Inductive and Deductive Reading Skills - Chapter 6.pptx

Inductive and Deductive Reading Skills - Chapter 6

1. DEDUCTIVE REASONING, INDUCTIVE REASONING AND ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS

2. At the end of this chapter, you should be able to : Identify arguments Identify deductive reasoning in arguments Identify inductive reasoning in arguments Identify assumptions in arguments LEARNING OUTCOMES

3. In everyday usage, the term ‘argument’ can suggest disagreement or quarrel on a subject. However, in critical thinking, the term ‘argument’ means presenting reasons to support your claim on a subject. The technical term for such reasons is premises , while your claim on the subject is referred to as a conclusion . ARGUMENTS

4. An argument consists of statements which form the premise (or premises) and a conclusion. Argument Premise(s) Conclusion ARGUMENTS

5. In arguments, speakers use deductive or inductive reasoning and they may make certain assumptions in their arguments. In this chapter, you will learn 8 terms that are interrelated : Statement Argument Premise Conclusion Deductive reasoning Inductive reasoning Assumptions Issue ARGUMENTS

6. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Identifying Statements Not all sentences are statements

7. ARGUMENTS (cont.)

8. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Identifying Statements A statement is distinguished from a non-statement because it asserts or denies something. However, a statement can also be either true or false or debatable. A true statement is called a fact. If a statement is debatable, it is open for discussion or argument.

9. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Fact False statement Debatable statement Child labour is universally condemned. The largest sea creature is the humpback whale. Homework is bad for kids. In 2015, the price of petrol maintained its downward trend. In 2015, the price of petrol was at its highest in five years. Men are better drivers than women. Migrants are sometimes not welcomed by the people from the host country. Florida is the coldest place in the United States. Highland loggings should be made illegal. Ammar maintained his position as the best student in class. Tun Mahathir Mohamad was the second Prime Minister of Malaysia. Anna Olsen is a better chef than Jamie Oliver.

10. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Identifying Premises A premise is a statement which provides specific examples, reasons, cases or other details that support (prove or explain) a conclusion. Premises may be introduced using premise indicators .

11. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Premise indicators:

12. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Premise indicators – boldface , premises - underlined Example 1 Since friendship is based on trust , you must trust your friend. Example 2 Judging from the way she spends , she must be wealthy. Example 3 She was really devastated when her parents died in the accident because they had been separated for such a long time and only found each other again a few months before the accident .

13. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Identifying Conclusions A conclusion is the main point of a passage or text. It is a statement which is supported by the premise (or premises). Conclusions may be introduced using conclusion indicators .

14. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Conclusion indicators:

15. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Conclusion indicators – boldface , conclusions - underlined Example 1 A few players suffered serious injuries in the final football game when it went into extra time. Thus , the team decided to cancel the scheduled appearance at the radio station the following day . Example 2 The Illegal mining activities which occurred near the residential area cost much distress to the residents . Hence , they decided to pick et outside the mine to stop its operation . Example 3 Burt is shorter than Min. John is taller than Min. Therefore , John is taller than Burt.

16. ARGUMENTS (cont.) Identifying the Arguments

17. ARGUMENTS (cont.) However, because I am the father and I say so does not support the claim, so it is not considered a premise to the conclusion. Therefore, this example is not an argument.

18. IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS There are two main types of reasoning: deductive inductive In deductive reasoning, the argument starts from a general statement or rule (conclusion or claim), followed by the premises on which it is based.

19. IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) A deductive argument asserts that the conclusion follows necessarily from the truth of the premises. A deductive argument is valid or invalid.

20. IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) Example 1 All birds can fly. Eagles are birds. Therefore, eagles can fly. There is a flaw in this argument because the first premise, ‘All birds can fly.’ is false. There are birds that cannot fly, such as penguin, emu and ostrich. However, the second premise is true (‘Eagles are birds’). Meanwhile, the conclusion is true since we all know that eagles can fly. On the other hand, if the bird is a new species, we cannot conclude that this bird can fly.

21. IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) Example 2 (a) Ann likes certain kinds of fish Salmon is a fish So, Ann likes Salmon The argument above is weak because the first premise, ‘Ann likes certain kinds of fish’ does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion since Ann may not like Salmon.

22. IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) This is a deductive argument since the conclusion: So, Ann likes salmon. follows from the truth of the premises: Ann likes all fish. Salmon is a fish.

23. IDENTIFYING DEDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) This is a deductive argument since the conclusion: Thus, Ahmad cannot vote. follows from the truth of the premises: In Malaysia, you must be 21 years old to vote. Ahmad is a Malaysian. He is 20 years old.

24. IDENTIFYING INDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS In inductive reasoning, the premises aim to establish or increase the possibility of its conclusion. A conclusion derived from inductive reasoning provides an argument which is considered to be strong or weak. Inductive reasoning only attempts to conclude from probability.

25. IDENTIFYING INDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

26. IDENTIFYING INDUCTIVE REASONING IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) However, the conclusion is only likely to be true. It is possible the Chairman will not be late for this meeting. Then, the conclusion: I am quite sure he will be late for this meeting. is false. This is considered an inductive reasoning since it only attempts to conclude from probability.

27. IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS Sometimes the author or speaker fails to present the premises. The author assumes that the reader has available to him/her the information or knowledge needed, thus it need not be stated in the argument. The information that is not stated or is presupposed by the author in the argument is called the assumption .

28. IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS (cont.)

29. IDENTIFYING ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) Note : Assumptions can also be either accurate or inaccurate, logical or illogical, and justified or unjustified.

30. DIFFERENTIATE INFERENCES AND ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS An assumption is the missing or presupposed information in an argument. An inference, on the other hand, is a conclusion made based on given information. I nferences and assumptions can be either accurate or inaccurate, logical or illogical, and justified or unjustified.

31. DIFFERENTIATE INFERENCES AND ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) Inference In this case, the inference may be correct.

32. DIFFERENTIATE INFERENCES AND ASSUMPTIONS IN ARGUMENTS (cont.) Assumptions In this case, the assumption is accurate.

33. CONCLUSION Arguments consist of premise(s) and conclusion Two main types of reasoning in arguments deductive inductive Assumptions in arguments missing or presupposed information the inference is a conclusion based on given information