of being responsible for their changes.
Behavior modification help us to increase people’s skills so that they have more options for
responding. By overcoming debilitating behaviors that restrict choices, people are free to select
from possibilities that were not available earlier. Debilitating behaviors are those behaviors that
limit growth of an individual.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS AND ASSUMPTIONS
There are seven recurrent theories that characterize behavior therapy.
1. Behavior therapy is based on the principles and procedures of the scientific method. This
means that experimentally desired principles of learning such as classical conditioning are
symptomatically applied to help people change their maladaptive behaviors. The convections
made are based on what has been observed rather than on personal beliefs.
2. Behavior therapy deals with the client’s current problems and the factors influencing them
as approved to historical determinants assumes that a client ‘s problems are influenced by
present conditions then use behavioral techniques to change the relevant current factors that
are influencing the client’s behaviors.
3. In behavior therapy clients are expected to be active by engaging in specific actions to deal
with their problems. They just don’t talk about their problems. They do something to bring
about change.
4. Behavior therapy is generally carried out in the client ‘s natural environment as much as
possible. The approach is largely educational in that learning is viewed as being at the core of
therapy. It emphasizes teaching client ‘s skills of self- management with the expectations that
they will be responsible for transforming what they learn in the therapist ‘s everyday lives. The
clients are given homework assignments.
5. Behavior therapy emphasizes a self- control approach. Therapists frequently train clients to
initiate, conduct and evaluate their own therapy. Clients are empowered through the process
of being responsible for their changes.
6. Behavioral procedures are tailored to fit the unique needs of each client. Several therapy
techniques may be used to treat individual clients' problems.
7. The practice of behavior therapy is based on a collaborative partnership between therapists
and client, and every attempt is made to inform clients about the nature and course of treatment.
NB: These assumptions represent a basic for unity within the heterogeneity of the behaviors
approach. The basic assumption is that disorders commonly treated in therapy are best
understood from the perspective of experiment psychology.
THE THERAPEUTIC PROCESS
THERAPEUTIC GOAL
The general goals of behavior therapy are to increase personal choice and effective living.
Relieving people from behaviors from behaviors that interfere with living fully is consistent
with the democratic value that individuals should be able to pursue their own goals freely as
long these goals are consistent with the general social good.
In behavior therapy, the client is given a chance to play an active role in defining the goals
and therapist assists the client in formulating the goals.
In selecting and defining goals the client and therapist therefore uses a collaborative
approach. The nature of this collaboration should be such that:-
The counsel or provides a rationale for goals, explaining the role of goals in therapy, the
purpose of goals, and the client’s participation in the goal- setting process. (Give an
example). The client specifies the positive changes he / she wants from counseling.
The client and counselor determine whether the stated changes ―owned by the client.
‖
Together the client and counselor explore whether the goals are realistic.
The cost-benefit effects of all identified goals are explored with counselor and client
discussing the possible advantages and disadvantages of the goals.
Client and counselor the decide
(1) To continue seeking the stated goals
techniques may be used to treat individual clients' problems.
7. The practice of behavior therapy is based on a collaborative partnership between therapists
and client, and every attempt is made to inform clients about the nature and course of treatment.
NB: These assumptions represent a basic for unity within the heterogeneity of the behaviors
approach. The basic assumption is that disorders commonly treated in therapy are best
understood from the perspective of experiment psychology.
THE THERAPEUTIC PROCESS
THERAPEUTIC GOAL
The general goals of behavior therapy are to increase personal choice and effective living.
Relieving people from behaviors from behaviors that interfere with living fully is consistent
with the democratic value that individuals should be able to pursue their own goals freely as
long these goals are consistent with the general social good.
In behavior therapy, the client is given a chance to play an active role in defining the goals
and therapist assists the client in formulating the goals.
In selecting and defining goals the client and therapist therefore uses a collaborative
approach. The nature of this collaboration should be such that:-
The counsel or provides a rationale for goals, explaining the role of goals in therapy, the
purpose of goals, and the client’s participation in the goal- setting process. (Give an
example). The client specifies the positive changes he / she wants from counseling.
The client and counselor determine whether the stated changes ―owned by the client.
‖
Together the client and counselor explore whether the goals are realistic.
The cost-benefit effects of all identified goals are explored with counselor and client
discussing the possible advantages and disadvantages of the goals.
Client and counselor the decide
(1) To continue seeking the stated goals
(2) To reconsider the client’s goals or
(3) To seek a referral.
Once goals have been agreed upon, a process of defining them begins. The counselor and
client discuss the behaviors associated with the goals, the circumstances required for change, the
nature of sub-goals, and a plan of action to work toward these goals.
Therapists Function and Role
Behavioral therapists use some techniques common to other approaches, such as summarizing,
reflection, clarification and open-ended questioning.
Specifically, behavioral therapists systematically attempt to get information about situational
antecedents (factors that maintain a problem behavior, and the consequences of the problem.)
1) Clarify the client’s problem (with the client)
2) Design a target behavior
3) Formulate the goals for therapy (with the client).
4) Identify the maintaining conditions
5) Implement a change plan
6) Evaluate the success of the change plan
7) Conduct follow-up assess merits
The therapist will begin by a specific analysis of the nature of her anxiety.
1) The therapist will ask how she experiences the anxiety of leaving her house, including what
she actually does in these situations.
2) The therapist continues to gather information systematically. What did it begin? In what
situations does it arise? What does she do at these times? What are her feelings and thoughts in
these situations? How do her present fears interfere with living effectively? What are the
consequences other behavior in threatening situations?
3) After these assessments specific behavioral goals will be developed and strategies will be
designed to help the client reduce her anxiety to manageable level.
(3) To seek a referral.
Once goals have been agreed upon, a process of defining them begins. The counselor and
client discuss the behaviors associated with the goals, the circumstances required for change, the
nature of sub-goals, and a plan of action to work toward these goals.
Therapists Function and Role
Behavioral therapists use some techniques common to other approaches, such as summarizing,
reflection, clarification and open-ended questioning.
Specifically, behavioral therapists systematically attempt to get information about situational
antecedents (factors that maintain a problem behavior, and the consequences of the problem.)
1) Clarify the client’s problem (with the client)
2) Design a target behavior
3) Formulate the goals for therapy (with the client).
4) Identify the maintaining conditions
5) Implement a change plan
6) Evaluate the success of the change plan
7) Conduct follow-up assess merits
The therapist will begin by a specific analysis of the nature of her anxiety.
1) The therapist will ask how she experiences the anxiety of leaving her house, including what
she actually does in these situations.
2) The therapist continues to gather information systematically. What did it begin? In what
situations does it arise? What does she do at these times? What are her feelings and thoughts in
these situations? How do her present fears interfere with living effectively? What are the
consequences other behavior in threatening situations?
3) After these assessments specific behavioral goals will be developed and strategies will be
designed to help the client reduce her anxiety to manageable level.
4) The client would be asked to make a commitment to work toward the specified goal.
5) The two of them will continue to evaluate her progress toward meeting these goals.
Another therapist role is role modeling. That is the clients observe the therapist behavior and
want to emulate him/her. Thus the therapists should be aware of the crucial role they play.
Clients Experience in Therapy
Behavior therapy provides the therapist with a well-defined system of procedures to employ
within the context of a well-defined role. It also provides the client with a clear role and it
stresses the importance of client awareness and participation in the therapeutic process. Both the
client and the therapist are active in therapy. The therapist teaches concrete skills through role
playing, modeling, behavior rehearsal and feedback.
Likewise, the client engages in modeling, role playing, rehearsal and other active behaviors as
part of therapy. The client is also given homework assignments as part of self-monitoring
problem behavior.
The clients are encouraged to transfer the learning acquired within the therapist situation to
situations outside therapy. The clients need to be willing to make changes and continues
implementing new behavior once formal treatment (therapy) has ended.
After exploring the clients experience in therapy, what do you think should be the relationship
between the therapist and the client?
Therapeutic Techniques and procedures
The therapist begins by doing assessment of the client’s complains. The assessment is analyzed
to determine the factors that maintain the problem antecedents and the consequences. The client
keeps a record of the frequency and intensity of the occurrences and this becomes the tool in
devising a therapeutic plan and in deciding whether the therapy is working. The therapist can
cause any of these assessment instruments: -
The self-report inventories
5) The two of them will continue to evaluate her progress toward meeting these goals.
Another therapist role is role modeling. That is the clients observe the therapist behavior and
want to emulate him/her. Thus the therapists should be aware of the crucial role they play.
Clients Experience in Therapy
Behavior therapy provides the therapist with a well-defined system of procedures to employ
within the context of a well-defined role. It also provides the client with a clear role and it
stresses the importance of client awareness and participation in the therapeutic process. Both the
client and the therapist are active in therapy. The therapist teaches concrete skills through role
playing, modeling, behavior rehearsal and feedback.
Likewise, the client engages in modeling, role playing, rehearsal and other active behaviors as
part of therapy. The client is also given homework assignments as part of self-monitoring
problem behavior.
The clients are encouraged to transfer the learning acquired within the therapist situation to
situations outside therapy. The clients need to be willing to make changes and continues
implementing new behavior once formal treatment (therapy) has ended.
After exploring the clients experience in therapy, what do you think should be the relationship
between the therapist and the client?
Therapeutic Techniques and procedures
The therapist begins by doing assessment of the client’s complains. The assessment is analyzed
to determine the factors that maintain the problem antecedents and the consequences. The client
keeps a record of the frequency and intensity of the occurrences and this becomes the tool in
devising a therapeutic plan and in deciding whether the therapy is working. The therapist can
cause any of these assessment instruments: -
The self-report inventories
Behavior rating scales
Self-monitoring forms
Simple observational techniques
Assessment is an on-going technique. Behavior therapy and is an integral part of the treatment
plan. The therapeutic procedures used by behavior therapists are specifically designed for a
particular client rather than being randomly selected from ― a bag of techniques
Relaxation Training Related methods
Relation training techniques are used to help people cope with the stresses of daily living. It is
aimed at achieving muscle and mental relaxation. Examples of these techniques are systematic
desensitization, assertion, braining, self-management, programs tape recorded instruction,
biofeedback induced relaxation, hypnosis, and meditation.
Relaxation training involves several components that typically require from 4 to 8 hours of
instruction. Clients are given a set of instructions that asks them to relax. They assume a passive
and relaxed position in a quiet environment while alternately contracting and relaxing muscles.
Deep and regular breathily is also associated with producing relaxation.
Clients also learn to focus on positive / pleasant thoughts. Relaxation techniques have been used
to treat anxiety and other ailments such as high blood pressure.
In systematic desensitization, clients imagine successively a more anxiety-arousing situation at
the same time that they engage in a behavior that competes with anxiety. Graduate clients
become less sensitive to the anxiety- arousing situation. Systematic desensitization is used
mostly to treat anxiety related disorders.
The therapist interviews situation to identify specific information about the anxiety and to gather
relevant background information about the client. After several sessions the therapist questions
the client about the particular circumstances that elicit the conditioned fears. The therapist gives
the client a rationale for the procedure and briefly describes what is involved.
Self-monitoring forms
Simple observational techniques
Assessment is an on-going technique. Behavior therapy and is an integral part of the treatment
plan. The therapeutic procedures used by behavior therapists are specifically designed for a
particular client rather than being randomly selected from ― a bag of techniques
Relaxation Training Related methods
Relation training techniques are used to help people cope with the stresses of daily living. It is
aimed at achieving muscle and mental relaxation. Examples of these techniques are systematic
desensitization, assertion, braining, self-management, programs tape recorded instruction,
biofeedback induced relaxation, hypnosis, and meditation.
Relaxation training involves several components that typically require from 4 to 8 hours of
instruction. Clients are given a set of instructions that asks them to relax. They assume a passive
and relaxed position in a quiet environment while alternately contracting and relaxing muscles.
Deep and regular breathily is also associated with producing relaxation.
Clients also learn to focus on positive / pleasant thoughts. Relaxation techniques have been used
to treat anxiety and other ailments such as high blood pressure.
In systematic desensitization, clients imagine successively a more anxiety-arousing situation at
the same time that they engage in a behavior that competes with anxiety. Graduate clients
become less sensitive to the anxiety- arousing situation. Systematic desensitization is used
mostly to treat anxiety related disorders.
The therapist interviews situation to identify specific information about the anxiety and to gather
relevant background information about the client. After several sessions the therapist questions
the client about the particular circumstances that elicit the conditioned fears. The therapist gives
the client a rationale for the procedure and briefly describes what is involved.
There are three steps of systematic desensitization
1. Relaxation training
2. Development of the anxiety hierarchy
3. Systematic desensitization
Relaxation training
In relaxation training, the client muscle relaxation. The therapist uses a very quiet, soft and
pleasant voice to teach progressive muscular techniques. The client is asked to create imagery of
previously relaxation situations, such as sitting by a lake or wandering through a beautiful field.
After the client has reached a state of calm and peacefulness, the client is then taught
peacefulness, how to relax all the muscles while visualizing the various parts of the body, with
emphasis on the facial muscles.
The aim muscles are relaxed first, followed by the head, the neck and shoulders, the back,
abdomen, and the thorax, and then the lower limbs. The client is instructed to practice relaxation
outside the session for about 30 minutes.
Development of the anxiety hierarchy
The therapist then works with the client to develop an anxiety hierarchy for each of the identified
areas. Stimuli that increase anxiety in a particular area, such as rejection, jealousy, criticism, or
any phobia, are analyzed. The therapist constructs a ranked list of situations that client increasing
degrees of anxiety or avoidance. The hierarchy is arranged in order from the worst situation the
client imagines down to the situation that evokes the least anxiety. If it has been determined that
the client has anxiety related to fear of rejection, for example the highest anxiety, producing
situation might be a stranger’s indifference toward the client at a party.
Desensitization
The desensitization process begins with the client reaching complete relaxation with eyes closed.
A neutral scene is presented and the client asked to imagine it. If the client remains relaxed, he or
she is asked to imagine the least anxiety-arousing scene on the hierarchy of the situations that has
1. Relaxation training
2. Development of the anxiety hierarchy
3. Systematic desensitization
Relaxation training
In relaxation training, the client muscle relaxation. The therapist uses a very quiet, soft and
pleasant voice to teach progressive muscular techniques. The client is asked to create imagery of
previously relaxation situations, such as sitting by a lake or wandering through a beautiful field.
After the client has reached a state of calm and peacefulness, the client is then taught
peacefulness, how to relax all the muscles while visualizing the various parts of the body, with
emphasis on the facial muscles.
The aim muscles are relaxed first, followed by the head, the neck and shoulders, the back,
abdomen, and the thorax, and then the lower limbs. The client is instructed to practice relaxation
outside the session for about 30 minutes.
Development of the anxiety hierarchy
The therapist then works with the client to develop an anxiety hierarchy for each of the identified
areas. Stimuli that increase anxiety in a particular area, such as rejection, jealousy, criticism, or
any phobia, are analyzed. The therapist constructs a ranked list of situations that client increasing
degrees of anxiety or avoidance. The hierarchy is arranged in order from the worst situation the
client imagines down to the situation that evokes the least anxiety. If it has been determined that
the client has anxiety related to fear of rejection, for example the highest anxiety, producing
situation might be a stranger’s indifference toward the client at a party.
Desensitization
The desensitization process begins with the client reaching complete relaxation with eyes closed.
A neutral scene is presented and the client asked to imagine it. If the client remains relaxed, he or
she is asked to imagine the least anxiety-arousing scene on the hierarchy of the situations that has
been developed. The therapist progressively moves up the hierarchy until the client signals that
he or she is experiencing anxiety at which time the scene is terminated.
Relaxation is then induced again, and the client continues up the hierarchy. Treatment ends when
the client is able to remain in a relaxed state while imagining the scene that anxiety producing.
The core of systematic desensitization is repeated exposure to anxiety-evoking situation without
experiencing any negative consequences.
N/B : Systematic desensitization can be effectively used to treat righteousness anorexia nervosa,
obsessions, compulsions, suffering and depression.
2. In vivo Desensitization
In VIVO desensitization involves client exposure to the actual feared situations in the hierarchy
in real life rather than simply imagining. The therapist accompanies the client as they encounter
the feared object. For example, a therapist may go with the client in an elevator if they had
phobias of using elevators. People who fear certain animals let’s say a cat, could be exposed to
them in safe settings with a therapist.
3. Flooding
Flooding is another form of exposure therapy. It refers to either in VIVO or imagined exposure
to anxiety – evoking stimuli for a prolonged period of time. Remaining exposed to feared stimuli
for a prolonged period without engaging in any anxiety – reducing behaviors allows the anxiety
to decrease.
Generally highly fearful clients tend to curb their anxiety through maladaptive responses to
anxiety – arousing situations. The client can also be subjected by imaginal flooding. Imaginable
flooding follows similar principals but imagined ones in daily life. The exposure technique of
flooding can be successfully applied to arrange of intense fears such as fears of flying, riding in a
train, driving in a busy town e.g. Nairobi, fear of riding on elevators etc.
4. Assertion Training
he or she is experiencing anxiety at which time the scene is terminated.
Relaxation is then induced again, and the client continues up the hierarchy. Treatment ends when
the client is able to remain in a relaxed state while imagining the scene that anxiety producing.
The core of systematic desensitization is repeated exposure to anxiety-evoking situation without
experiencing any negative consequences.
N/B : Systematic desensitization can be effectively used to treat righteousness anorexia nervosa,
obsessions, compulsions, suffering and depression.
2. In vivo Desensitization
In VIVO desensitization involves client exposure to the actual feared situations in the hierarchy
in real life rather than simply imagining. The therapist accompanies the client as they encounter
the feared object. For example, a therapist may go with the client in an elevator if they had
phobias of using elevators. People who fear certain animals let’s say a cat, could be exposed to
them in safe settings with a therapist.
3. Flooding
Flooding is another form of exposure therapy. It refers to either in VIVO or imagined exposure
to anxiety – evoking stimuli for a prolonged period of time. Remaining exposed to feared stimuli
for a prolonged period without engaging in any anxiety – reducing behaviors allows the anxiety
to decrease.
Generally highly fearful clients tend to curb their anxiety through maladaptive responses to
anxiety – arousing situations. The client can also be subjected by imaginal flooding. Imaginable
flooding follows similar principals but imagined ones in daily life. The exposure technique of
flooding can be successfully applied to arrange of intense fears such as fears of flying, riding in a
train, driving in a busy town e.g. Nairobi, fear of riding on elevators etc.
4. Assertion Training
Assertion training is one of the social skills training. Assertiveness is the ability to express one is
feelings. Assertion training methods are based on principles of the cognitive Behavior therapies.
The programs focus on the client’s negative statements, self-defeating beliefs, and faulty
thinking. The approach challenge is peoples believe that will result in assertive behavior. Aim
role as a counselor is to teach the importance of assertiveness. The therapist also conducts group
sitting to empower the client.
feelings. Assertion training methods are based on principles of the cognitive Behavior therapies.
The programs focus on the client’s negative statements, self-defeating beliefs, and faulty
thinking. The approach challenge is peoples believe that will result in assertive behavior. Aim
role as a counselor is to teach the importance of assertiveness. The therapist also conducts group
sitting to empower the client.
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