IM-Productivity_Work Studywdwdwdwdwd.pdf

ME398 Industrial Management
Productivity &
Work Study
KMM

A common mistake is to use productivity synonymous to measures of production, which
refers to the amount of a product or service produced. As a result of this confusion, people
tend to believe that increased production, means increased productivity. This is not
necessarily true. Its important to keep in mind is that productivity is a relative concept, which
cannot be said to increase or decrease unless a comparison is made, either of Variations from
competitors or other standards at a certain point in time, or of changes over time. Basically,
improvements in productivity can be caused by five differentrelationships:
•Outputandinputincreases,buttheincreaseininputisproportionallylessthantheincreaseinoutput.
•Output increases while input stays thesame.
•Output increases while input isreduced.
•Output stays the same while inputdecreases.
•Output decreases while input decreases evenmore
Almost any transformation process within a manufacturing company is fed with several types
of input (e.g. labour, capital, material and energy) and emits more than one output (e.g.
product A, product B). In turn we must be able to separate partial productivity (i.e. output
related to one type of input) from total productivity (i.e. output related to multiple types of
input). Effectiveness is usually described as ‘doing the right things’, while efficiency means
‘doing thingsright’.
Productivity

Efficiency: Measures the resources expected to be consumed
to the resources actually consumed.
Hence, it focuses on the input side of the system. (To what degree
did the system utilize the “right” things.)
Effectiveness: Measures what the system sets out to
accomplish (objective) with what was actually accomplished;
plan vs. actual
Hence, effectiveness is an output measure. (Is the output “right” -
right quality, right quantity, on time, etc.)
Quality: Degree to which the outputs (products and services)
from the system conform to requirements or meet customer
expectations.
The focus is on quality attributes (e.g., conformance, performance,
convenience, responsiveness, perceived quality.)

Productivity
Productivity is the ratio between output and input.
PRODUCTIVITY = [OUTPUT / INPUT]
Output : may be a desired product or service.
Input : Man, machine, material, etc.
It may be noted that PRODUCTION (which is number of
products) is different from PRODUCTIVITY.
WORK STUDY IS A TOOL OF PRODUCTIVITY
ENHANCEMENT.
It simplifies a job
TO REDUCE UNNECESSARY OR EXCESS WORK,
WASTEFUL USE OF RESOURCES andsets up
STANDARD TIME for performing that job.

Systems Concept
Outputs
SYSTEM
Transformations
Inputs
Productivity
O
I
Customers
Goods
and
Services
Land & Bldg.
people
capital
materials
facilities
equipment
tools
energy
information

Productivity is a measure of effectiveness (doing the right thing efficiently),
which is outcome-oriented rather than output-oriented.

Value added: The difference between the cost of
inputs and the value or price of outputs.
Value added
Inputs
Material
Labor
Capital
Outputs
Goods
Services
Transformation /
Conversion Process
Control
Feedback
Feedback
Feedback
Profitability is the overriding goal for the success and growth of any business and is
generally defined as a surplus of revenue over cost (i.e. Revenue - Cost). Productivity is
the relationship between a given amount of output and the amount of input needed to
produce it. Profitability results when money is left over from sales after costs are paid.

Productivity ImprovementO
I O
I O
I O
I O
I
Productivity Improvement (PI) is the result of
managing and intervening in transformation or
work processes.
Productivity Improvement will occur if:

Measuring Productivity
Static: P=O/I in a given period of time (t).
Useful for benchmarking purposes.
Dynamic: p(1)=O(1)/I(1); p(2)=O(2)/I(2);
then p(2)/p(1) yields a dimensionless index
that reflects change in productivity between
periods.
((p(2)-p(1))/p(1))*100 yields the percentage
change between periods.

Measuring Productivity (Continued)
Partial-Factor: Uses a single “I” factor; e.g.,
output/labor-hour, sales/employee
Multi-Factor: Uses more than one “I” factor;
e.g. output/direct costs (labor, materials, and
overhead).
Total-Factor: Uses all “I” factors.
(Note: Total-Factor captures “trade-offs”
between input factors.)

Measurement Problems
Multiple products/services (aggregation-O)
Varied categories, types, and levels of input
resources (aggregation-I)
Price/cost changes of outputs & inputs
Redesigned products, services, processes
“Hard-to-measure” factors (e.g., quality)

Productivity’s relation to profitability
Higher productivity refers to doing the work in shortest possible time, with
least expenditure of inputs without sacrificing quality and with minimum
wastage of resources

Productivityis a fairly specific concept (related to the ratio between output
and input), while performance includes almost any objective of competition
and manufacturing excellence such as cost, flexibility, speed, dependability
and quality. However, as illustrated in figure various performance
objectives can have a large effect on the productivity in an operation

•It has been said that the challenge of productivity has become a challenge of
measurement. Productivity is difficult to measure and can only be measured
indirectly, that is, by measuring other variables and then calculating
productivity from them. This difficulty in measurement stemsfromthefact
thatinputsandoutputsarenotonlydifficulttodefinebutarealsodifficult to
quantify.
•Productivity is a required tool in evaluating and monitoring the
performance of an organization, especially a business organization. When
directed at specific issues and problems, productivity measures can be very
powerful. In essence, productivity measures are the yardsticks of effective
resourceuse.
•Managersareconcernedwithproductivityasitrelatestomaking
improvementsintheirfirm.Proper use of productivity measures can give the
manager an indication of how to improve productivity: either increase the
numerator ofthe measure, decrease the denominator, or both.
USE OF PRODUCTIVITY MEASURES

•Managers are also concerned with how productivity measures relate
to competitiveness. If two firms have the same level of output, but
one requires less input thanks to a higher level of productivity, that
firm will be able to charge a lower price and increase its market share
or charge the same price as the competitor and enjoy a larger profit
margin.
•Within a time period, productivity measures can be used to compare
the firm's performance against industry-wide data, compare its
performance with similar firms and competitors, compare
performance among different departments within the firm, or
compare the performance of the firm or individual departments
within the firm with the measures obtained at an earlier time (i.e., is
performance improving or decreasing over time?).
•Productivity measures can also be used to evaluate the
performance of an entire industry or the productivity of a country
as a whole. These are aggregate measures determined by
combining productivity measures of various companies,
industries, or segments of the economy.

A company produces 160 kg of plastic moulded parts of acceptable quality by
consuming 200 kg of raw materials for a particular period. For the next period, the
output is doubled (320 kg) by consuming 420 kg of raw material and for the third
period the output is increased to 400 kg by consuming 400 kg of raw material. Analyse
the case.
During the first period:
Productivity = output / Input = 160 / 200 = 0.80
During the second period:
Productivity = output / Input = 320 / 420 = 0.76
During the third period:
Productivity = output / Input = 400 / 400 = 1.00
Though production for the second period has doubled, productivity has decreased
from 0.80 to 0.76 (from 80% to 76%).
For the third period production has increased by 150% and productivity increased from
80% to 100%.

Following information is given pertaining to a firms performance for the last four
periods. Compute the partial productivity and total productivity indexes for the
company for each of the four periods.
Particulars Period 1Period 2Period 3Period 4
Output
1)Finished Goods produced
2)Work-in-process

Competing on Productivity
At the national level, growing productivity
leads to a higher standard of living,
holds inflation in check,
enhances international competitiveness.
The annual GDP growth is partially due to
growth in productivity,
growth in inflation

Dynamics of ProductivityChange
Improvementin
Productivity
Increase inwages
Increase inDemand
for Goods &Services
Lowering ofPrices GreaterEmployment
MoreOutput
Reduction inProduct
Cost
BetterMachines
HigherInvestmentsMoreSavingsMoreProfits

Reasons for low per capita GDP in India
❑Highly bureaucratic governance – licence raj
❑Poor enforcement of copyright and patent laws
❑Poor infrastructure – roads, shipping, airports,
electricity.
❑Wrong priorities
❑Highly controlled economy leading to large scale
corruption.
❑Lot of under-skilled labour force
❑Social and Cultural factors

Examples of Partial Measures of Productivity

15
For Improving the STANDARD OF LIVING, of its citizens, the
concerned nation must raise its PRODUCTIVITY for
economic growth. For any organization, its input-output
system can be represented as follows:
•With increasing complexities of the technological world,
the need to simplify the work system has been
increasing day by day.
•Work study is an area of knowledge that addresses the
problem of work simplification with the basic objectives of
1.PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT, and
2.HUMAN COMFORT & SAFETY
PRODUCTIVITY measures the extent to which a certain
OUTPUT can be extracted from a given INPUT

A way to effect improvement in productivity measures is reduce the time
required to produce one unit of an output.
a)Time required to produce one unit.
b)The difference between the actual input that has gone into the
production process and the required input calculated from the actual
output and the unit time.
Reduction in (a) involves factors related to design of the product or the
process. Reduction of (b) can be achieved by the reduction of operational
inefficiencies.
Factors important for raising productivity:
a)Product Design factors:
Standardisation of components, Quality standards, Provision of high
production machineries where possible.
b) Process Design factors:
Specifications of operating conditions, interaction among men and
machines, working methods of the operatives.
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT

Factors contributing to productivityimprovement
Two issues assume importance in the context of raisingproductivity
of Labour andCapital:
a)Thetimerequiredtoproduceoneunitofan output,and
b)The difference between the actual input that has gone into
production process, and the required input as calculatedfrom
data.
Any factor effecting reduction on either of the above basically
contributes to productivity improvement. Reduction of (a) involve
factorsrelatedtodesignoftheproductorprocess,whilereduction
of (b) could be achieved by removing operationalinefficiencies.
Land &Building
Materials
Plant &Machinery
Land &Building
Management obtains theFacts
PLANS
DIRECTS
COORDINATES
CONTROLS
MOTIVATES
In order toproduce
GOODS
&
SERVICES

FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY
There is quite a variety of factors which can affect productivity, both positively and
negatively. These include:
1.Capital investments in production
2.Capital investments in technology
3.Capital investments in equipment
4.Capital investments in facilities
5.Economies of scale
6.Workforce knowledge and skill resulting from training and experience
7.Technological changes
8.Work methods
9.Procedure
10.Systems
11.Quality of products
12.Quality of processes
13.Quality of Management
14.Legislative and regulatory environment
15.General levels of education
16.Social environment
17.Geographic factors
The first 12 factors are highly controllable at the company or project level. Numbers
13 and 14 are marginally controllable, at best. Numbers 15 and 16 are controllable
only at the national level, and 17 is uncontrollable.

•BASIC Work Content: is the irreducible
minimum time theoretically required to do a job or
operation. This cannot be reduced. This results only if (i)
the design and the specifications are perfect, (ii)
process of manufacture is exactly followed and (iii) no
loss of working time occurs due to any reason.
•The actual time required to complete an operation or
job is more than the basic time in practical situations.
This additional portion is called the excess work
content.
Concept of Work Content
Theamountofworkcontainedinagivenjobisreferred
toasworkcontentandismeasuredinman-hoursor
machine-hours.

How Manufacturing Time is madeup
Basic WorkContent
of Product /operation
T
otal
Time
of
Operation
under
Existing
Conditions
Excess
Time
B W
C
A
B
C
D
Work Content Added
by defects in design/Specs
ofproduct
WorkContentAdded
byinefficientmethodsof
manufacture/operation
Ineffective Time dueto
shortcomings of the
management
Ineffective Timewithin
the control of theworkerTotal
Ineffective
Time
Total
Work
Content
Techniques for ProductivityImprovement

Reasons for Excess Work Content and ineffectivetime
A.Work content added due to defects
in design or specs of aproduct
i.Bad design ofproduct
ii.Lack of standardisationof
components
iii.Incorrect specs &quality
standards
iv.Faulty design ofcomponents
B.Work content added due to
inefficient methods ofmanufacture
i.Improper selectionof
manufacturingprocess/machine
ii.Wrong selection oftools
iii.Improper layout ofthe
shop/factory
iv.Inefficient methods ofmaterial
handling
C.Ineffective time added due to
shortcomings ofmanagement
i.Bad working conditions, ii) frequent
prod. Interruptions due to
breakdown, iii)poor prod. planning
and control, iv) lack of safety
measures, v) lack of quality
mindedness, vi) lack ofinstruc-tion
vii)frequent changes inset-ups,
viii)lack of performancestandards,
ix)shortage of materials /tools.
D.Ineffective time added dueto
reasons attributed toworkmen
i.Unauthorised absence fromwork,
ii)substandardperformance,
iii)careless-ness inworking,
iv)unnecessary wastage of time/
idleness.
TechniquesforProductivity Improvementcontd.

Techniques to reduce Work Content or ImproveProductivity
A.Mgmt technique to reducework
content due toproduct
i.Productdevelopment,
ii.standardisation,
iii.valueanalysis,
iv.market/consumerresearch
B.Mgmt technique to reduce work
content due to process/methods
i.process planning,
ii.methodstudy
C.Mgmt techniques to reduce ineffective
time due to shortcomings of
management
i)Product standardisation and
simplification, ii) product
specialisation, iii) standardisation of
components, iv) production planning
&control,v) materialscontrol,
vi)plantmaintenance,vii)safety
measuresandimprovedworking
conditions.
D.Mgmt techniques to reduce ineffective
time within the control of theworkers
i)soundpersonnelpolicies,
ii)Operatorstraining,
iii)safetytraining,
iv) financialincentives.
The important functions of production management are setting upmost
effective method of performing the operation and control the effective
utilisation ofresources.
TechniquesforProductivity Improvementcontd.

Basic WorkContent
A1. Bad
prevents
processes
Design ofProduct
useofmosteconomic
A1.ProductDevelopment &ValueAnalysis
reduceexcessworkcontentduetodesigndefects
A2.Lack
prevents
processes
ofStandardization
useofhighproductive
A2.Specialisation &Standardisation
enable high production processes to beused
A3. Incorrect QualityStandards
cause unnecessarywork
A3.Market, Consumer & Product
Research ensure correct qualitystandard
A4. Design demands removal of Excess
Material
A4. Product Development & ValueAnalysis
reduce work content due to excessmaterial
B1. Wrong Machineused
B1.Process Planning
correctmachines
ensureselectionof
B2.Process Not Operated
Correctly or in badcondition
B2.Process Planning & Research ensure correct
operation ofprocesses
B3. Wrong Toolsused
B3.Process Planning &Method Study
ensure correct selection oftools
B4.BadLayoutcausingwasted
movement
B4. Method Study reduces work content due to bad
layout
B5.Operative’s BadWorking
Methods
B5. Method Study and OperatorTraining
reduce work content due to bad workingmethods
Excess
Work
Content
How Management Techniques can reduce Excess WorkContent
Techniques to reduce Excess WorkContent
TechniquesforProductivity Improvementcontd.

Basic WorkContent
Excess Work Contenteliminated
C1. Excessive Product Variety adds idle time
due to shortruns
C1. Marketing & Specialisation reduce idle time due to
productvariety
C2. Lack of Standardisation adds idletime
due to shortruns
C2. Standardisation reduces idle time due to shortruns
C3. Design Changes add ineffective time due
to stoppages &rework
C3. Product Development reduces ineffective time due to
changes indesign
C4. Bad Planning of work and orders adds idle
time of men &machines
C4. ProductionControlbased on WorkMeasurement
reduces idle time due to badplanning
C5.Lack of Raw Materials due to bad
planning adds idle time of men &machines
C5. Material Control reduces idle time due to lack of raw
materials
C6. Plant Breakdown add idle time of men &
machines
C6. Maintenance reduces ineffective time of men &machines
due tobreakdown
C7. Plant in Bad Condition adds ineffective
time due to scrap &rework
C7. Maintenance reduces ineffective time due to plant in bad
condition
C8. Bad Working Conditions add ineffective
time through forcing workers torest
C8. Improved Working Conditions enable workers to work
steadily
C9.Accidents add ineffective time through
stoppages &absence
C9. Safety measures reduce ineffective time due toaccidents
D1. Absence,Lateness&Idlenessadd
ineffectivetime
D1. Sound Personnel Policy & Incentives reduceineffective
time due to absenceetc.
D2. Careless Workmanship adds ineffective
time due to scrap &rework
D2.PersonnelPolicy&OperatorTraining
reduce ineffective time due tocarelessness
D3. Accidents adds ineffective time through
stoppages &absence
D3. Safety Training reduces ineffective time due to accidents
Ineffective
Time
Techniques to reduce IneffectiveContent
Techniques for Productivity Improvementcontd.
How Management Techniques can reduce IneffectiveTime

Management approach to deal with Productivity
•To eliminate the excess work content
•To reduce the ineffective time
The technique is known as Work Study.
Work study and the Worker
•Why workers resist the work study:
–It will change their familiar work methods.
–Many workers resent being timed.
–Fear of being fired.

IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY:
A firm or department may undertake a number of key steps toward
improving productivity. William J. Stevenson (1999) lists these steps to
productivity improvement:
1)Develop productivity measures for all operations; measurement is the
first step in managing and controlling an organization.
2)Look at the system as a whole in deciding which operations are most
critical, it is the over-all productivity that is important.
3)Develop methods for achieving productivity improvement, such as
soliciting ideas from workers (perhaps organizing teams of workers,
engineers, and managers), studying how other firms have increased
productivity, and reexamining the way work is done.
4)Establish reasonable goals for improvement.
5)Make it clear that management supports and encourages productivity
improvement. Consider incentives to reward workers for contributions.
Measure improvements and publicize them.

Direct means of raising Productivity
S.No
Type of
Improvement
Means Cost
How quickly
can results
be achieved
Extent of
improvement
in productivity
Role of
Work
study
1
Development of
new process
Basic or applied
research, pilot plant
HIGH Generally, yearsNo obvious limits
Method study to
improve ease of
operation
2
Install modern/
high-capacity
Plant & Eqpt. Or
modernize.
Purchase,
Process research
HIGH On Installation
No obvious limits
Method study in
plant layout &
ease of
operation when
modernizing.
3
Reduce work
content of
product
Product / process
research, Quality,
Method study,
Value analysis
Not high
compare
d to 1
and 2
Generally, monthsLimited
Method study to
improve design
for ease of
production.
4
Reduce the work
content of the
process
Process research,
Process planning, Pilot
plant, Method study,
Operator training,
Value analysis
LOW Immediate
Limited, but often of
higher order
Method study to
reduce wasted
effort and time
in operating the
process
5
Reduce
Ineffective time
Work measurement,
Marketing policy,
Standardisation, PPC,
Material control,
Maintenance,
Personnel policy,
Improved working
conditions, Operator
training, Incentives
LOW
May start slowly,
but effect grows
quickly
Limited, but often of
higher order
Work
measurement to
investigate
existing practice
and locate
ineffective time
and set
standards of
performance

Components of WorkStudy
It has threeaspects
1.More effective use of plant &equipment
2.More effective use of humaneffort
3.Evaluation of humanwork

WORK STUDY
•Work study is simply the study of work.
•It’s a management tool to achieve higher
efficiency. It provides us a scientific approach to
investigate into all forms of work with a view to
increase productivity.
•Concerned primarily with manual work
•Any industry to survive, must use latest
technology & most efficient method, improvised
with a consistent aim of producing quality goods
at lower prices.
•One way to improve is by efficient use of
plant, equipment and labour.

WORK STUDY
•It is analysis of work, dividing it into smaller parts followed by
rearrangement of these parts to give the same effectiveness at a
lesser cost.
•Work study examines both the method and duration of the
work involved in the process.
•Work study is a powerful tool for simplification of work
•Robert Owen, Taylor and Bedeaux gave their contributions to this
topic.
Definition:
•Work Study is primarily concerned with discovering the best
ways of doing the job and establishing standards based on such
methods.
•Work Studyis the technique of Method Studyand Work
Measurementemployed to ensure the best possible use of
human and material resources in carrying out a specified
activity. -ILO

Objectives of Work-Study
Primary function of work study is to increase the
productivity and reduce the waste. So,it should be
capable to:
1.Investigate and analyze the situation.
2.Examineweaknessesin production process
3.Most efficient use of existing plant.
4.Recommend & implement improvements
5.Efficientlyuse human effort.
6.Set measurement of work values.
7.Set standards for labor cost control.
8.Initiate & maintain incentive bonus schemes
9.Standardize material and machines used
10.Determine the time required by an ideal
operator to perform the task with efficiency.

Advantages of WorkStudy

Applications of WorkStudy
❑Industries: production operations, research and
development
❑Marketing: sales &distribution.
❑Offices: stores &warehouses.
❑Materialhandling
❑In designingfield
•Building & otherconstruction
•Transport
•Hospital
•Army
•Agriculture

Work Study -BasicProcedure
8 stepprocess
MEASURE
DEFINE
INSTALL
MAINTAIN
DEVELOP Most economical method
SELECT Job or process to be studied
RECORD All details concerning Job using various techniques
EXAMINE Recorded facts critically by asking questions
Amount of work involved & set
standard time to do thejob
New method &standard
time
New method asa
standardpractice
New method as
agreedstandard

METHOD STUDY
MethodStudy(MS)isthesystematicrecordingand
criticalexaminationofexistingandproposedwaysof
doingwork,asameansofdevelopingandapplying
easierandmoreeffectivemethodsandreducingcosts.
•MS aimsat determining the most effective method of
performing the job, most logical layout of manufacturing
facilities, uninterrupted flow of materials throughout the
organization. It is concerned with reduction of work content
and establishing the one best way of doing the job.
•MSisacollectionofanalysistechniquesfocusingon
improving the effectiveness of man and themachine.

MethodStudy
•Methods engineering /workdesign
•Breakdown of operation intocomponents
•Systematic analysis of eachcomponent
•Eliminates unnecessaryoperations
“It is systematic recording & examination of existing methods
of doing work and developing more effective methods” -BSI
MS addresses three broadareas:
1.It is a diagnostic tool (location offaults)
2.It is a remedial tool (improvesituation)
3.It is a constructive tool (setstandards)

OBJECTIVES OF METHOD STUDY
1.Improvement of processes andprocedures
2.Improvement in the design of plantand equipment
3.Improvement oflayout
4.Improvement in the use of men, materialsand machines
5.Economy in human effort and reduction of unnecessary
fatigue
6.Improvement in safetystandards
7.Methodsstandardisation
8.Development of better physical workingenvironment
9.Improvement of safety standards.
Can be used to determine best sequence of doing work, smooth material flow,
improve plant & material utilisation, eliminate waste & unproductive operations,
reduce manufacturing costs by reducing cycle time, improve working conditions,
reduce monotony of work

MethodStudy
Method Study is the technique of systematic
recordingandcriticalexaminationofexistingand
proposedwaysofdoingworkanddevelopingan
easierandeconomicalmethod.
•Methodstudyexaminesthewayatask(changing
theclutchonacar,preparingaflowerbedfor
planting,cleaningahotelroom)isdone.The
industrialengineerhasaneyeonoperational
efficienciesandcosts,qualityofprocesses,
servicereliability,staffsafetyetc.Methodstudy
techniquesareapplicablefromfactory/workshop
manufacturingtocabincrewactivities.
Method
Study
FlowChart

PROCEDUREFORMETHODSTUDY
The basic procedure for conducting
method study is as follows:
1.Select the work to bestudied.
2.Recordallfactsaboutthemethod by
direct observation.
3.Examine the above factscritically.
4.Developthemostefficientan
economic method.
5.Define the newmethod.
6.Install the new method as std.practice
7.Maintain the new method by regular
checking.
Method
Study
FlowChart

Selecting the work to be studied
Therearethreefactorsthatshouldbekeptinmind
while selecting a job for methodstudy:
1.Economic or cost-effectiveconsiderations.
2.Technicalconsiderations.
3.Humanconsiderations.
1. Economic considerations:
Itisobviouslyawasteoftimetostartorcontinuea
longinvestigationiftheeconomicimportanceof
ajobissmall.
Questions that should always be askedare:
•Willitpaytobeginamethodstudyofthisjob?Or
•Willitpaytocontinuethisstudy?
PROCEDUREFORMETHODSTUDY Contd.

Obvious choices for study are:
A.Key profit-generating or costly operationsor ones with the largest
Scrap/waste rates.
B.Bottleneckswhich are holding up other production operations, or
lengthy operations that consume a great deal of time.
C.Operations involving repetitiveworkusing a great deal of labour and
ones that are likely to run for a long time.
D.Movements of material over long distancesbetween workstations,
those involving the use of a relatively large proportion of labouror which
require repeated handling of material.
*Reduced cost
*Improvedquality
*Reducedscrap
Select –PossibleResults:
*Increased productionrate
*Less labor, materials, orequipment
*Improvedsafety
*Improved standards ofcleanliness
•Oneoftheeasiesttechniquesthatcanbeusedtoidentifykeyoperationsas
listedinpart(A)istheParetoanalysis(sometimesalsoreferredtoas“the
ABCanalysisofvalueanalysis”).
•Thesameobservationcanbeextendedbysayingthatamongallthe
operationsinagivenplantasmallnumberaccountforthelargestshareof
costorofprofit,orthelargestpercentageofwaste.

2.Technical or technological considerations:
One of the important considerations is the desire by management to
acquire more advanced technology, i.e.,in equipment or in processes.
•Therefore, management may want to computerize its office paperwork
or its inventory system, or to introduce automation in the production
operations.
•Before such steps are taken, a method study can point out the most
important needs of the enterprise in this respect.
•The introduction of new technology should therefore constitute an
important factor in the choice of methods of work to be investigated.
•Based on the technical knowledge of the process
•Jobshavinginconsistentquality,Operationsgeneratinglotofscrap,
Frequentcomplaintfromworkers,Extensivepaperwork,Repetitive
work(automation),Hazardousworketc.

3. Human considerations:
Human considerations are the most difficult to foretell,
because of mental and emotionalnature.
•Certain operations are often a cause of dissatisfaction by
workers.
•Selectanunpopularjob-Thatmaybringonfatigueor
monotonyormaybe unsafe to operate or inconsistent
earnings.
•The level of satisfaction should point to a need for method
study. In a similar fashion,achoiceofaparticularjobforstudy
mayleadtoanxietyorillfeeling. The suggestion given here is
to leave italone.

2. Record: All the details about the existing method are
recorded. This is done by directly observing the work.
Records are useful for BEFORE and AFTER comparison
to assess effectiveness of proposed method. Recording
techniques are designed to simplify & standardize
recording work.
COMMONLY USED RECORDINGTECHNIQUES
1.Outline ProcessCharts
2.Flow ProcessChart
3.Two Handed ProcessChart
4.Multiple ActivityChart
5.SimoChart
6.FlowDiagrams
7.StringDiagrams
8.Cyclegraph
9.Chronocyclegraph
10.TravelChart
ManType
MaterialType
EquipmentType
USING TIMESCALE

Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method studytechnique
Type of Job Examples Recording Technique
Complete
sequence of
manufacture
Manufacture of an electric
motor from raw material to
dispatch
Outline Process Chart
Flow Process Chart
Flow Diagram
Factory Layout:
Movement of
materials
Movement of diesel engine
cylinder head through all
machining operations
Outline Process Chart
Flow Process Chart (Mat)
Flow Diagram
Travel Chart, Models
Factory Layout:
Movement
of Workers
Cooks preparing meals in a
restaurant kitchen
Flow Process Chart (Men)
String diagram
Travel Chart
Handling of
Materials
Putting materials into &
taking them out of stores
Flow Process Chart (Mat)
Flow Diagram
String diagram
Workplace layoutLight assembly work on a
bench
Flow process Chart (Man)
Two handed process Chart
Multiple activity Chart
Simo Chart, Cyclegraph

Type ofJob Examples RecordingTechnique
Automaticmachine
operation
Assembly line,operator
looking after semi-
automaticlathe
Multiple activitychart
Flow Process Chart(Eqpt)
Movement of operativesat
work
Female operatives on
short-cycle repetitionwork
Films, Film analysis,
SimoChart
Memotionphotography
Micromotionanalysis
Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method studytechnique
Symbols are used to represent the activities like
operation, inspection, transport, storage anddelay.
Grouping of activities: Five sets of activities can be grouped intwo
categories
Those in which something actually happens to the work-piece (itis
moved, worked upon orexamined)
Those in which it is not being touched (in storage or indelay)
❖Objective is to maximize proportion of “do”activities.
❖All other activities, however necessary, are considered“non-productive”

OPERATION:Alargecircleindicatesoperation.Anoperationtakes
placewhenthereisachangeinphysicalorchemical
characteristicsofanobject.Occurswhenanobjectis
intentionallychangedinoneormoreofitscharacteristics.An
assemblyordisassemblyisalsoanoperation.Wheninformation
isgivenorreceivedorwhenplanningorcalculatingtakesplace
itisalsocalledoperation.
Example:Reducingthediameterofanobjectonalathe.
Hardeningthesurfaceofanobjectbyheattreatment.Drilling,
Painting,Chemicalreaction,DataEntry,Cutting,Sorting,etc.
INSPECTION:Asquareindicatesinspection.Inspectionis
checkinganobjectforitsquality,quantityoridentifications.
Example:Checkingthediameterofarod.Examinethequantityor
quality,readsteamgaugeonboiler,detectthedefectives.
Countingthenumberofproductsproduced.ofanobjectbyheat
treatment.
Symbols used in Charts

Symbols used in Charts –contd.
TRANSPORTATION :Anarrowindicatestransport.Thisreferstothe
movementofanobjectoroperatororequipmentfromoneplacetoanother.
Whenthemovementtakesplaceduringanoperation,itisnotcalled
transport.
Example:MovingthematerialbyatrolleyOperatorgoingtothestorestoget
sometool, Usingelevator,carrying,movingwithmaterialhandlingdevices
DELAY:AlargecapitalletterDindicatesdelay.Thisisalsocalledas
temporary storage.Delayoccurswhenanobjectoroperatoriswaitingfor
thenextactivity.Occurs whentheimmediateperformanceorthenext
plannedactiondoesnottakeplace.
Example:Anoperatorwaitingtogetatoolinthestores.Workpieces
stockednearthemachinebeforethenextoperation.WorkInProcess
inventorywaitingtobeprocessed,Employeewaitingforanelevator,
Waitingforaccumulationofacertainquantityforpackaging
STORAGE:Anequilateraltrianglestandingonitsvertexrepresentsstorage.
Storage takesplacewhenanobjectisstoredandprotectedagainst
unauthorizedremoval.
Example:Rawmaterialinthestoreroom,finishedproductsinventory,
archiveddocuments.

ASME Standard Symbols

BASICPROCEDUREFORMETHODSTUDY
3. Examine: Critical examination is done by questioning
technique. This step comes after the method is recorded by
suitable charts and diagrams. The individual activity is examined
by putting a number of questions.
•Critical examination is conducted wherein each activity, in turn, being
subjected to a systematic and progressive series of questions.
The questioning sequence used follows a well-established
pattern which examines:
the activities areundertaken.
ThePURPOSE for which
ThePLACEat which
TheSEQUENCE in which
ThePERSONby whom
TheMEANSby which

PRIMARY QUESTIONS
Inthefirststageofthequestioningtechnique,thepurpose,place,
sequence,personandmeansofeveryactivityrecordedaresystematically
questioned,andareasonforeachreplyisrequired.

SECONDARY QUESTIONS
Thesecondaryquestionscoverthesecondstageofthequestioning
technique,duringwhichtheanswerstotheprimaryquestionsare
subjectedtofurtherquerytodeterminewhetherpossiblealternativesof
place,sequence,personsandmeansarepracticableandpreferredasa
meansofimprovementupontheexistingmethod.
These questions, in the above sequence, must be asked systematically everytime a
method study is undertaken. They are the basis of successful methodstudy.
Primary Questions Secondary Questions
PURPOSE
What is done?
Why is it done?
What else might be done?
What should be done?
PLACE
Where is it done?
Why is it done there?
Where else might be done?
Where should be done?
SEQUENCE
When is it done?
Why is it done then?
When else might be done?
When should be done?
PERSON
Who does it?
Why does that person do it?
Who else might do it?
Who should do it?
MEANS
How s t done?
Why is it done that way?
How else might it be done?
How should it be done?

BASICPROCEDUREFORMETHODSTUDY
4.Develop:Answertothequestionswillresultin
thedevelopmentofalternativesandofabetter
method.Developthemostefficientandeconomic
method.
Ex: Sending letters tocustomers.
5.Define:Onceacompletestudyofajobhasbeen
madeandanewmethodisdeveloped,itis
necessarytoobtaintheapprovalofthe
managementbeforeinstallingit.Theworkstudy
manshouldprepareareportgivingdetailsofthe
existingandproposedmethods,reasonsfor
change, advantages,limitations,savings
expected,tools&equipmentrequiredetc..

DEFINING THE IMPROVED METHOD
The report shouldshow:
1.Relative costs in material, labour and overheads of the
two methods, and savingsexpected.
2.Thecostofinstallingthenewmethod,includingthe
cost of new equipment and of re-laying out shops or
workingareas
3.Executiveactionsrequiredtoimplementthenew
method.
It should also give details regarding:
1.The tools and equipment to beused
2.Adescription of themethod
3.A diagram of the workplace layout, jigs /fixturesetc.

BASICPROCEDUREFORMETHODSTUDY
6.Install:Thisstepisthemostdifficultstageinmethod
study.Heretheactivesupportofbothmanagementand
tradeunionisrequired.Heretheworkstudymanrequires
skillingettingalongwithotherpeopleandwinningtheir
trust.
a)Gaining acceptance of the change by theManagement
b)Gaining acceptance of the change by theworkers
c)Maintaining close contact with the progress of the job until satisfied
that it is runningas intended
7.Maintain:Theworkstudymanmustseethatthenew
methodintroducedisfollowed.Theworkersaftersome
timemayslipbacktotheoldmethods.Thisshouldnotbe
allowed.Thenewmethodmayhavedefects.Theremaybe
difficultiesalso.Thisshouldberectifiedintimebythework
studyman.

Recordingtechniques
Recording
techniquesfor
MethodStudy
Charts
MacroMotion
charts
1.Operations Process Chart
2.Flow ProcessChart
3.Two Handed ProcessChart
4.Multiplle ActivityChart
MicroMotion
charts
SIMOChart
Diagrams
1.Flow Diagram
2.StringDiagram

WhyCharts?
•It gives a complete picture of what is being done and
helps to understand the facts and its relationship to
one another.
•Details on the chart must be obtained from direct
observation. Should not be from memory.
•Neatness and accuracy is important.
•Increased value, if following is included:
1.Product, equipment details (code#, drawing#)
2.Job or process being carried out
3.Location and time (date) of the study
4.Observer’s name
5.Chart reference number

Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method studytechnique
Type of Job Examples Recording Technique
Complete
sequence of
manufacture
Manufacture of an electric
motor from raw material to
dispatch
Outline Process Chart
Flow Process Chart
Flow Diagram
Factory Layout:
Movement of
materials
Movement of diesel engine
cylinder head through all
machining operations
Outline Process Chart
Flow Process Chart (Mat)
Flow Diagram
Travel Chart, Models
Factory Layout:
Movement
of Workers
Cooks preparing meals in a
restaurant kitchen
Flow Process Chart (Men)
String diagram
Travel Chart
Handling of
Materials
Putting materials into &
taking them out of stores
Flow Process Chart (Mat)
Flow Diagram
String diagram
Workplace layoutLight assembly work on a
bench
Flow process Chart (Man)
Two handed process Chart
Multiple activity Chart
Simo Chart, Cyclegraph

(A) MACRO MOTION CHARTS
1. Operation Process Chart
➢Also called Outline processchart
➢Bird’s eye view of wholeprocess
➢Records only major activities andinspections
Uses only two symbols i.e., Operations&Inspection
➢Constructed by placing symbols one belowanother
Uses
❖Visualize sequence of operations & inspections in
process
❖Know where operations selected fits into theentire
process

OPERATION PROCESS / OUTLINE PROCESS Chart:
Example : Manufacture of Electric Motor
Conventions followedin
preparing thechart
1.Write title at the top of thechart.
2.Begin the chart from the right hand
side topcorner.
3.Represent the main component at
the rightextreme.
4. Represent the sequence of
operations and inspections by their
symbols. Connect them by vertical
flowlines.
5. Record the brief description ofthe
activity to the right side of the
symbols.
6.Notedownthetimeforeachactivity
totheleftofthesymbol.
7.Numberalloperationsinoneserial
order.Startfromtherighthandtop
(fromnumber1).
8.Similarly number all inspectionsin
another serial order (starting from1).
9.Continuenumbering,tilltheentryof
thesecondcomponent.
10.Showtheentryofpurchasedparts
byhorizontallines.
7 1
4
4
7 11
1
14
4

Ex: Outline process chart of Plywood manufacture

2. Flow ProcessChart
•Aflowprocesschartisagraphicalrepresentationofthesequenceofalltheactivities
(operation,inspection,transport,delayandstorage)takingplaceinaprocess.
•It is the detailed version of outline process chart recording all theevents.
•Process chart symbols are used here to represent theactivities.
•Gives sequence of flow ofwork.
•Constructed same as operation processchart
Threetypes
1.Materialtype
(records how the material is handled ortreated).
2.Mantype
(records what the workerdoes).
3.Equipmenttype
(records how the equipment or machine is
used).
•Reduce idle time anddelays
Uses
•Reduce distancetravelled
•Reduce production cycletime
•To relocate inspectionstages
•To elminate unnecessaryprocesses
1.The details must be obtained by
direct observation—charts
must not be based on memory.
2.All the facts must be correctly
recorded.
3.No assumptions should be made.
4.Make it easy for futurereference.
5.All charts must have the following
details:
(a)Name of the product, materialor
equipment that isobserved.
(b)Starting point and endingpoint.
(c)The location where the
activities take place.
(d)The chart reference number,
sheet number and number of
totalsheets.
(e)Key to the symbols used
must be stated.

Ex: Machine/ Equipment Flow Process Chart: Biscuit Making

Ex: Flow Process Chart –Emergency ward
InsertStep
AppendStep
RemoveStep
Step
no.
TimeDistance
(min) (ft) Stepdescription
1 0.50 15 X Enter emergency room, approach patientwindow
2 10.0 - X Sit down and fill out patienthistory
3 0.75 40 X Nurse escorts patient to ER triageroom
4 3.00 - X Nurse inspectsinjury
5 0.75 40 X Return to waitingroom
6
7
8
9
10
1.00 -
1.00 60
4.00 -
5.00 -
2.00 200
X
X
X
X
X
Wait for availablebed Go to ER
bed
Wait fordoctor
Doctor inspects injury and questions patient Nurse takes
patient toradiology
11
12
13
14
15
3.00 -
2.00 200
3.00 -
2.00 -
1.00 60
X
X
X
X
X
Technician x-rays patient Return to
bed inER
Wait for doctor toreturn
Doctor provides diagnosis and advice Return to
emergency entrancearea
16
17
18
19
4.00 -
2.00 180
4.00 -
1.00 20
X
X
X
X
Checkout
Walk to pharmacy Pick up
prescription Leave thebuilding
Process:
Subject:
Emergency roomadmission
Ankle injurypatient
Beginning: Enter emergencyroom
Ending: Leavehospital
Summary
Number
ofsteps
Activity
Time
(min)
Distance
(ft)
Operation
Transport
Inspect
Delay
Store
5
9
2
3
—
23
11
8
8
—
—
815
—
—
—

Flow Process Chart -Example

3.Two Handed ProcessChart
•It is the process chart in which the activities of two hands of the operator arerecorded.
•Motions of both hands of worker are Right hand-Left hand chart recorded independently.
•It shows whether the two hands of the operator are idle or moving in relation to one another,
in atimescale.
•It is generally used for repetitiveoperations.
•Confined to work carried out at a singleworkplace
•Visualize complete sequence of activities in repetitivetask
•Study work stationlayout
•Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position, use, release etc. of a tool, component
ormaterial.
•Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or limb to or from the work or a tool or
material.
•Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb isidle.
•Storage (Hold): The term ‘hold’ is used here instead of storage to refer to the time when the
work is heldby hand.
The activity ‘inspection’ by hand is considered as an operation. Hence, the symbol for inspection
is not usedin this chart. Two-handed process chart can be used for assembly, machining and
clericaljobs.
Uses: To visualise complete sequence of activties (for repetitive, short durationactivties)
To study work-benchlayout

Ex: Two-Handed Process Chart
1.Provideall
informationabout
the job in thechart.
2.Study theoperation
cycle a few times
before starting to
record.
3.Record onehand
at a time.
4.First record the
activities of the
hand whichstarts
the workfirst.
5.Do not combinethe
different activities
like operations,
transportetc.
Summary of the number of each activity can be tabulated at the bottom of the chart. The chart is first
drawn for the existing method. This chart is analyzed and if it is found that one hand is over loaded
than the other, modification are done in the layout of the workplace or in the sequence of activities.
Then a new chart is made for the proposed cycle. This assists in finding a better method of
performing the task and to train the operator in the preferred method.

Micromotion Study – Example of a Two-Handed Process
Chart: (Existing method of Cutting Glass Tubes)

Example of a Two-Handed ProcessChart:
(Improved method of Cutting GlassTubes)
SUMMARY
Method
PRESENT PROPOSED
LH RH LH R H
Operation 8 5 2 2
Transport 2 5 1 1
Delays
Holds 4 4 2 1
Inspections
TOTAL 14 14

4. Multiple Activity Chart or Man-machineChart
•A man-machine/ Multiple Activity Chart chart is a chart in which the
activities of more than one worker or machine arerecorded.
•Activities are recorded on a common time scale to show theinter-
relationship.
•Itisusedwhenaworkeroperatesanumberofmachinesatatime.It
isalsousedwhenanumberofworkersjointlydoajob.(Determine
numberofmachineshandledbyoneoperator).
•The chart shows the idle time of the worker or machine during the
process. (Study idletime)
•Workloadisevenlydistributedamongtheworkersormachinesbythis
theidletimeofworkerormachineisreduced.Multipleactivitychartis
veryusefulinplanningteamworkinproductionormaintenance.
(Determineno.ofoperatorsrequired).
•Only two symbols are used in man-machine/ Multiple Activity Chart:
Working Idle

PurposeofMultipleActivityChart
•Todetecttheidletimeonmachineandworkers(Thechartshows
theexacttimerelationshipbetweentheworkingcycleofthepersonand
operatingcycleofthemachine).
•To optimize work distribution between workers andmachines.
•To decide number of workers in agroup.
•To balance the workteam
•To examine theactivities.
•It is used for recording the complex movements of material or
men.
•Used to find out the most economicalroute.
ApplicationofMultiple ActivityChart:
–Planning teamwork.
–Plant repair &maintenance.
–Jobconstruction.
–It is used to check whether the work stationis correctlylocated.

Example of Multiple ActivityChart:
Facing & CenteringOperations

Ex: Worker-Machine Chart for a Gourmet CoffeeStore

Diagrams
which➢Diagrams gives pictorial view of the layout of workplace on
locations of different equipment, machines etc. areindicated.
➢The movement of subject(man or machine) is then indicated on the
diagram by a line or astring.
➢The diagram are valuable in highlighting the movement so theanalyst
can take steps to simplify or reduce itso as to obtain saving in time.
➢The most commonly used method study diagrams are:
oFlowdiagram
oStringdiagram
oTravelchart
oCyclegraph andChronocyclegraph

Types ofLAYOUT
FOUR MAJOR TYPES OFLAYOUT:
(A)layout by FIXED position, material to be processed don’t
travel round the plant but stays in one place. When product is
bulky, heavy and only few units are made (Ship Building,Aircraft
construction, Manufacture of large Dieselengines)
(B)layout by PROCESS, Operations of the same nature are
grouped together. Cutting in garment industry, stitching in
another area. This is mostly chosen where great manyproducts
share the samemachine.
(C)Layout by PRODUCT, or LINE layout (Mass production) all m/c
& equipment necessary is set in the same area and in the
sequence of manufacturingprocess.
(D)layout by GROUP. Group productionmethods.

1.Flowdiagram
•Drawing of working area & showing location of variousactivities
•Shows the route followed and selects the optimumone
•Study different layout and selecting optimumone
•Study traffic and frequency over differentroutes
Procedure :
•Layout of workplace is drawn toscale
•Relative positions of the m/c tools, storage &inspection benches are
marked on thescale
•Path followed by the subject under study is tracked by drawinglines
•Each movement is serially numbered & indicated by arrow fordirection
•Different colors are used to denote different types ofmovements

Flowdiagram
➢It’s a top view of the work area correctly indicating the positionsof
machining and other locations affecting the movement ofsubject.
➢Therefor it gives “on-the-spot observation” of the paths of movement
of product sometimes using symbols of processcharts.
73

2. Stringdiagram
•Scale layoutdrawing
•Length of a string is used to record extent & pattern of movements of a
worker within a limitedarea.
•Movements difficult to trace on flow diagram can beshown
•Shows the route followed and selects the optimumone
•Study different layout and selecting optimumone
•Study traffic and frequency over differentroutes
Procedure :
•A Layout of workplace is drawn toscale
•Pins are fixed into boards to mark locations ofworkstations
•Pins are also driven at turning points of theroutes
•A measured length of thread is taken to trace themovements
•The distance covered by object is obtained by measuringthe
remainingpartofthethreadandsubtractingitfromoriginallength

START
END
76

DRILL+CUT
FOLD
RIVET
MARK
IQC
STACK
OQC
SHEET
METAL
START
END

•SHEET METAL–CHECK = 10 ft
•CHECK –CUT
•CUT –DRILL
=12ft
=9ft
•DRILL –FOLD =10 ft
•FOLD –RIVET =10 ft
•RIVET –CHECK =14 ft
•CHECK –STACK =12 ft
•TOTAL =67 ft
•SHEET METAL –IQC = 2.8 ft.
•IQC –MARK =5 ft.
•MARK –DRILL &CUT =6ft
•DRILL & CUT –FOLD =6 ft.
•FOLD –RIVET
•RIVET –OQC
=
=
5 ft.
5 ft.
•TOTAL =30 ft.
Comparison
Scale 1cm = 2feet
Before After

A.Use of the humanbody
B.Arrangement of the workplace
C.Design of tools andequipment
79
The principles of motion economy form a set of rules
and suggestions to improve the manual work in
manufacturing and reduce fatigue and unnecessary
movements by the workers which can lead to the
reduction in the work-related trauma. These principles of
motion economy were first used by Frank Gilbreth. The
principles are grouped under the headings of:
Principles of Motion Economy

Principles of Motion Economy
➢The principles of motion economy comprise guidelines that can be
used to help determine work method, workplace layout, tools and
equipment.
➢The principles are used during method study, when examining and
designing workstation and workplace layouts.
➢They are simple and empirical hints on work design that are based on
a combination of simple ergonomic principles and common sense.
➢The principles relate to both the design of the workplace and the
design of the work. They make repetitive tasks easier, more efficient
and more effective.
➢These principles help to achieve productivity and their objective is to
maximise efficiency, minimise worker fatigue, and reduce cumulative
trauma. (Use of gravity, easy movement – minimum, symmetrical,
simultaneous, natural, rhythmical and continuous).

Benefits of Motion Economy
1.It helps to improve the ability of workers by application of
good methods, using of good tools and eliminating
unnecessary activities.
2.Extended life of machines.
3.Reduces exhaustion/ fatigue of workers.
4.Decreases labour costs due to less wastage in factories or
plants.

Use of Human Body
1)Both hands should be fully utilized (both hands used as equally as
possible, overcoming the natural tendency to use their preferred hand).
2)The two hands should begin and end their motions at the same time
(design the method such that the work is evenly divided between the
right-hand side and the left-hand side of the workplace).
3)The motions of the hands and arms should be symmetrical and
simultaneous. (minimise the amount of hand-eye coordination
required by the worker).
4)The work should be designed to emphasise the worker’s preferred
hand (If the work cannot be allocated evenly between the two hands,
then the method should take advantage of the worker’s best hand).
5)The worker’s two hands should never be idle at the same time (balance
the workload between the right and left hands, to avoid having both
hands idle at the same time).

81

82

83

ClassPivot Body member(s)moved
1 KnuckleFinger
2 Wrist Hand andFinger
3 Elbow Forearm, hand and fingers
4 ShoulderUpper arm, forearm, handand
fingers
5 Trunk Torso, Upper arm, forearm, handand
fingers
CLASSIFICATION OFMOVEMENTS

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

102

103

104

105

106

Types ofLAYOUT

Principles of Plant Layout:
While designing the layout of a plant, the following principles should be
kept in mind:
(i) Principle of Minimum Movement:
Materials and labour should be moved over minimum distances; saving
cost and time of transportation and material handling.
(ii) Principle of Space Utilization:
All available cubic space should be effectively utilized – both
horizontally and vertically.
(iii) Principle of Flexibility:
Layout should be flexible enough to be adaptable to changes required
by expansion or technological development.
(iv) Principle of Interdependence:
Interdependent operations and processes should be located in close
proximity to each other; to minimize product travel.
(v) Principle of Overall Integration:
All the plant facilities and services should be fully integrated into a
single operating unit; to minimize cost of production.

(vi) Principle of Safety:
There should be in-built provision in the design of layout, to provide
for comfort and safety of workers.
(vii) Principle of Smooth Flow:
The layout should be so designed as to reduce work bottlenecks
and facilitate uninterrupted flow of work throughout the plant.
(viii) Principle of Economy:
The layout should aim at effecting economy in terms of investment
in fixed assets.
(ix) Principle of Supervision:
A good layout should facilitate effective supervision over workers.
(x) Principle of Satisfaction:
A good layout should boost up employee morale, by providing
them with maximum work satisfaction.

Improve Productivity, Reduce Costs, ImproveProfits
WorkMeasurement:
Workmeasurementistheapplicationofasetoftechniques
designedtoestablishthequantumofworktobedoneinagiven
timeforaqualifiedworkertocarryoutspecifiedjobs,under
specifiedconditionsatadefinedlevelofperformance.

WorkMeasurement
Work Measurement (WM) is the application of techniques
designed to establish the timefor a qualified worker to carry
out a specified job at a defined level of performance.
(British Standard Glossary of Terms in Work Study)
ThepurposeofWMistorevealthenature&extentof
ineffectivetimesothatactioncanbetakentorevealand
eliminateitandthensetstandardsofperformance.
Two critical issues in work study:
1.Methodstudyshouldprecedetheworkmeasurement,
always.
2.Eliminationofmanagementcontrollableineffectivetime
shouldprecedetheeliminationoftheineffectivetime
withinthecontroloftheworkers.

PURPOSE OF WORK MEASUREMENT
•To reduce the amount of ineffectivetime
•Provides management with a means of identifying the causes of
ineffectivetime.
1.To find ineffective time in a process
2.To set standard for output level
3.To plan workforce needs
4.To evaluate workers performance
5.To determine available capacity
6.To determine price or cost of product
7.To compare work methods
8.To facilitate operations schedules
9.To establish wage incentive schemes
10.Training of new employees
11.Checking employee progress
Use of WorkMeasurement:
1.Assessment ofmanpower
requirements
2.Planning
3.Estimation ofProduction
costs
4.Cost reduction and cost
control
5.Improvedmethods
6.Basis forIncentives
7.Comparing alternative
methods
8.Standarddata
9.Performanceappraisal
10.Training needsassessment
General criteria where WM can be applied for measurablejobs:
1.WorkshouldbeidentifiableintermsofNo.ofunitsaworkerperformed,
2.Work should be performed ina reasonably consistent manner, and
3.Thereshouldbeconsiderablevolumeofworktojustifyperformingthestudy.

THE TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASUREMENT
1.Stop-watch timestudy
2.Worksampling
3.Predetermined timestandards(PTS)
4.StandardData
The choice of technique dependson:
–The level of details desiredand
–The nature of workitself
Directobservational
methods
Indirect
methods

Steps in Work Measurement
Select –the job to be timed (Bottleneck operations, repetitive jobs, jobs with great amount of manual
labour, frequent overtime, new job/component, if cost of operation is high, introduce/revise incentive scheme etc)
Standardise the method of working; Select Operator
Record –all the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which the work is
being done, the method and the elements of activity in them
Examine –the recorded data and the detailed breakdowncriticallyexamine to
ensure that the most effective method and motions are being used and
that unproductive and foreign elements are separated from productive
elements
Measure –the quantity of work involved in each element, in terms of time,
using the appropriate work measurement techniques
Compile –the standard time for the operation which will include time
allowances to cover relaxation, personal needs, contingencies, etc.
Define –precisely the series of activities and methods of operations for which the
time has been compiled and issue the time as standard for the activities and
methods specified.

TIME STUDY
Basic Steps
1.Obtaining and recording all available information about the job,
operator and the surrounding conditions likely to affect the
execution of the work
2.Recording the complete description of the method, breaking
down the operation into 'elements'
3.Measuring with a stopwatch and recording the time taken by the
operator to perform each 'element' of the operation.
4.Assessing the rating
5.Extending observed time to 'basic times'
6.Determiningtheallowances tobemadeoverandabovethe
basic time for the operation
7.Determining the 'standard time' for the operation.

TimeStudy
“TimeStudyistheapplicationofWMtechniquetoestablish
timeforaQUALIFIEDWORKERtocarryoutaSPECIFIED
TASKunderSPECIFIEDCONDITIONSandattheDEFINED
LEVELOF PERFORMANCE ”. HowmuchtimeoneshouldtaketoreachWglStn?
*Breaking into the work elements
*Time for each work element
*Rate ofperformance
*Time of similar work elements should be compared to keep the
standard time constant
*Study a number ofcycles instead of one ortwo
*Extreme values to bediscarded
➢To separate productive & non-productivetime
➢To assess rating of theworker
➢To identify different types of elements & to
measure theirtimings
➢To determine fatigueallowance
➢To prepare detailed workspecifications
➢To fix Std. time for repetitiveelements
➢Each element should have definite beginning &end
➢Element should be as short as possible to beconveniently
timed (0.04min)
➢Manual & M/c elements should be separatelytimed
➢Constant separate fromvariable
➢Occasional & foreign to be timedseparately

Steps in Work Measurement(Contd.)
•Divide the job into elements. The division of jobs
is necessary for the followingreasons.
1.Provide betterunderstanding.
2.Break the study into manageablesize.
3.Workers efficiency through outjob.
4.Distinguish between variousparts.
5.Isolate man andmachines.
•Timetheelements.Stopwatchisgenerallyusedinthe
system.EitherofcontinuousorFly-backmethodisusedfor
recordingtime.
Ex: Dividing Drillinginto elements
1.Selecting the work piece and
placing it in jig.
2.Tightening the screw
3.Advancing the drill towards
the work piece
4.Drilling
5.Withdrawing the drill from the
operation
6.Loosening the screw
7.Removing piece from jig
8.Removing the chips

Types ofelements
•A repetitive element is an element which occurs in every workcycle of the
job.
•An occasional element does not occur in each work cycle of thejob,
butwhich may occur at regular or irregular intervals. e.g.,machine setting.
•For a constant element, the basic time remains constantwhenever
it is performed. e.g.,switch themachine on.
•A variable element is an element for which the basic time variesin relation to
some characteristics ofthe product, equipment or process, e.g.,dimensions,
weight, quality etc. e.g.,push trolley of parts to nextshop.
•A manual element is an element performed by aworker.
•A machine element is automatically performed by a power-driven
machine (orprocess).
•A governing element occupies a longer time than any of the other elements
which are being performed concurrently. e.g. boil kettleof water, while
setting out teapot andcups.
•Aforeignelementisobservedduringastudywhich,afteranalysis,isnot
foundtobenecessarypartofthejob.e.g.degreasingapartthathasstill
tobemachinedfurther.

Objective rating. Here emphasis is laid on speed and difficulty
experienced in performing a job. At first operator is rated on normal
speed and movement. Then other factors are considered. (based on
(i) the amount of body used (ii) foot movement involved (iii) eye-hand
coordination (iv) weight moved or lifted (v) handling requirements
etc.).
•Allowances.
Steps in Work Measurement (Contd.)
•Thenumberofcyclestobetimed.Thereshouldbesufficient
readingstogetreasonablyaccurateresults.Itdependson
1.Variation in times of element.
2.Degree of accuracy required.
3.Prescribed level of confidence.
•Ratingofoperator.RATINGisgaugingandcomparingthepace
ortheperformanceofaworkeragainstaSTDperformancelevel
setbytheTSEngineer.

Uses of time standards
•To provide information on which the planning and
scheduling of production can be based, including the
plant and labour requirements for carrying out the
program of work and utilization of resources.
•To provide information on which estimates for tenders,
selling prices and delivery promises can be based.
•To set standards of machine utilization and labour
performance which can be used for incentive scheme.
•To provide information for labour-cost control and to
enable standard costs to be fixed and maintained.

Work sampling was invented by L.H.C.Tippet (for a textile manufacturing
unit). Work sampling is the process of making sufficient random
observations of an operator’s activities to determine the relative amount
of time the operator spends on the various activities associated with the
job.
The major goal of work sampling is to determine how long, or how much
of the work day, is spent on specific types of work. Work sampling may
identify the fact that certain operators spend a large portion of their time
waiting for work, or performing paperwork tasks, or even performing
activities that are not included in their job descriptions.
✓It is based on probability and statistics.
✓It can also be used to set time standards
✓Several work-sampling studies can be conducted simultaneously by
one observer.
✓The observer need not be a trained analyst
Work Sampling

Amountofworkthatcanbeproducedbyaqualifiedemployeewhen
workingatnormalpaceandeffectivelyutilizinghistimewhereworkis
notrestrictedbyprocesslimitations.
QualifiedWorkerisonewhoisacceptedashavingthenecessaryphysical
attributes,whopossessestherequiredintelligenceandeducation,and
hasacquiredthenecessaryskillandknowledgetocarryouttheworkin
handtosatisfactorystandardsofsafety,quantityandquality.(Choose
theoperatoramongmanydoingthejobunderstudy).
STANDARD PERFORMANCE
Itistherateofoutputwhichqualifiedworkerswillnaturallyachieve
withoutover-exertionasanaverageovertheworkingdayorshift,
providedthattheyknowandadheretothespecifiedmethodand
providedthattheyaremotivatedtoapplythemselvestotheirwork.
STANDARD RATING
Ratingistheassessmentoftheworker'srateofworkingrelativetothe
observers'conceptoftheratecorrespondingtostandardpace.
A FAIR DAY'S WORK

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF WORKING
(outside the control ofworker)
1.Variation in the quality of materials used
2.Changes in the operating efficiency of the equipment
3.Changes in climatic and surrounding conditions of
operation.
FACTORS WITHIN THE CONTROL OF WORKER
a.
b.
c.
Acceptable variations in the quality of theproduct
Variations due to hisability
Variations due to hisattitude
SCALES OFRATING
100-133
60-80
75-100
0-100

Sample Size: Number of Observations required
2
x






SampleSize n =

40n'x
2
-(x)
2
For the statistical method, we have to first take a number of preliminary
readings (n’). We then apply the following equation for the 95.45 confidence
level and a margin of error of ±5 per cent:
Where n = sample size we wish todetermine,
n’ = number of readings taken in thepreliminary study
= sum ofvalues
x = value of thereadings
Iftheaccuracylevelrequiredis±10%thecoefficientis 20;for±5%itis40
and for ±2.5% it is80.
i.e., for an accuracy level of ±10 % (the coefficient being 20), thesample size
x-(x)n'




2


n is obtained by the expression:

SampleSize n=

20
x

2 2

Example:
At a preliminary level, five observations of an elemental task was made with individual
observation being7, 6, 7, 7 and 6 units of time. (1 unit of time = 0.01 minutes). Calculate the
number of observations (sample size) required for a confidence level of 95% and an accuracy
level of (a) ±10 %; (b) ±5 %, and (c) ±2.5%.
Given: No. of preliminary observations (n’) =5
= 7 + 6 + 7 + 7 + 6 =33
Use theequation
For (a) ±10 %accuracy
observations
(b) ±5 %accuracy
(c) ±2.5 %accuracy
2
x





SampleSizen =


20n'x
2
-(x)
2
x x
2
= 49 + 36 + 49 + 49 + 36 =219
33
5(219)-33
33
33
2
2
2
=35.276observations




2



SampleSizen=
80
=8.815
observations


 

405(219)-33
2
SampleSizen= 
=2.4







205(219)-33
2
SampleSize n =

Ratingfactor
•The figure 100 represents standardperformance.
•If the operator is apparently performing withless effective
speed, than the assigned factor is less than100.
•If,ontheotherhand,theeffectiverateofworkingis above
standard, the operator gets a factor abovehundred.
•Essential ideabeing:
Observed time x Rating =Constant

Performance Rating

(Standardrating)

10. Calculating standard time of the job
Constituents of Standard Time
Basic constituents of
Standard Time are:
–Elemental times (Observed
times)
–Compensation for the
difference in operatives
pace of performance and
standard performance.
–Relaxation allowance
–Interference and
Contingency allowances
–Policy allowance
NormalTime
Total
Allowance
Standard
Time
Relaxation
Allowance
Policy
Allowance
Interference
Allowance
Contingency
Allowance
Personal
Needs
Allowance
Fatigue
Allowance
Standard time is used in:
•Costingthe labor component of products
•Tracking employee performance
•Scheduling & planningrequired resources

StandardTime
Normal or Basic Time of elements of the job when added, gives
BASIC TIME of the job. Because nobody can work continuously
some additional time (given as allowances) is required to be
added to Basic Time to arrive at Standard Time.
Standard Time is calculated by taking the Normal Time and
adding allowances for Personal Needs, Fatigue, Contingency,
Interference etc.
Normal or Basic Time
Or
Normal or Basic Time
The expression often used in practice for Standard Time
is: Standard Time = Normal Timex ( 1 + Allowances)
Sometimes the allowances are allowed to be applied to the total
work period, then
Standard Time = Normal Time ÷( 1 -Allowances)

The time study of a work operation at Grand Restaurant yielded an average
observed time of 4.0 minutes. The analyst rated the observed worker at 85%.
The firm uses 13% as total allowances. The restaurant wants to compute the
Normal Time and the Standard Time for this operation. Also find the number
of such work operations the worker is capable of doingin an 8 hourshift.
Use the equation: NormalTime
=(4.0) x (85 /100)
= 3.4min.
We also knowthat,
Standard Time = Total Normal Time ÷( 1 -Allowances)
= (3.4) ÷( 1 - 0.13)
= 3.908min.
No.ofoperationstheworkercanperformin8hours
= Total time /time taken for single operation
= (8 x 60) /3.908
= 122.825units or say 122units.
Illustrated Examples: 1

Illustrated Example2
An industrial operation consists
of FIVE elements with
following observed times and
the performance ratings:
Assuming rest and personal
allowances as 15% and
contingency allowance as 2%
of the basic time, calculate
standard time per piece.
ElementObserved
Time
(Min.)
Performance
Rating(%)
A 0.20 85
B 0.08 80
C 0.50 90
D 0.12 85
E 0.10 80
Ele
me
nt
Observed
Time
(Min.)
Performa
n ce
Rating (%)
Normal
orBasic
Time
(Min)
A 0.20 85
B 0.08 80 0.064
C 0.50 90 0.450
D 0.12 85 0.102
E 0.10 80 0.080
0.866

Standard Time computation of an ordinary manualoperation:
An operator working on a Pillar Drill performed the following elements for whichthe
observed times and ratings are givenhereunder:
(i)Calculate normal time of each element and normal time ofthe job,
(ii)Also calculate standard time of thejob.
Element
Code
ElementDescription Obseved
Time
Rating Relaxation
allowance
A Position job into a drilljig 0.20 80 11%
B Switch on the M/c &lower drill0.008 100 11%
C Drillhole 2.20 90 13%
D Raise drill and switch offM/c 0.05 80 11%
E Remove job fromjig 0.10 110 11%
Element
Code
ElementDescription ObsdT
ime
RatingRelaxa
allowan
Workcontent/
Stdtime
A Position job into a drilljig 0.20 80 11% 0.1776
B Switch on the M/c &lower drill0.008100 11% 0.0888
C Drillhole 2.20 90 13% 2.2374
D Raise drill and switch offM/c 0.05 80 11% 0.0444
E Remove job fromjig 0.10 110 11% 0.1221
Standard Time of theJob 2.6703min

Effect of extension on the time of anelement
Observed Time(OT)
Observed Time(OT)
Basic or Normal Time
100
OTx(R-100)
100
OTx(R-100)
Performance abovestandard
Performance belowstandard
Extensionis calculation of Basic Time fromObservedTime
StandardRating
ObservedTime x ObservedRating
Basic Time=
How the Standard time for a simple manual job is made up
Basic or NormalTime
Work Content
StandardTime
Observed Time (OT)
Rating
factor
Relaxation
Allowance
WORK
ContingencyAllowance
Unavoidable
delays

Workcontent
•The work content of a job or operation is defined as:
basic time+ relaxation allowance+ any allowance for
additional work (e.g. the part of relaxation allowance
that is work related).
•Standard time is the total time in which a job
should be completed at standard performance –
i.e. work content, contingency allowance for delay,
unoccupied time and interference allowance.
•Allowance for unoccupied time and interference may
not be frequently included in the standard time
calculations; however, the relaxation allowance is.

Standard timeconstituents
•A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time
which may be included in a standard time to meet
legitimate and expected items of work or delays, precise
measurement of which is uneconomical because of their
infrequent or irregular occurrence.
•Contingencyallowanceforworkshouldinclude
fatigueallowance;whereastheallowancefordelay
shouldbedependentontheworkers.
•Typically contingency allowances are very small and
are generally expressed as percentage of the total
repetitive minutes of the job.
•Contingencyallowanceshouldnotbemorethan 5%,
andshouldonlybegiven wherethecontingencies
cannotbeeliminatedandarejustified.

Standard time constituents
•Relaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time
intended to provide the worker with the opportunity to
recover from the physiological and psychological effects
of carrying out specified work under specified conditions
and to allow attention to personal needs.
•The amount of the allowance will depend on the nature
of the job.
•One of the major additions to the basic time.
•Industrial fatigue allowance, in turn, forms a major
portion of the relaxation allowance.
•Relaxation allowances are also given as percentages
of the basic times.

Standard timeconstituents
•Typical values of relaxation allowance are 12-20%.
•In addition to including relaxation allowances, short
rest pauses could be added over the period of
work for an operator.
Other allowances
•Start-up / shut-down allowance
•Cleaning allowance
•Tooling allowance
•Set-up / change-over allowance
•Reject / excess production allowance
•Learning / training allowance
•Policy allowance is an increment, other than the bonus
increment, applied to standard time to provide a satisfactory
level of earning for certain level of performances under
exceptional conditions.

WorkSampling
Work Sampling is a technique in which a large number of
instantaneous observationsare made over a period of time of
a group of machines, processes or people. Work sampling is a
method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain
activity by statistical sampling and random observations.
Each observation records what is happening at that instantand
the percentage of observations recorded for a particular
activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during
which that activity or delay occurs. (Also known as Activity Sampling,
Ratio –Delay Study, Observation –Ratio Study, Snap –Reading Method
and Random Observation Method)

A few words aboutsampling
•Samplingismainlybasedonprobability.Probabilityhasbeen
definedas“thedegreetowhichaneventislikelytooccur”.
•Asimpleandoften-mentionedexamplethatillustratesthepointis
thatoftossingacoin.
•Thelawofprobabilitysaysthatwearelikelytohave50headsand
50tailsinevery100tossesofthecoin.Thegreaterthenumberof
tosses,themorechancewehaveofarrivingataratioof50heads
to50tails.
•Thesizeofthesampleisthereforeimportant,andwecanexpress
ourconfidenceinwhetherornotthesampleisrepresentativeby
usingacertainconfidencelevel.

Number of observations in WorkSampling
•Oneofthebasicfoundationsofstatisticalsamplingtheoryisthe
conceptthatthelargerthesamplesize,theresultswillbemore
accurate.
•Inworksampling,asufficientnumberofobservationsmustbe
madetobesurethattheresultsaccuratelysummarizethework
performed.Therearestatisticalformulastohelpdeterminehow
manyobservationsshouldbemade.
For 95 % accuracy (confidence level) –

Using WorkSampling
Make tours of observations on representative of normal
workingdays
Tours should be carried out in random intervals, random
numbers could be generated to decide on theorder
Familiarity of the observer with the process is not critical,
thoughbeneficial.

Determination of samplesize
•Aswellasdefiningtheconfidencelevelforourobservationswe
havetodecideonthemarginoferrorthatwecanallowforthese
observations.
•Letuslookatourexampleabouttheproductivetimeandtheidle
timeofthemachinesinafactory.Therearetwomethodsof
determiningthesamplesizethatwouldbeappropriateforthis
example: thestatisticalmethodandthenomogrammethod.
Statistical method. The formula used in this method is:

A few words aboutsampling
•Samplingismainlybasedonprobability.Probabilityhasbeen
definedas“thedegreetowhichaneventislikelytooccur”.
•Asimpleandoften-mentionedexamplethatillustratesthepointis
thatoftossingacoin.
•Thelawofprobabilitysaysthatwearelikelytohave50headsand
50tailsinevery100tossesofthecoin.Thegreaterthenumberof
tosses,themorechancewehaveofarrivingataratioof50heads
to50tails.
•Thesizeofthesampleisthereforeimportant,andwecanexpress
ourconfidenceinwhetherornotthesampleisrepresentativeby
usingacertainconfidencelevel.
Establishing confidence levels
•Letusgobacktoourpreviousexampleandtossfivecoinsatatime,
andthenrecordthenumberoftimeswehaveheadsandthe
numberoftimeswehavetailsforeachtossofthesefivecoins.Let
usthenrepeatthisoperation100times.

•To make things easier, it is more convenient to speak of a 95 per cent confidence
level than of a 95.45 per cent confidence level.
•To achieve thiswe can change our calculations and obtain:
–95 per cent confidence level or 95 per cent of the area under the curve = 1.96 σp
–99 per cent confidence level or 99 per cent of the area under the curve = 2.58 σp
–99.9 per cent confidence level or 99.9 per cent of the area under the curve = 3.3 σp
•In this case we can say that if we take a large sample at randomwe can be
confident that in 95 per cent of the cases our observations will fall within ±1.96 σp

Number ofSamples
Confidenceinterval
Probability thattrue
proportion willfall
within confidenceinterval
p -e p +ep
e =z
p(1 -p)
n

Number of Samples
n= p(1 -p)()
2
z
e
Desired
Confidence(%)z
90 1.65
95 1.96
96 2.05
97 2.17
98 2.33
99 2.58
n = required samplesize
p = estimate of proportion time an activity takesplace
z = number of standard deviations for desiredconfidence
e = maximum errorallowable
e =z
p(1 -p)
n

•Letusassumethatsome100observationswerecarriedoutasapreliminary
studyandatrandom,andthattheseshowedthemachinetobeidlein25per
centofthecases(p=25)andtobeworking75percentofthetime(q=75).
•Wethushaveapproximatevaluesforpandq;inordernowtodeterminethe
valueofn.
•Letuschooseaconfidencelevelof95percentwitha10percentmarginof
error(thatis,weareconfidentthatin95percentofthecasesourestimates
willbe±10percentoftherealvalue).

1. The Manager of TIN Welfare Office estimates that her employees
are idle 20% of the time. It is proposed to take a work sample, what
should be the sample size for the result to be accurate within 3% and
with 95.45% confidence level. If the confidence level increases to
99.73%, how does the sample size change?
2: A library administrator wants to determine the proportion of time the
circulation clerk is idle. The following info was gathered randomly by using
work sampling:
If the administrator wants a 95% confidence level and a degree of
precision of 4%, how many observations are needed?
DAY No. of times the clerkis
Busy Idle
Monday 8 2
Tueday 7 1
Wed 9 3
Thu 7 3
Fri 8 2
Saturday 6 4

Example:
The Manager of TIN Welfare Office estimates that her employees are idle
20% of the time. It is proposed to take a work sample, what should be the
sample size for the result to be accurate within 3% and with 95.45%
confidence level. If the confidence level increases to 99.73%, how does the
sample size change?
or say 712 observations
If the confidence level increases to 99.73% ( z ≈ 2.8), then
n = 2.8
2
(0.20) (0.80) / 0.03
2
= 1393.77 or say 1394observations.
We use theequation:
E
2
n
or n=

pq z
2
p(1-p)


E =z
2
2
(0.20)(1-0.20)
=711.11observationsn=
0.03
2

Example:Alibraryadministratorwantstodeterminetheproportionoftimethecirculation
clerk is idle. The following info was gathered randomly by using work sampling:
If the administrator wants a 95% confidence level and a degree of precision of 4%, how
many observations are needed?
DAY No. of times the clerkis
Busy Idle
Monday 8 2
Tueday 7 1
Wed 9 3
Thu 7 3
Fri 8 2
Saturday 6 4
Solution:
Total Number of observations made = 45 + 15 = 60
% occurance of Clerk being idle(p) = 15 / 60 = 0.25 or 25%
Given: E = 4% or 0.04; z = 1.96 (for probability = 95%)
Therefore
n = (1.96)
2
(0.25) (1 –0.25) /(0.04)
2
= 0.7203 /0.0016
= 450.187 or say 451observations
TOTAL 45 15
2
En
or n=

pq z
2
p(1-p)
We know E =z


Advantages of Work Sampling
•Can be used to measure activities that are
impractical to measure by direct observation
•Multiple subjects can be included
•Requires less time and lower cost than continuous
direct observation
•Training requirements less than DTS or PMTS
•Less tiresome and monotonous on observer than
continuous observation
•Being a subject in work sampling is less demanding than
being watched continuously for a long time

Disadvantages and Limitations
•Not as accurate for setting time standards as other
work measurement techniques
•Usually not practical to study a single subject
•Work sampling provides less detailed information about
work elements than DTS or PMTS
•Since work sampling deals with multiple subjects,
individual differences will be missed
•Workers may be suspicious because they do not
understand the statistical basis of work sampling

Review Questions
1.What is productivity? Mention the factors influencing productivity. Explain how each factor affectsproductivity
and the techniques to reduce workcontent.
2.What is productivity? Mention the factors influencing productivity and explain how each factor affects
productivity.
3.Discussthebenefitsofproductivityand mentionthetechniquesforproductivityimprovement?
4.Distinguish between Method Study and WorkMeasurement.
5.Discuss the principles of motioneconomy.
6.Describe a flow process chart with a suitableexample.
7.Describe a two handed process chart with a suitableexample.
8.BondCementCo.packs50kgbagsofconcretemix.Timestudydataforthefillingactivityareshowninthe
table.Becauseofhighphysicaldemandsofthejob,thecompany’spolicyofallowancesforworkersare:(i)
Relaxationallowanceof15%,(ii)contingencyallowanceof5%and(iii)Specialallowanceof3%.
a)Compute the standard time for thebag-packing task.
b)How many observations are necessary for the elements (a) ‘Grasp and place the bag’, and (b) ‘Sealbag’
for 95% confidence, within ±5%accuracy?
Observations(seconds)
Element 1 2 3 4 5Performance Rating(%)
Grasp and placethe
bag
8 9 8 11 7 110
Fillbag 36 41 39 35 39 85
Sealbag 15 17 13 20 18 105
Place bag onconveyor8 6 9 7 8 90

9. The Manager of a firm estimates that his employees are idle 30% of the time.
Determine how many observations are required for a work sample that is
accurate within 3% with a confidence level of 95.45% (i.e., z=2) in the results.
10. The two major processes of preparing Chocolate candy bars are moulding and
packaging. The moulding machine operator is rated at 110% and the packer is
rated at 80%. Personal fatigue and delay allowances are set at 15%. Observed
times per batch are given below.
Determine the Normal and standard times for both tasks.
11. A total of 15 observations were taken on a head baker. The numerical breakdown
of the baker’s four activities is:
Based on this information, how many work-sampling observations are required to
determine how much of the baker’s time is spent in “Doing”. Assume a 5%
desired absolute accuracy and 95% confidence level.
Observed time for Batch (in minutes)
1 2 3 4
Task
Moulding 26 30 29 31
Packing 45 50 35 30
Make Ready Do Clean Up Idle
2 6 3 4

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