Introduction to Life

Detail about biological Classification, cellular organizations

1. Introduction to life By:- Ms. Smita Shukla Assistant Professor

2. Concept & Definition of Biology Biology  is the study of life and living organisms, from one-celled creatures to the most complex living organism of all — the human being.  Biology  includes the study of genes and cells that give living things their special characteristics.

3. What Does it Mean to Be Alive? The Characteristics of Life

4. Life!!! All living things share some basic properties. Cellular Organization Reproduction Metabolism (Obtain and Use Energy) Homeostasis Heredity Responsiveness Growth and Development Adapt Through Evolution

5. All Living Things are Made Up of Cell s Unicellular Organisms Entire organism is made up of one single cell Bacteria and protists Smallest unit capable of all life functions 

6. Multicellular Organisms The organism is made up of many cells Cells have specialized functions within the organism

7. All Living Things Reproduce Reproduction is the process of producing new organisms of the same type Asexual Reproduction A single parent organism reproducing by itself 

8. Sexual Reproduction Two different parent organisms contribute genetic information Involves the combination of male and female sex cells

9. All Living Things Obtain and Use Energy Living organisms need energy to grow, develop, repair damage, and reproduce 

10. Anabolism The process of building up complex substances from simpler substances Building up cells and cellular components Photosynthesis

11. Catabolism The process of breaking down complex substances into simpler substances to release energy Digestion Cellular Respiration

12. Metabolism The total of all chemical reactions in an organism Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism 

13. A stable state of conditions in the body that are necessary for life Body temperature Blood volume pH balance ( Blood7.34–7.45) Water balance All Organisms Maintain Homeostasis 

14. All Organisms Pass Along Hereditary Traits Genes carry hereditary information Genes are composed of DNA Heredity is the reason children resemble their parents “Mutations change DNA code and can be passed from generation to generation”. 

15. All Living Things Respond to Their Environment Organisms react to stimuli : Light Temperature Odor Sound Gravity Heat Water Pressure An example is a plant’s leaves and stems growing toward light 

16. All Living Things Grow Growth means to get bigger in size 

17. All Living Things Develop Development involves a change in the physical form or physiological make-up of an organism 

18. All Living Things Adapt to Their Environment Through Evolution Adaptation A process that enables organisms to become better suited to their environment Species obtain adaptations through evolution over great periods of time 

19. An Example of Adaptation Desert plants have succulent waxy leaves and stems to store water and reduce water loss

20. What is classification? Classification of Living Things Classification is the grouping of living organisms according to similar structures and functions.

21. Early classification systems Aristotle grouped animals according to the way they moved.

22. As living things are constantly being investigated, new attributes are revealed that affect how organisms are placed in a standard classification system. Classification of Living Organisms

23. What is taxonomy? Taxonomy is the branch of biology concerned with the grouping and naming of organisms. Biologists who study this are called taxonomists.

24. How did it start? People wanted to organize their world so they began grouping , or classifying everything they saw.

25. Why classify? To help us see relationships, similarities and differences. To help us organize all the organisms we discover . . .

26. To give every species a name based on a standard method so scientists from different countries can talk about the same animal without confusion.

27. Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist. Developed a 7-level ( taxa ) classification system based on similarities between organisms. Binomial Nomenclature Developed by Carolus Linnaeus . Two-name system: First name is the organism’s genus . Second name is the organism’s species .

28. What rules are used to write scientific names? The first letter of the genus is ALWAYS capitalized. The first letter of the species is NEVER capitalized. Scientific names of organisms are always italicized or underlined

29. 29 Classification of Groups Taxon ( taxa -plural) is a category into which related organisms are placed There is a hierarchy of groups (taxa) from broadest to most specific Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, species copyright cmassengale

30. The Seven Level System D omain K ingdom P hylum C lass O rder F amily G enus S pecies

31. 31 Hierarchy-Taxonomic Groups Domain Kingdom Phylum (Division – used for plants) Class Order Family Genus Species BROADEST TAXON Most Specific copyright cmassengale

32. 32 copyright cmassengale

33. HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION ARISTOTLE DIVIDED LIVING THINGS INTO TWO KINGDOMS CAROLLUS LINNAEUS DEVELOPED THE CLASSIFICATION ON SIMILAR PROPERTIES, FOUND BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE AS A SYSTEM TO GIVE A SCIENTIFIC NAME ROBERT WHITTAKER HE GAVE FIVE KINGDOMS SYSTEM

34. Domains Domains are the broadest taxonomic classification of living organisms The three Domains: Archaea Bacteria   Eukarya

35. 35 Broadest , most inclusive taxon Three domains Archaea and Eubacteria are unicellular prokaryotes (no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles) Eukarya are more complex and have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles Domains copyright cmassengale

36. Domains are Divided into Kingdoms Archaea- ---- Archaebacteria Bacteria   ------ Eubacteria Eukarya ------- Protist Fungi Plantae Animalia

37. How does it work? There are 6 broad kingdoms Every living thing that we know of fits into one of the six kingdoms Each level gets more specific as fewer organisms fit into any one group

38. 38 ARCHAEA Probably the 1 st cells to evolve Live in HARSH environments Found in: Sewage Treatment Plants Thermal or Volcanic Vents Hot Springs or Geysers that are acid Very salty water (Dead Sea; Great Salt Lake) copyright cmassengale

39. 39 ARCHAEAN copyright cmassengale

40. 40 EUBACTERIA Some may cause DISEASE Found in ALL HABITATS except harsh ones Important decomposers for environment Commercially important in making cottage cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, etc. copyright cmassengale

41. 41 Live in the intestines of animals copyright cmassengale

42. 42 Domain Eukarya is Divided into Kingdoms Monera ( true bacteria (eubacteria) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). Protista (protozoans, algae…) Fungi (mushrooms, yeasts …) Plantae (multicellular plants) Animalia (multicellular animals) copyright cmassengale By: ROBERT WHITTAKER

43. KINGDOM MONERA Unicellular Prokaryotic Cell wall is non cellulosic Nutrition - autotrophic or heterotrophic Locomotion – flagella, gliding or non motile. Reproduction – conjugation, transduction and transformation

44. Bacteria Bacteria types

45. 45 Protista Most are unicellular Some are multicellular Some are autotrophic , while others are heterotrophic Aquatic copyright cmassengale

46. 46 Fungi Multicellular, except yeast Absorptive heterotrophs (digest food outside their body & then absorb it) Cell walls made of chitin copyright cmassengale

47. Yeast Sporangial forms Amanita musaria Bracket fungi

48. 48 Plantae Multicellular Autotrophic Absorb sunlight to make glucose – Photosynthesis Cell walls made of cellulose copyright cmassengale

49. Bryophytes Polytricum sp. female gametopytes Polytricum sp. male gametopytes

50. Pteridophytes Fern ( Nephrolepis )

51. Gymnosperms Thuja Pine

52. Angiosperms

53. 53 Animalia Multicellular Ingestive heterotrophs (consume food & digest it inside their bodies) Feed on plants or animals copyright cmassengale

54. 54 copyright cmassengale

55. 55 copyright cmassengale

56. Organizational Hierarchy of Life Most Complex Least Complex sub-atomic particles atom molecule macromolecule organelle cell tissue organ organ system organism population community ecosystem biosphere protons, neutrons, electrons nitrogen nucleotide DNA nucleus neuron nervous tissue brain nervous system fish school of fish coral reef populations coral reef (living + nonliving) inhabitable regions of earth

57. Biological Levels of Organization

58. Basic Concept of Cell & its Function

59. What are Cells ? What is a cell? Where do we find cells? Cell : “ A cell is a basic unit of structure and function of life. In other words, cells make up living things and carry out activities that keep a living thing alive ”.

60. Cells Continued What makes a cell? A cell is a living thing. Cells are able to make more cells like themselves. Interesting Fact: “New cells can only come from existing cells (cells that are already made )”.

61. Some HISTORY for you In 1660s there was a man named Robert Hooke . Robert lived in Britain and was a scientist. He was the first person to observe cells. Robert took a piece bark from an old oak tree and looked at it through a microscope.

62. The bark looked like it was made up of many small rooms (kind of like a house with many bedrooms). He named the rooms, or structures, he saw under the microscope as cells . Therefore, he Coined the term cell THIS IS HOW THE WORD CELLS CAME TO BE!!

63. The Discovery of the Cell

64. The Cell Theory Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells. Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living things. New cells are produced from existing cells. Schleiden Schwann Virchow www.nerdscience.com « Omnis cellula e cellula »

65. Cells are the basic units of organisms Cells can only be observed under microscope Two basic types of cells: Animal Cell Plant Cell

66. Plant Cell Made of cellulose which forms very thin fibres Strong and rigid In plant cells only Cell wall

67. Protect and support the enclosed substances (protoplasm) Resist entry of excess water into the cell Give shape to the cell Cell wall Plant Cell

68. A dead layer Large empty spaces present between cellulose fibres  freely permeable Cell wall Plant Cell

69. Lies immediately against the cell wall Made of protein and lipid  Selectively permeable Cell membrane Plant Cell

70. A living layer Can control the movement of materials into and out of the cell Cell membrane Plant Cell

71. Jelly-like substance enclosed by cell membrane Provide a medium for chemical reactions to take place Cytoplasm Plant Cell

72. Contains organelles and granules : e.g. chloroplast e.g. mitochondria Cytoplasm Plant Cell

73. Organelles very small size – can only be observed under electron microscope has specific functions in cytoplasm

74. Contains the green pigment chlorophyll To trap light energy , to make food by photosynthesis Plant Cell Chloroplast

75. Contain starch grains (products of photosynthesis) Chloroplast Plant Cell

76. Rod shape For respiration Plant Cell Mitochondrion ( mitochondria )

77. Active cells ( eg. sperms, liver cells) have more mitochondria Plant Cell Mitochondrion ( mitochondria )

78. Starch granules Oil droplets Crystals of insoluble wastes Plant Cell Non-living granules

79. large central vacuole Surrounded by tonoplast Contains cell sap a solution of chemicals (sugars, proteins, mineral salts, wastes, pigments) Plant Cell Vacuole

80. Control the normal activities of the cell Bounded by a nuclear membrane Contains thread-like chromosomes Plant Cell Nucleus

81. Each cell has fixed number of chromosomes Chromosomes carry genes genes control cell characteristics Nucleus Plant Cell

82. mitochondrion nucleus glycogen granule cell membrane cytoplasm Animal cell No cell wall and chloroplast Stores glycogen granules and oil droplets in the cytoplasm vacuole

83. Different kinds of animal cells white blood cell red blood cell cheek cells sperm nerve cell muscle cell Amoeba Paramecium

84. Similarities between plant cells and animal cells Both have a cell membrane surrounding the cytoplasm Both have a nucleus Both contain mitochondria

85. Differences between plant cells and animal cells Animal cells Plant cells Relatively smaller in size Irregular shape No cell wall Relatively larger in size Regular shape Cell wall present

86. Animal cells Plant cells Vacuole small or absent Glycogen granules as food store Nucleus at the centre Large central vacuole Starch granules as food store Nucleus near cell wall Differences between plant cells and animal cells

87. Structure Animal cells Plant cells cell membrane Yes yes nucleus Yes yes nucleolus yes yes ribosomes yes yes ER yes yes Golgi yes yes centrioles yes no cell wall no yes mitochondria yes yes cholorplasts no yes One big vacuole no yes cytoskeleton yes Yes

88. Two Major Cell Types Cell Type Example Prokaryotic Bacteria Eukaryotic Protists Fungi Plants Animals

89. Prokaryote = without a nucleus Prokaryotic Cell

90. Eukaryotic Cell (protist, animal) Eukaryote = with a nucleus

91. Eukaryotic Cell (plant)

92. Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic Cell

93. The distinction between  prokaryotes  and  eukaryotes  is considered to be the most important distinction among groups of organisms. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as nucleus, while prokaryotic cells do not . Differences in cellular structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and chloroplasts, the cell wall , and the structure of chromosomalDNA. Prokaryotes were the only form of life on Earth for millions of years until more complicated eukaryotic cells came into being through the process of evolution .

94. Prokaryotic Cells In Greek: Pro = before karyotic = nucleus Cell that do not have a nucleus Bacteria

95. Eukaryotic Cells In Greek: Eu = True Karyotic = nucleus Cell that have a nucleus

96. What are cell parts and their functions?

97. In this PowerPoint you will learn the following: Different cell parts What function each part has

98. Even if cells are very tiny , they are made up of smaller parts , and the parts do different jobs .

99. Cell organelles are of 2 types.. Membranous Organelles: Rough Endoplasmic reticulum. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Mitochondria. Golgi. Lysosomes.

100. Non membranous Organelles. Ribosomes. Cytoskeletal structures.

101. As you can see cells have many parts.

102. Cell wall Only found surrounding plant , fungal and bacterial cells Its purpose is to shape and protect the cell like the outside wall of a shopping mall, which provides shape and protection for it. “Supporter and Protector”

103. Cell membrane The cell membrane holds and protects the cell. It controls what substances come into and out of the cell like an entrance you have to pass to get into the shopping mall. “Gate of the Cell”.

104. Surrounds all cells. In a plant cell, it lies beneath the cell wall. In animal cells, it is the outer boundary (made of Cell Membrane cholesterol) Cell membrane Provides cell with – Protection – Control of movement of materials in/out of cell – Support – Maintains condition of cell

105. Function Regulates the movement of materials from one environment to the other . Transports raw materials into the cell and waste out of the cell . Prevents the entry of unwanted matter and the escape of needed materials . Maintain a steady environment: Homeostasis

106. Cytoplasm The cytoplasm is the watery, gel-like material in which cell parts move and cell activities take place like the hallways of the mall where people move. “Area of Movement”

107. Found in both plant and animal cells • Clear, thick, jelly-like Material. • Located beneath cell Membrane. • Supports and protects cell Organelles. • It’s like the sidewalks that are found throughout a city! Cytoplasm

108. Mitochondria Mitochondria produces most of the energy for the cell, like an electrical system of the shopping mall, which supplies electrical energy. “Powerhouse of the cell”

109. Found in both plant and animal cells. Looks like a jellybean Breaks down sugar molecules to release usable energy. Has inner foldings (Cristae) that increase the internal surface area. It’s like a city’s power plant!

110. Mitochondria are the only organelles to have their own genetic material. In EM it can be seen that mitochondria are bounded by double unit membrane. These membrane are separated by narrow intramembranous space Inner membrane is four or five times larger than outer membrane.

111. Outer membrane is fairly permeable, inner membrane is highly selective. Interior of the mitochondrian is filled with mitochondrial matrix of slightly higher electron density than the surrounding cytoplasm. Mitochondria are renewed on a continuous basis throughout the cell cycle.

112. The number and size of mitochondria give an indication of the energy requirements. Mitochondria primarily concerned with the chemical process by which energy is made available to the cell in the form of ATP. ATP is often referred to as the energy “ currency of cell ” Main site of  aerobic respiration.

113. This DNA is inherited maternally. Mitochondria are also significant participants in many versions of apoptosis , and altered mitochondrial function appears to be associated with various cancerous changes in cells. In cell hypertrophy- increase in number of mitochondria in cells In cell atrophy- decrease in no. of mitochondria's in cells. M itochondrial DNA

114. Chloroplast Chloroplast is only in plant cells , like the cell wall. It contains chlorophyll , which captures energy from sunlight and uses it to produce food for the cell like the pizza shop in the mall that makes food. “Food Producers” Green in color due to chlorophyll.

115. Vacuoles The vacuoles store food, water, and chemicals, like water tank and pipes of the mall, which store water. “Storage Tanks”

116. Found in both plant and animal cells – In plant cells: very few and very large Vacuoles – In animal cells: many little ones Fluid-filled sacs Vacuoles

117. Identified in 1833 by Robert Brown Found in both plant and animal cells Nucleus Large, oval shape Centrally located in cell Controls cell activities Contains genetic information (DNA) Nucleus

118. Nucleus Nucleus regulates and controls cell activities, acting like the “brain” of the cell, like the mall office, which regulates and controls activities of the shopping mall. “Control Center”

119. NUCLEUS Most prominent organelle. All cells in the body contain nucleus except mature RBCs & uppermost l ayer of skin.

120. Cell Nucleus: Functions Bag of chromosomes : It contains most of the cell's genetic material. Storage of DNA, DNA maintenance Replication & repair of DNA Site of transcription & post transcriptional processing/ modification

121. The control center of a cell: Controls the activities of cell by regulating gene expression . - Production of ribosomal subunits in the nucleolus Nucleolus: Actively transcribing region of nucleus Synthesis of rRNA Formation of ribosome subunits

122. Nuclear membrane The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus and also allow substances to pass in and out of the nucleus, as the cell membrane does the same for the cell; like the main office; like the walls of the mall and its entrance, which protect the office and let workers in and out. “Gate of the Nucleus”

123. FUNCTIONS CONT . Nuclear membrane Compartmentalizes the nucleus Nuclear pore Transport of molecules between the cytoplasm and the nucleus Chromatin DNA Replication and transcription Nuclear matrix Replication, DNA repair and transcriptional process Nucleolus Synthesis of rRNA and ribosomes

124. Chromosomes The chromosomes direct the activities of cells like a mall office director who works in the office and directs all the activities of the shopping mall. “Director of the Cell”

125. Golgi Apparatus Discovered in 1898 by Camillo Golgi Found in both plant and animal cells Looks like a flattened stack of membranes (or pancakes!) Processes and packages molecules, like lipids and proteins, that were made by the cell

126. Ribosomes Found in both plant and animal cells Can be attached to the Endoplasmic Membrane or floating free in the cytoplasm Ribosomes:- • Produces proteins • The smallest organelles • It’s like the brick yard that supplies a city with what it’s made of!

127. Endoplasmic Reticulum Found in both plant and animal cells • Network of tubes • Transports materials throughout the cell Endoplasmic Reticulum Two types – Smooth (no ribosomes) – Rough (covered with ribosomes) • It’s like a city’s highway system!

128. ‘The Cell’s Delivery System’

129. Chapter 2 Introduction to Biomolecules

130. Biomolecules Definition Biomolecules are molecules that occur naturally in living organisms. Biomolecules include macromolecules like proteins , carbohydrates , lipids and nucleic acids .

131. It also includes small molecules like primary and secondary metabolites and natural products.  Biomolecules consists mainly of carbon and hydrogen with nitrogen , oxygen , sulphur , and phosphorus . Biomolecules are very large molecules of many atoms, that are covalently bound together.

132. Classes of Biomolecules There are four major classes of biomolecules:  Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids

133. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are often known as sugars , they are the 'staff of life' for most organisms. They are the most abundant class of biomolecules in nature , based on mass . Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides , in Greek  sakcharon  mean sugar or sweetness . 

134. Carbohydrates consist of the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) with a ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon and oxygen. General formula of carbohydrate is  C n  H 2n  O n In their basic form, carbohydrates are simple sugars or  monosaccharides .

135. These simple sugars can combine with each other to form more complex carbohydrates. The combination of two simple sugars is a  disaccharide . Carbohydrates consisting of two to ten simple sugars are called  oligosaccharides , and those with a larger numbers are called  polysaccharides .

136. Sugars Sugars are white crystalline carbohydrates that are soluble in water and generally have a sweet taste.

137. Classification of Carbohydrates The carbohydrates are divided into three major classes depending upon whether or not they undergo hydrolysis, and if they do, on the number of products formed.

138. Monosaccharides The monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones which cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis to give simpler carbohydrates. Examples are glucose and fructose, both of which have molecular formula, C 6 H 12 O 6 . Many saccharide structures differ only in the orientation of the hydroxyl groups (-OH).

139. This slight structural difference makes a big difference in the biochemical properties, and in the physical properties such as melting point  . A chain-form monosaccharide that has a carbonyl group (C=O) on an end carbon forming an aldehyde group (-CHO) is classified as an  aldose . When the carbonyl group is on an inner atom forming a ketone , it is classified as a  ketose .

140. On the basis of number of carbon atoms  monosaccharide are further classified into following small units: (i) Trioses  (C 3  H 6  O 3 ) – It contain 3 carbon molecule. Examples are: Glyceraldehyde and and   Dihydroxy acetone. Glyceraldehyde

141. (ii) Tetroses (C 4  H 8  O 4 ) – It contain 4 carbon molecules. Examples are: Erythrose, Erythrulose. D-Erythrose D- Threose D-Erythrulose

142. (iii) Pentoses  (C 5  H 10  O 5 ) – It contain 5 carbon molecules. Examples are: Ribose, Ribulose, Arbinose,Xylulose, Deoxyribose. D-Ribose D- Arabinose D- Xylose D- Lyxose

143. The ring form of ribose is a component of ribonucleic acid  (RNA). Deoxyribose, which is missing an oxygen at position 2 , is a component of deoxyribonucleic acid  (DNA) In nucleic acids, the hydroxyl group attached to carbon number 1 is replaced with nucleotide bases.

144. Ribose Deoxyribose

145. (iv) Hexoses (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) – It contain 6 carbon molecules. Examples are: Glucose, Mannose, Fructose, Galactose etc… D-Glucose D-Mannose D-Galactose

146. Structures that have opposite configurations of a hydroxyl group at only one position , such as glucose and mannose, are called  epimers . Glucose , also called  dextrose , is the most widely distributed sugar in the plant and animal kingdoms and it is the sugar present in blood as " blood sugar ".

147. Fructose, also called levulose or " fruit sugar ", is shown here in the chain and ring forms.   Galactose  is a constituent of agar-agar. It is also called  brain sugar . Fructose and glucose are the main carbohydrate constituents of honey. D-Fructose Fructose

148. (v) Heptoses  (C 7  H 14  O 7 ) – It contain 7 carbon molecules. Examples are: Sedoheptulose. Sedoheptulose has the same structure as fructose , but it has one extra carbon . Sedoheptulose is found in carrots. D-Sedoheptulose

149. Many simple sugars can exist in a chain form or a ring form, as illustrated by the hexoses above. The ring form is favored in aqueous solutions, and the mechanism of ring formation is similar for most sugars.

150. The rearrangement produces  alpha  glucose   when the hydroxyl group is on the opposite side of the -CH 2 OH group,  or  beta  glucose   when the hydroxyl group is on the same side as the -CH 2 OH group. α- D-Glucose β- D-Glucose

151. Monosaccharides forming a five-sided ring , like ribose, are called  furanoses . Those forming six-sided rings , like glucose, are called  pyranoses . Furanose Pyranose

152. Oligosaccharides T hese sugars are formed by linking of  2-10 units of monosaccharides . In Oligosaccharides , aldehyde or ketone group  of one monosaccharide are linked with  alcoholic group  of another monosaccharide to form  Glycosidic bond (C-O-C).

153. The most abundant oligosaccharides are disaccharides , formed by two monosaccharides , and especially in the human diet the most important are sucrose (common table sugar),  lactose   and  maltose.

154. (i) Disaccharides: Carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis give two molecules of the same or different monosaccharides are called disaccharides. Three particular disaccharides are: Sucrose, Maltose & Lactose.

155. (a) Sucrose : Also called saccharose, is ordinary table sugar refined from sugar cane or sugar beets. When Sucrose is hydrolyzed , it yields one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose . Sucrose

156. (b) Maltose (also known as malt sugar): It occurs in the body as an intermediate product of starch digestion. When maltose is hydrolyzed, it yields two molecules of glucose. Maltose

157. (c) Lactose ( also known as milk sugar): This disaccharide is found only in milk. When lactose is hydrolyzed it yields one unit of glucose and one unit of galactose . Lactose

158. (ii) Trisaccharides: (a) Raffinose: Also called melitose, is a trisaccharide that is widely found in legumes and vegetables, including beans, peas, cabbage etc.. It consists of galactose connected to sucrose via a 1α→6 glycosidic linkage . Humans cannot digest saccharides with this linkage and the saccharides are fermented in the large intestine by gas-producing bacteria. 

159. Raffinose

160. Polysaccharides Polysaccharide, also called glycan, the form in which most natural carbohydrates occur.  Polysaccharides may have a molecular structure that is either branched or linear.  Linear compounds such as  cellulose  often pack together to form a rigid structure; branched forms ( e.g., gum arabic) generally are soluble in water and make pastes.

161. Polysaccharides composed of many molecules of one sugar or one sugar derivative are called homopolysaccharides (homoglycans).  Homopolysaccharides composed of glucose include glycogen and starch , the storage carbohydrates of animals and plants respectively; and  cellulose , the important structural component of most plants.

162. Polysaccharides consisting of molecules of more than one sugar or sugar derivative are called  heteropolysaccharides ( heteroglycans ). Most contain only two different units and are associated with proteins; like Peptidoglycan, proteoglycans etc.. Hetropolysaccharides provide extracellular support for organisms of all kingdoms.

163. The polysaccharides described below play important roles in nutrition, biology, or food preparation. Types of polysaccharides: (i) Starch: Starch is the major form of stored carbohydrate in plants. Starch is composed of a mixture of two substances: amylose , an essentially linear polysaccharide , and  amylopectin , a highly branched polysaccharide. 

164. Both forms of starch are polymers of  α-D-Glucose . Natural starches contain 10-20% amylose and 80-90% amylopectin. Amylose forms a colloidal dispersion in hot water (which helps to thicken gravies) whereas amylopectin is completely insoluble .

165. a) Amylose  molecules consist typically of 200 to 20,000 glucose units which form a helix as a result of the bond angles between the glucose units.  Amylose

166. b) Amylopectin differs from amylose in being highly branched . Short side chains of about 30 glucose units are attached with 1α→6 linkages approximately every twenty to thirty glucose units along the chain.  Amylopectin molecules may contain up to two million glucose units.

167. Examples of starch are: Dextrins, Syrups, High fructose corn syrup(HFCS), Polydextrose etc.. (ii) Glycogen: Glucose is stored as glycogen in animal tissues by the process of glycogenesis . Glycogen is a polymer of α-D-Glucose identical to amylopectin, but the branches in glycogen tend to be shorter (about 13 glucose units) 

168. Glucose chains are organized globularly like branches of a tree originating from a pair of molecules of  glycogenin , a protein with a molecular weight of 38,000 that acts as a primer at the core of the structure. Glycogen is easily converted back to glucose to provide energy.

169. (iii) Dextran: Dextran is a polysaccharide similar to amylopectin, but the main chains are formed by 1α→6 glycosidic linkages and the side branches are attached by 1α→3 or 1α→4 linkages. Dextran is an oral bacterial product that adheres to the teeth, creating a film called plaque .  It is also used commercially as food additives..

170. Dextran

171. (iv) Cellulose: Cellulose is a polymer of  β-D-Glucose , which in contrast to starch, is oriented with  -CH 2 OH  groups alternating above and below the plane of the cellulose molecule thus producing long, unbranched chains. The absence of side chains allows cellulose molecules to lie close together and form rigid structures.

172. Cellulose is the major structural material of plants .  Wood is largely cellulose, and cotton is almost pure cellulose. Cellulose can be hydrolyzed to its constituent glucose units by microor ganisms that inhabit the digestive tract of termites and ruminants .

173. Cellulose

174. (v) Hemicellulose: The term "hemicellulose" is applied to the polysaccharide components of plant cell walls other than cellulose , or to polysaccharides in plant cell walls which are extractable by dilute alkaline solutions. Hemicelluloses comprise almost one-third of the carbohydrates in woody plant tissue.

175. The chemical structure of hemicelluloses consists of long chains of a variety of pentoses, hexoses. Hemicelluloses may be found in fruit, plant stems & grain. Although hemicelluloses are not digestible , they can be fermented by yeasts and bacteria . 

176. The polysaccharides yielding pentoses on hydrolysis are called  pentosans . Xylan is an example of a pentosan consisting of D- xylose units with 1β→4 linkages. Xylan

177. (vi) Chitin: Chitin is an unbranched polymer of N-Acetyl-D-glucosamine. It is found in fungi and is the principal component of arthropod and lower animal exoskeletons , e.g., insect, crabs etc.. It may be regarded as a derivative of cellulose, in which the hydroxyl groups of the second carbon of each glucose unit have been replaced with acetamido ( -NH(C=O)CH 3 ) groups.

178. Chitin

179. (vii) Pectin: Pectin is a polysaccharide that acts as a cementing material in the cell walls of all plant tissues. Pectin is the methylated ester of polygalacturonic acid, which consists of chains of 300 to 1000 galacturonic acid units joined with 1α→4 linkages.  Pectin is an important ingredient of fruit preserves, jellies, and jams.

180. Pectin is a polymer of α- Galacturonic acid with a variable number of methyl ester ( -COOCH 3 ) groups .

181. Functions of Carbohydrates Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body: Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose Sparing the use of proteins for energy Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis Biological recognition processes i.e. they are essential for cells to communicate with each other. Flavor and Sweeteners They have the potential to reduce the risks of many chronic diseases.

182. Lipids: Fats & Oils

183. LIPIDS Lipids are naturally occurring hydrophobic molecules.  They are heterogeneous group of compounds related to fatty acids. They include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, etc.  They make up about 70% of the dry weight of the nervous system. Lipids are crucial for the healthy functioning of the nerve cells. 

184. Lipids are greasy or oily organic substances; lipids are sparingly soluble in water and are  soluble in organic solvents like chloroform, ether and benzene. Lipids are important constituent of of the diet because they are a source of high energy value. Lipids combined with proteins are important constituents of the cell membranes and mitochondria of the cell. Lipids are not generally macromolecules. 

185. Classification of Lipids

186. They may be classified based on their physical properties at room temperature ( solid or liquid, respectively fats and oils ), on polarity, or on their essentiality for humans, but the preferable classification is based on their structure .

187. Types of Lipid Triglycerides [Fats & Oils] Waxes Phospholipids Steroids Glycolipids Lipoproteins Terpenes

188. Based on structure , they can be classified in three major groups.

189. 1. Simple Lipids or Homolipids These are esters of fatty acids with various alcohols. (A) Fats and Oils: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. The difference between fat and oil is only physical . Thus, oil is a liquid while fat is a solid at room temperature . These  triglycerides  (or triacylglycerols) are found in both plants and animals, and compose one of the major food groups of our diet. 

190. Fats & Oils the commonest lipids in nature the constituents of fats are:-   fatty acids (alkanoic acids) glycerol (propane 1-2-3 triol)

191. (B) Waxes : Esters of fatty acids(usually long chain)with alcohols other than glycerol . These alcohols may be aliphatic or alicyclic. Cetyl alcohol [CH 3 (CH 2 ) 15 OH] is most commonly found in waxes. The name  cetyl  derives from the whale oil (Latin:  cetus ) from which it was first isolated. Example : Beeswax (insect wax), Carnauba wax (important plant wax ; also a complex mixture ; hardest known wax)

192. Fatty acids general formula: R.COOH - most have an even number of C - most commonly 16-18 C 16 H 32 O 2 R fatty acids may be: saturated or unsaturated

193. Saturated fatty acid [ S ingle bonds only] Unsaturated fatty acid [Double bonds]

194. Stearic acid, C 17 H 35 COOH – Saturated fatty acid Oleic acid, C 17 H 33 COOH – Unsaturated fatty acid

195. The more double bonds present, the more bent the molecule is

196. Properties of Saturated Fatty Acids Contain only single C–C bonds Closely packed Strong attractions between chains High melting points Solids at room temperature 201

197. Properties of Unsaturated Fatty Acids Contain one or more double C=C bonds Nonlinear chains do not allow molecules to pack closely Few interactions between chains Low melting points Liquids at room temperature 202

198. Fatty Acids The Length of the Carbon Chain long-chain, medium-chain, short-chain The Degree of Unsaturation saturated, unsaturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated The Location of Double Bonds omega-3 fatty acid, omega-6 fatty acid

199. Monounsaturated Fatty Acid (MUFA) One carbon-carbon double bond

200. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) More than one carbon-carbon double bond

201. Location of Double Bonds PUFA are identified by position of the double bond nearest the methyl end (CH 3 ) of the carbon chain; this is described as a omega number; If PUFA has first double bond 3 carbons away from the methyl end=omega 3 FA 6 carbons from methyl end=omega 6 FA

202. Cis and Trans Fatty Acids Because of the presence of doubles bond in aliphatic hydrocarbon chain of unsaturated fatty acids, they can exhibit geometrical isomerism also called as cis -trans isomerization . Naturally occurring fatty acid exhibit cis -configuration which can be modified to artificial configuration known as trans. 

203. In cis-form the hydrogen atoms of double bonded carbon atom oriented on same side , however in trans form they oriented in opposite direction . The differences in geometry of trans and cis-unsaturated fatty acids play an important role in biological processes.

204. Cis and trans forms of fatty acids show different physical and chemical properties just like other organic geometrical isomers. Trans isomers show high melting points due to closely packed structure compare to cis isomers. The configuration of unsaturated fatty acids not only affects their physical properties but also their health implications.  

205. Some other differences between cis and trans-fatty acids are as follows.

206. 2. Compound Lipids or Heterolipids Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid.

207. Phospholipids: Lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a phosphoric acid residue. They frequently have nitrogen containing bases and other substituent's, e.g., in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.

208. (b) Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids ): Lipids containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate. (c) Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and aminolipids. Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category.

209. 3. Precursor and derived lipids: This group includes: Fatty Acids. Glycerol. Cholesterol. Steroid hormones. Fatty aldehydes. Fat soluble vitamins [ A D E K]. Some other alcohols. 215

210. Derived lipids Derived lipids  are the substances derived from simple and compound lipids by hydrolysis . These includes fatty acids, alcohols, monoglycerides and diglycerides, steroids , terpenes , carotenoids.  The most common derived lipids are steroids, terpenes and carotenoids.

211. Steroids   do not contain fatty acids, they are nonsaponifiable, and are not hydrolyzed on heating. They are widely distributed in animals, where they are associated with physiological processes. They performs various functions such as hormones and contributes to the structure of cell membranes.

212. Steroids Steroids are: Lipids containing the steroid nucleus, which is a fused structure of four rings. Found in cholesterol, bile salts, hormones, and vitamin D.

213. a. Cholesterol The most abundant steroid in the body. Contains 27 carbon atoms. At C3 there is a –OH group; so it is an alcohol. Composed of the steroid nucleus with methyl groups, an alkyl chain, and a hydroxyl group attached.

214. b. Bile Salts Are synthesized from cholesterol and stored in the gall bladder. Emulsify fats and oils to give a greater surface area for lipid digesting enzymes.

215. Terpenes In majority are found in plants. Example: natural rubber. Gernoil, etc. Are volatile organic compounds which are odoriferous constituents of essential oils. They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are not aromatic in character.

216. Carotenoids Carotenoids  are tetraterpenes. They are widely distributed in both plants and animals.  They are exclusively of plant origin . Due to the presence of many conjugated double bonds, they are colored red or yellow. Example: Lycopreene, carotenes, Xanthophylls. 

217. Function of Lipids Lipids perform several biological functions:  Lipids are storage compounds, triglycerides serve as reserve energy of the body.  Lipids are important component of cell membranes structure in eukaryotic cells.  Lipids regulate membrane permeability.  They serve as source for fat soluble vitamins like A, D, E, K. 

218. As lipids are small molecules and are insoluble in water, they act as signalling molecules.  Cholesterol maintains fluidity of membranes by interacting with lipid complexes.  Layers of fat in the subcutaneous layer, provides insulation and protection from cold. Body temperature maintenance is done by brown fat.

219. Summary Lipids It’s sub types: Classification Fatty Acids Types of fatty acids Compound and derived lipids Functions of lipids

220. Proteins

221. What is a Protein? The word protein came from a Greek word “Proteios” Proteins are like long necklaces with differently shaped beads. Each "bead" is a small molecule called an amino acid . Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and arranged as strands of amino acids

222. Proteins are a class of most important compounds that are found in living organisms. Proteins are the main constituents of our body such as muscles, skin, hair and nails. Protein carry all vital life processes in the human system. Proteins are a vast class of substances of almost unbelievable diversity in structure and function.

223. What is Amino Acid? Amino acids are derivatives of carboxylic acids formed by substitution of -hydrogen for amino functional group

224. What do Amino Acids Do? Amino acids are essential to life, have a role in metabolism, and are important in nutrition. They form short polymer chains called peptides, as well as longer chains that are called polypeptides or proteins. About 75 percent of the human body is made up of chains of amino acids, which is why they are so vital to how your system functions. All the chemical reactions that occur in the body depend on amino acids and the proteins they build.

225. Amino Acids Amino Acids are the building units of proteins. Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked together by what is called “ Peptide bond”. There are about 300 amino acids occur in nature. Only 20 of them occur in proteins. Each amino acid has 4 different groups attached to α- carbon ( which is C-atom next to COOH ). These 4 groups are : amino group , COOH gp , Hydrogen atom and side Chain (R) R

226. At physiological PH (7.4), -COOH gp is dissociated forming a negatively charged carboxylate ion (COO-) and amino gp is protonated forming positively charged ion (NH3+) forming Zwitter ion

227. Amino acid structures differ at the side chain (R-groups). Abbreviations: three or one letter codes Amino acids (except glycine) have chiral centers: There are 20 commonly occurring amino acids that make up proteins, and the order of amino acids in proteins determines its structure and biological function.

228. Classification of amino acids Amino acids are classified into different ways based on polarity , structure , nutritional requirement, metabolic fate, etc. Generally used classification is based on polarity. Amino acid polarity chart shows the polarity of amino acids.

229. Classification on polarity basis Based on polarity, amino acids are classified into four groups as follows, Non-polar amino acids. Polar amino acids with no charge. Polar amino acids with positive charge. Polar amino acids with negative charge.

230. Classification of Proteins Proteins ate divided into three main classes : 1. Simple proteins 2. Conjugated proteins 3. Derived proteins

231. Classification of Proteins

232. Simple proteins The simple proteins are those which are made of amino acid units only, joined by peptide bond. Upon hydrolysis they yield mixture of amino acids or their derivatives. They include the following groups:-

233. (a) Albumins: These are water soluble-proteins found in all body cells and also in the blood stream. Examples are: lacto albumin found in milk ; serum albumin found in blood and egg albumin found in egg. (b) Globulins: These are insoluble in water but are soluble in dilute salt solutions of strong acids and bases. Examples of globulins are lactoglobulin found in milk and ovoglobulin in egg yolk.

234. (c) Glutelins: These are soluble in dilute acids and alkalis . The protein glutenin of wheat and oryzenin of rice is an example. They occur only in plant material. (d) Histones: These are water soluble proteins in which basic amino acids predominates. They are rich in arginine or lysine. In eukaryotes the DNA of the chromosomes is associated with histones to form nucleoproteins.

235. (e) Protamines : These are water soluble basic polypeptides with a low molecular weight (about 4,000 Daltons). Protamines are found bound to DNA in spermatozoa of some fishes. Examples of protamines are salmine (in salmon) and sturine (in sturgeons)

236. Conjugated proteins These consist of simple proteins in combination with some non-protein component. The non-protein groups are called prosthetic groups . Conjugated protein includes the following group:-

237. (a) Nucleoproteins: ( Protein + nucleic acid ). Nucleoproteins are proteins in combination with nucleic acids. Examples are: Nucleohistone. (d) Chromoproteins : These are proteins in combination with a prosthetic group that is a pigment . Examples are the respiratory pigments hemoglobin .

238. (c) Phosphoproteins ( Protein+phosphate ): Phosphoproteins are proteins in combination with a phosphoric acid residue as a prosthetic group. Examples of phosphoproteins are casein of milk and vitellin in egg yolk. (e) Lipoproteins: These are proteins conjugated with lipids . There are different types of lipoproteins, high density lipoproteins (HDL) , low density lipoproteins(LDL) ; Very low density lipoprotein(VLDL).

239. (f) Metalloproteins : These are proteins conjugated to metal ion (s). Example : The heme protein , which contain iron are classed as chromoproteins also are metalloproteins .

240. Derived proteins They are substances resulting from the decomposition of simple and conjugated proteins as in peptones, peptides. Derived proteins are subdivided into primary derived proteins and secondary derived proteins.

241. Derivatives of proteins due to action of heat,   enzymes, or chemical reagents. a) Primary Derived b) Secondary Derived

242. Primary derived proteins – Proteans, Metaproteins and Coagulated proteins. Example: cooked egg albumin etc.. Secondary derived proteins – Proteoses, Peptones and Polypeptides.

243. STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS

244. Four different levels of structure – Primary, Secondary, Tertiary and Quaternary

245. PRIMARY STRUCTURE

246. Secondary Structure

247. Tertiary & Quaternary Structure Structure

248. Protein Functions Antibodies Contractile Proteins Enzymes Hormonal Proteins Transport Proteins Storage Proteins Structural Proteins

249. NUCLEIC ACIDS

250. It’s Composition DNA RNA

251. Composition of DNA A pentose sugar – Deoxy ribose sugar Nucleotides – A,T,G,C A phosphate

252. Pentose sugar in DNA Deoxyribose sugar 4 C atoms and oxygen molecule forms the ring 5 th C atom is outside the, part of CH2 group 3 OH groups at positions 1,3,5

253. Nitrogen Bases There are four nitrogen bases making up four different nucleotides. Adenine Guanine Thymine Cytosine Pyrimidines Purines A C G T N base

254. Nucleic Acid Composition phosphate nucleotide N base PO 4 Sugar Sugar PO 4 N base The numbers are the positions of the carbons on the sugar. (the 3’ end) 5 4 3 2 1 (the 5’ end) sugar nitrogen base DeoxyriboNucleic Acid

255. Nucleosides & Nucleotides Nucleotide = a nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base + a pentose + a phosphate Nucleoside = a nitrogenous (nitrogen-containing) base + a pentose

256. A molecule of DNA is formed by millions of nucleotides joined together in a long chain PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 sugar-phosphate backbone + bases Joined nucleotides

257. PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 PO 4 Double stranded DNA

258. The bases always pair up in the same way Adenine forms a bond with Thymine And cytosine bonds with guanine Adenine Thymine Cytosine Guanine

259. The paired strands are coiled into a spiral called A DOUBLE HELIX sugar-phosphate chain Bases

260. Formation of Phosphodiester bonds to make a polynucleotide strand

261. Structure of DNA: Watson & Crick model

262. Erwin Chargaff A A A A A A A T T T T T T T C C C G G G

263. The Properties of DNA

264. Types of DNA

265. DNA as a genetic material

266. Is the Genetic Material Protein or DNA

267. Direct evidences come from : Frederick Griffith’s (1928) experiment. Hershey and Chase (1952 ) experiment.

268. Frederick Griffith’s (1928) experiment.

269. STEPS IN THE EXPERIMENT 1 LIVE SIII LIVE RII 3 H K S III 4 H K S III & LIVE RII Strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae injected to mice

270. Griffith’s Experiment RII SIII Transformation takes place in step 4 gives clue for DNA as “ genetic material” 1 2 3 4

271. Hershey & Chase Experiment (1952)

272. Life Cycle of T-2 Phage Phage is made of DNA and protein coat Only DNA enters in the Bacterial cell and protein coat is left out side 288

273. Events which take place in life cycle of bacteriophage

274. HERSHEY & CHASE CONCLUSION

275. Summary of Hershey & Chase (1952 ) experiment

276. End of Presentation

277. RNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

278. What we will be discussing?

279. RNA Introduction Structure Different types & functions Conclusion

280. Structure of RNA

281. Ribonucleic acid

282. THE NUCLEOTIDE: RNA OH O=P-O- 5 CH 2 BASE OH O 4 C 1 C H H H H 3 C 2 C OH 0H Adenine Guanine Cytosine Uracil

283. Synthesis

284. Types of RNA Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries information from DNA to the ribosome Transfer RNA (tRNA) involved in the process of translation Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) RNA Types

285. Messenger RNA (mRNA) Comprises only 5% of the RNA in the cell

286. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

287. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

288. Functions of different RNA

289. RNA V/S DNA

290. Differences between RNA and DNA S.No. RNA DNA 1) Single stranded mainly except when self complementary sequences are there it forms a double stranded structure (Hair pin structure) Double stranded (Except for certain viral DNA s which are single stranded) 2) Ribose is the main sugar The sugar moiety is deoxy ribose 3) Pyrimidine components differ. Thymine is never found(Except tRNA) Thymine is always there but uracil is never found 4) Being single stranded structure- It does not follow Chargaff’s rule It does follow Chargaff's rule. The total purine content in a double stranded DNA is always equal to pyrimidine content.

291. Differences between RNA and DNA S.No. RNA DNA 5) RNA can be easily destroyed by alkalies to cyclic diesters of mono nucleotides. DNA resists alkali action due to the absence of OH group at 2’ position 6) RNA is a relatively a labile molecule, undergoes easy and spontaneous degradation DNA is a stable molecule. The spontaneous degradation is very slow. The genetic information c an be stored for years together without any change. 7) Mainly cytoplasmic, but also present in nucleus (primary transcript and small nuclear RNA) Mainly found in nucleus, extra nuclear DNA is found in mitochondria, and plasmids etc 8) The base content varies from 100- 5000. The size is variable. Millions of base pairs are there depending upon the organism

292. S.No. RNA DNA 9) There are various types of RNA – mRNA, r RNA, t RNA. These RNAs perform different and specific functions. DNA is always of one type and performs the function of storage and transfer of genetic information. 10) No variable physiological forms of RNA are found. The different types of RNA do not change their forms There are variable forms of DNA (A, B and Z) 11) RNA is synthesized from DNA, it can not form DNA(except by the action of reverse transcriptase). It can not duplicate (except in certain viruses where it is a genomic material ) DNA can form DNA by replication, it can also form RNA by transcription. 12) Many copies of RNA are present per cell Single copy of DNA is present per cell.

293. VITAMINS

294. Organic (carbon-containing) compounds that are essential in small amounts for body processes Do not provide energy Enable the body to use the energy provided by fats, carbohydrates, and proteins Mega doses can be toxic.

295. Classification of Vitamins

296. Vitamin A Alternative Names: Retinol; Retinal; Retinoic acid; Carotenoids Is a fat-soluble vitamin. Preformed vitamin A is found in animal products . Pro-vitamin A is found in plant-based foods

297. Vitamin A (and carotenoids) Functions: Normal vision Protects from infections Regulates immune system Antioxidant (carotenoids) Food sources: Liver Fish oil Eggs Fortified milk or other foods Red, yellow, orange, and dark green veggies (carotenoids)

298. Excess Birth defects, hair loss, dry skin, headaches, nausea, dry mucous membranes, liver damage, and bone and joint pain Deficit Night blindness, dry, rough skin, increased susceptibility to infections

299. Vitamin D Alternative Name: Calciferol Regulation of Calcium metabolism

300. Vitamin D (the sunshine vitamin) Functions: Promotes absorption of calcium and phosphorus Helps deposit those in bones/teeth Regulates cell growth Plays role in immunity Sources: Sunlight (10 – 15 mins 2x a week) Salmon with bones Milk Orange juice (fortified) Fortified cereals

301. Excess Deposits of calcium and phosphorus in soft tissues, kidney, and heart damage . Deficit Poor bone and tooth formation, rickets which causes malformed bones and pain in infants Osteomalacia (softening of bones) Osteoporosis (brittle, porous bones)

302. VITAMIN E Alternative Name: Tocopherol Functions: Antioxidant Enhances immune system Retards spoilage of commercial foods

303. Sources of Vitamin E Vegetable oils: corn, soybean, and products made from them. Wheat and green leafy vegetables

304. Excess Relatively nontoxic, fat-soluble vitamin Excess stored in adipose tissue Avoid long-term mega doses. Deficit Serious neurological defects can occur from mal absorption.

305. Vitamin K Alternative Name: Ph ylloquinone Made up of several compounds essential for blood clotting. Vitamin K is destroyed by light and alkalis.

306. Functions of Vitamin K Formation of prothrombin for clotting of blood

307. Sources of Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables such as broccoli, cabbage, spinach Bacteria in small intestine synthesizes some vitamin K, but must be supplemented by dietary sources.

308. Excess Anemia can result from excessive amounts of synthetic vitamin K. Deficit Defective blood coagulation , which increases clotting time and makes client prone to hemorrhage.

309. Water-Soluble Vitamins Vitamin B complex and C Dissolve in water Easily destroyed by air, light, and cooking

310. Vitamin B1 Alternative Name: Thiamin Function: Used in metabolism of carbohydrates for energy. muscle and nerve function, and hydrochloric acid production in the stomach

311. Sources of Vitamin B1 Whole grains, Rice, Pasta, Fortified cereals, Meat and pork.

312. Deficiency Rare- Beriberi Loss of muscle function , Nerve damage, Mental confusion

313. Vitamin B2 Alternative Name: Riboflavin Function: Helps in energy production, Making niacin( Vit. B3), Red blood cell formation & human growth.

314. Sources of Vitamin B2 Dairy, Eggs, Green leafy vegetables, Nuts, meat, Legumes, and Enriched flour

315. Deficiency Uncommon- anemia, mouth sores, sore throat, swelled mucous membranes& skin disorders.

316. Vitamin B3 Alternative Name: Niacin Function: Used in metabolism, to produce hormones, enzyme & nerve function & reducing cholesterol

317. Sources of Vitamin B3 Pork, Fish, beef, Peanut butter, Legumes, Enriched and fortified grains

318. Deficiency Pellagra is characterized by the 4 D’s: Dermatitis, Diarrhea, Dementia & Death

319. Vitamin B5 Alternative Name: Pantothenic Acid Function: Used to make blood cells , cholesterol, hormones , metabolize fat & carbohydrates

320. Sources of Vitamin B5 Poultry, fish, Cereals, Unprocessed foods.

321. Deficiency Very rare- only seen in severe malnutrition . Symptoms are: Headache, fatigue, burning & numbness of feet

322. Vitamin B6 Alternative Name: Pyridoxine Function: Protein metabolism, Blood cell formation, Immune system function, and Niacin production

323. Sources of Vitamin B6 Chicken, Pork, fish, Grains, Nuts & legumes

324. Deficiency Dermatitis Fatigue Anemia

325. Vitamin B7 Alternative Name: Biotin Function: Used in fatty acid synthesis , also other functions. Maintaining a strong immune system & proper working of the nervous system.

326. Sources of Vitamin B7 Generally produced in the intestine , in the presence of healthy intestinal flora. Cereals, Pulses & legumes, Vegetables, nuts 

327. Deficiency Pain, Tiredness, Lack of appetite, Muscular weakness,

328. Vitamin B9 Alternative Name: Folic Acid Function: For synthesis of glycine , methionine , nucleotides etc.. Important for rapidly dividing cells

329. Sources of Vitamin B9 Broccoli, Citrus Fruits, Beans, Peas Avocado, Spinach

330. Deficiency Linked to neural tube defects in fetus, Inflammation of mouth & tongue, poor growth, depression & mental confusion, Megaloblastic anemia

331. Vitamin B12 Alternative Name: Cyanocobalamin Function: B12 is also used in regenerating folate Helps in the formation of red blood cells 

332. Sources of Vitamin B12 Meats (beef liver) Meat, Poultry, Eggs, Milk and other dairy foods

333. Deficiency Sore tongue, Stomach upset and  weight loss Rapid heartbeat and breathing Weakness, tiredness

334. Vitamin C Alternative Name: Ascorbic Acid Function: An antioxidant vitamin, For healthy teeth, gums and blood vessels; Improves iron absorption and resistance to infection

335. Sources of Vitamin C Fresh vegetables & fruits, Broccoli, Cauliflower, lemon , cabbage, pineapples , strawberries, citrus fruits .

336. Deficiency Sore tongue, Stomach upset and  weight loss Rapid heartbeat and breathing Weakness, tiredness

337. ENZYMES

338. What Are Enzymes? Most enzymes are Proteins ( tertiary and quaternary structures) Act as Catalyst to accelerates a reaction Not permanently changed in the process

339. Enzymes Are specific for what they will catalyze Are Reusable End in – ase -Sucrase -Lactase -Maltase

340. How do enzymes Work? Enzymes work by: weakening bonds which lowers activation energy

341. Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction Final energy state of products Initial energy state of substrates Activation energy of uncatalysed reactions Activation energy of enzyme catalysed reaction Progress of reaction (time) Energy levels of molecules

342. Enzyme-Substrate Complex The substance (reactant) an enzyme acts on is the substrate Enzyme Substrate Joins

343. Active Site A restricted region of an enzyme molecule which binds to the substrate . Enzyme Substrate Active Site

344. Enzymes lower activation energy by forming an enzyme/substrate complex Substrate + Enzyme Enzyme/substrate complex Enzyme/product complex Product + Enzyme

345. Classification of Enzymes

346. EC 1. Oxidoreductases

347. EC 2. Transferases

348. EC 3. Hydrolases

349. EC 4. Lyases

350. EC 5. Isomerases

351. EC 6. Ligases

352. Theories for Enzyme- Substrate Binding Two Theories have been proposed to explain the interaction of enzyme and substrate LOCK & KEY MODEL INDUCED – FIT THEORY

353. Lock and Key

354. Lock-and-key hypothesis assumes the active site of an enzyme is rigid in its shape How ever crystallographic studies indicate proteins are flexible.

355. 380 Induced Fit A change in the shape of an enzyme’s active site Induced by the substrate

356. The Induced-fit hypothesis suggests the active site is flexible and only assumes its catalytic conformation after the substrate molecules bind to the site. When the product leaves the enzyme the active site reverts to its inactive state.

357. What Affects Enzyme Activity?

358. Enzyme activity How fast an enzyme is working Rate of Reaction Rate of Reaction = Amount of substrate changed (or amount product formed ) in a given period of time.

359. Enzyme activity Four Variables Temperature pH Enzyme Concentration Substrate Concentration

360. Rate of Reaction Temperature 20 30 50 10 40 60 40 o C - denatures 5- 40 o C Increase in Activity <5 o C - inactive

361. Effect of heat on enzyme activity If you heat the protein above its optimal temperature bonds break meaning the protein loses it secondary and tertiary structure

362. Effect of heat on enzyme activty Denaturing the protein ACTIVE SITE CHANGES SHAPE SO SUBSTRATE NO LONGER FITS Even if temperature lowered – enzyme can’t regain its correct shape

363. Rate of Reaction pH

364. Rate of Reaction pH 1 3 4 2 5 6 7 8 9

365. Rate of Reaction Enzyme Concentration

366. Rate of Reaction Enzyme Concentration Enzyme Concentration

367. Rate of Reaction Substrate Concentration

368. Rate of Reaction Substrate Concentration Substrate Concentration

369. Rate of Reaction Substrate Concentration Substrate Concentration Active sites full- maximum turnover

370. Cofactors and Coenzymes Inorganic substances (zinc, iron) and vitamins (respectively) are sometimes need for proper enzymatic activity . Example: Iron must be present in the quaternary structure - hemoglobin in order for it to pick up oxygen.

371. Two examples of Enzyme Inhibitors a. Competitive inhibitors : are chemicals that resemble an enzyme’s normal substrate and compete with it for the active site . Enzyme Competitive inhibitor Substrate

372. Inhibitors b.Noncompetitive inhibitors: Inhibitors that do not enter the active site , but bind to another part of the enzyme causing the enzyme to change its shape , which in turn alters the active site . Enzyme active site altered Noncompetitive Inhibitor Substrate

373. Applications of Enzymes

374. Enzymes in industry There are many uses of enzymes in industry. Examples of these are: Clothes/dishwashing detergents Baby food Starch(HFCs) Glucose(Fructose-Slimming Aid) Medical Diagnosis Diabetes Contro l Curing Disease

375. Enzymes in Clothes/Dishwasher Detergents People use biological detergents to remove stains. Biological washing powders contain proteases and lipases. These enzymes break down proteins and fats in the stain. Advantages Enzymes give you a cleaner wash. Work at lower temperatures-this means you use less electricity. Disadvantages If water too hot, enzymes become denatured.

376. Enzymes in baby food Proteases are used to make baby food. Proteases ‘pre-digest’ some of the protein in the food. Advantages Treating food with protease enzymes make it easier for a baby’s digestive system to cope with it.

377. Starch(HFCS) Carbohydrases are used to convert starch into sugar (glucose) syrup. Did You Know? HFC stands for High Fructose Corn Syrup.

378. Enzymes In Slimming Aids The enzyme, isomerase, is used to change glucose syrup to fructose syrup. Glucose and fructose contain exactly the same amount of energy.

379. Enzymes To Diagnose Disease

380. Enzymes To Diagnose and Control Disease A common test for sugar in the urine relies on a color change on a test strip. The test strip contains a chemical indicator and an enzyme.

381. Enzymes to cure disease If you have a heart attack. An enzyme called streptokinase will be injected into your blood as soon as possible.

382. Introduction

383. Functions of Hormones

384. Characteristics of Hormones

385. Mechanism of Hormones

386. All hormones in the human body can be divided into lipid-derived , amino acid-derived , and peptide hormones.

387. Key Points Most lipid hormones are steroid hormones, which are usually ketones or alcohols and are insoluble in water. Steroid hormones (ending in '-ol' or '-one') include estradiol, testosterone, aldosterone, and cortisol. The amino acid-derived hormones (ending in '-ine') are derived from tyrosine and tryptophan and include epinephrine and norepinephrine (produced by the adrenal medulla).

388. Key Points Amino acid-derived hormones also include thyroxin (produced by the thyroid gland) and melatonin (produced by the pineal gland). Peptide hormones consist of a polypeptide chain; they include molecules such as oxytocin (short polypeptide chain) or growth hormones (proteins). Amino acid-derived hormones and protein hormones are water-soluble and insoluble in lipids.

389. Plant & Animal Hormones

390. Plant Hormones AUXIN CYTOKININ GIBBERELLIN ETHYLENE

391. Animal Hormones