Introduction to Logic Lecture Notes.pptx

Logic Ethiopia

1. Logic and Critical Thinking Lecture Notes Addis Ababa University Department of Philosophy Habiba Nuredine

2. Logic and Philosophy

3. Introduction to Philosophy Philosophy is a broad and diverse field of study that seeks to explore fundamental questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, ethics, and the meaning of life. It is a discipline that uses critical thinking, logical reasoning, and careful analysis to examine these fundamental questions. The word "philosophy" originates from the Greek terms " philo ," which means "love," and " sophia ," which means "wisdom ."

4. Branches of Philosophy A. Metaphysics Metaphysics delves into questions about the nature of reality. It explores concepts such as existence, identity, time, causality, and the relationship between mind and body. Metaphysics also examines broader questions, including the existence of God and the nature of free will. B Epistemology Epistemology is concerned with the nature of knowledge . It investigates how we acquire knowledge, the criteria for justified belief, and the limits of human understanding. Epistemology also explores the nature of truth and the relationship between belief and evidence.

5. Source of knowledge: Empiricism (Sense experience as a source of knowledge ). Eg , Hume, and Lock. Rationalism (Reason as source of knowledge ). Eg , Plato, Descartes

6. C. Axiology Axiology is the study or theory of value. The term Axiology stems from two Greek words- Axios , meaning value , worth‖, and logos meaning reason. Hence , Axiology is the philosophical study of value Axiology asks the philosophical questions: What is a value ? Where do values come from? How do we justify our values ? How do we know what is valuable? What is the relationship between values and knowledge? What kinds of values exist Axiology deals with three areas, namely Ethics , Aesthetics , and Social/Political Philosophy

7. Ethics , and Aesthetics Ethics Ethics deals with questions of morality and how we ought to live. It explores theories of right and wrong, good and evil, and the nature of ethical decision-making. Ethics examines various ethical frameworks, such as consequentialism, deontology, and virtue ethics, and so forth. E xample Suppose a doctor has five patients who need organ transplants in order to survive. There are no donors available, but there is a healthy person in the waiting room who has come in for a routine check-up. According to deontological ethics, it would be wrong to kill the healthy person in order to save the five patients, because killing is inherently wrong. However , according to consequentialist ethics, it would be acceptable to kill the healthy person if it would result in saving the lives of the five patients. Aesthetics Aesthetics focuses on questions of beauty, art, and the nature of aesthetic experience. It examines the nature of art, the criteria for artistic judgment, and the relationship between aesthetics and perception. Aesthetics also explores the role of art in society and its impact on human emotions and values .

8. Social/Political Philosophy Social/Political Philosophy Social/Political Philosophy studies about of the value judgments operating in a civil society, be it social or political. Social/Political Philosophy primarily deal with:  What form of government is best?  What economic system is best?  What is justice/injustice?  What makes an action just/unjust / Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher who lived from 1588 to 1679. He is best known for his political philosophy. Hobbes’s political philosophy is chiefly concerned with the way in which government must be organized in order to avoid civil war. Hobbes believed that the state of nature is characterized by the “war of every man against every man,” a constant and violent condition of competition in which each individual has a natural right to everything, regardless of the interests of others. Existence in the state of nature is, as Hobbes famously states, “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” The only laws that exist in the state of nature (the laws of nature).

9. In the absence of a higher authority to adjudicate disputes, everyone fears and mistrusts everyone else, and there can be no justice, commerce, or culture. That unsustainable condition comes to an end when individuals agree in a social contract to relinquish their natural rights to everything and to transfer their self-sovereignty to a higher civil authority, or Leviathan. The only laws that exist in the state of nature (the laws of nature) are not covenants forged between people but principles based on self-preservation. Hobbes’s laws of nature Hobbes’s laws of nature are based on the Right of Nature, which is the idea that self-preservation is of the utmost importance. The fundamental (or first) law is to seek peace, if it is achievable. The second is to be willing to sacrifice some things in order to achieve peace.

10. Logic Logic Logic is the study of valid reasoning and argumentation. It provides us with tools to analyze and evaluate arguments for their soundness and validity. Logic helps us identify fallacies, construct cogent arguments, and think critically .

11. Logic: is a branch of philosophy that deals with arguments, principles and method of right reasoning. is the science that evaluates arguments it help us to create our own arguments, criticizing and evaluate the arguments of others as well. The Nature of Arguments What is an Argument? An argument , in logic, is a group of statements , one or more of which (the premises ) are claimed to provide support for, or reasons to believe, one of the others (the conclusion ).

12. The premises are statements that set forth the reasons or evidence for the conclusion. The conclusion is the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or imply. Examples: 1 . Man is mortal . Premises Socrates is a man. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. Conclusion 2 . Majority of Europeans are white Mandela is an European So, Mandela is white. 3. All footballer are Black Biden is a footballer Hence, Biden is Black 4. 90% of aliens have five eyes   John is an alien Thus, John has four eyes. 5. C rimes are violation of the law Theft is a crime It follows that, theft is a violation of the law.

13. Conclusion Indicators Therefore, we may conclude, Hence. Accordingly, Thus, Consequently, We may infer, etc. Premise Indicators Since, As indicated by, Because, For, As, Owing to, in as much as, etc. Example : Expectant mother should never use recreational drug, since the use of this drug can jeopardies the development of the fetus. I am a biologist owing to I studied about life.

14. Recognizing arguments Two conditions must be fulfilled for a passage to contain an argument: That is a factual and inferential claim. Factual claim is all about the truth value of the statement, Inferential claim , on the other hand, is all about the logical connection between the premises and the conclusion, and it asks the question like: Do all premises support the conclusion? Does the conclusion follow from the premises?

15. Example : Man is Dog Abebe is a man Hence, Abebe is a dog 2. Since all Indians are Asians and Mr. David an Indian. It follows that, Mr. David is the prime Minister of India. Inferential claims : Explicit Inferential Claims Implicit Inferential Claims A . Explicit Inferential claims: is an argument and usually asserted by either premises or conclusions indicator words. B . Implicit Inferential claims I s an arguments but without premise and conclusion indicator words. This enlighten us that there are argument with out premise and conclusion indicators. And presence of premise and conclusion indicators doesn’t guarantee the occurrence of the arguments.

16. Examples: 1 . Selam is a university student, since she attends her class at 6 kilo main campus. 2. Alemaz is an intelligent student. She always passed from class to class, and she got gold medals in educational competitions . 3 . All Living Organisms have genetic material in the form of DNA. Mouse are living organisms. Hence, Mouse have DNA. 4 . UFOs have a high intelligence capacity. Numerous Credible eyewitness, videos, scientific discoveries depict UFOs exhibiting high intelligence capabilities beyond Human.

17. Deductive and Inductive arguments D eductive Argument A deductive argument is an argument that is all about necessity, which means that if the first two premises are assumed to be true (not factual), then there is no way that the conclusion would be false. Or if the premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. So a Deductive argument is all about necessity . Inductive argument Inductive argument: is all about probabilities . If the premise is assumed to be true, then it is improbable that the conclusion of an argument could be false. And Inductive arguments are assertions that use specific premises or observations to make a broader generalization.

18. Examples : 1 . All African footballers are black Messi is an African footballer Therefore, Messi is black 2. Majority of Ethiopian peoples are poor Alamudin in an Ethiopian It follows that, Alamudin is poor 3. Both God and Evil could not exist together Evil Exists. Thus , God doesn’t Exist 3. All Ethiopian previous leaders were men. Hence, the next Ethiopian leader will be a men. 4. Philosophers are critical thinker R. Descartes was a philosopher Hence, Descartes is a critical thinker 5. All the pandas that I saw while traveling in China are black; therefore, all pandas are black.

19. Exercise 1. All mammals are warm-blooded. Elephants are mammals. Therefore, (a) Elephants are warm-blooded. (b) Elephants are cold-blooded . ( c) Elephants are neither warm-blooded nor cold-blooded. D . None 2. A survey of 100 students revealed that 80% of them own a smartphone. Based on this information, what can be inferred? (a) All students own a smartphone. ( b) Most students own a smartphone . ( c) Some students own a smartphone. ( d). None of the students have a smartphone 4. Every time I eat peanuts, I get a headache. Therefore, I must be allergic to peanuts. What type of reasoning is this? A) Deductive C ) Neither B ) Inductive D ) Both 5. If it rains, then the ground will be wet. It is raining. Therefore, the ground is wet. What type of reasoning is this? A) Deductive B) Inductive D ) Both 6. All cars run on gasoline. The vehicle in front of me is a car. Conclusion? (a) The vehicle in front of me runs on gasoline . ( b) The vehicle in front of me runs on electricity . ( c) The vehicle in front of me runs on diesel.

20. 7. All triangles have three sides. The shape X has three sides. Conclusion: (a) Shape X is a triangle. ( b) Shape X has four sides. (c) Shape X has two sides . 8. Every time I press the "on" button, the computer boots up. Based on this observation, what is a reasonable inference? (a) All computers boot up when the "on" button is pressed. (b) Some computers boot up when the "on" button is pressed. (c) No computers boot up when the "on" button is pressed.

21. 6. All mammals have lungs. A whale is a mammal. Therefore , a whale has lungs. This conclusion is derived from applying general principles (premises) to a specific case (whale) using logical rules. 7. Every time I drop an object, it falls to the ground. All objects fall to the ground when dropped. This conclusion is based on the repeated observation of individual instances and generalizing the pattern to all objects .

22. The Three factors 1. Indicator words Deductive indicator words: necessarily absolutely and certainly Inductive indicator words: Probably, improbable, likely, unlikely, plausible, and implausible. 2 . Strength of the inferential Claim 3. Forms of Argumentation: Deductive forms of argumentations Inductive forms of argumentations

23. Deductive Forms of Argumentation 1.Argument from mathematics : is a deductive argument, and the conclusion follow from some geometric measurement. Or any mathematical reasoning is entitled to be deductive argument. 2. Argument from definition : is a deductive argument and the conclusion follow from the definition of the word that is being used in the premises. 3.Categorical syllogism : Syllogism means having two premise and one conclusion. And categorical syllogism is having to premise and one conclusions and each statement begin with one of the word All, Some and NO. 4.Hypothetical syllogism : is a deductive argument that has conditional statements with other statements proving the conditional statements . 5. Disjunctive syllogism : is a deductive argument that having disjunctive statements or either or statements.

24. Inductive Forms Argumentation 1. Argument from Analogy: is an inductive argument, and the conclusion depends on the similarity between two things or state of affairs. 2. Arguments from generalization : Or concluding from a specific case or specific observation to generalization is entitled "inductive or, more specifically, argument from generalization.“ 3. Argument based on authority : is an inductive argument and the conclusion depends on presumed authority or witness. 4. Argument based on Sign : is an inductive argument that proceed from sign to things. 5 . Causal Inferences : Proceed from cause to effects

25. Evaluation of Deductive Argument Deductive argument can evaluated by its validity invalidity, sound and unsound. Valid argument : is a deductive argument in which the conclusion follow with strict necessity from the premises. And valid argument is also about the appropriate form or structure of an argument. Invalid argument on the other hand the conclusion doesn’t follow with strict necessity from the conclusion because of its inappropriate form or structure of an argument . Sound (Means Having True statements/Premises) Unsound (Means Having False statements/premises) Valid ( Could be either sound or unsound) Invalid (always unsound)

26. Evaluation of Inductive Arguments I nductive argument can be evaluated by its strongness , weakness cogent and Uncogent. Strong argument : in an inductive argument and the conclusion follow with the high probability from the given evidence. Weak argument is an inductive argument and the conclusion follow with low probability from the given premises. Cogent (Means having True statements/ premise) Uncogent (Means having False statements/ premises) Strong argument could be either cogent or Uncogent Weak argument are always Uncogent

27. Conclusion

28. Examples (Evaluation) 1. All philosophers are critical thinkers. Plato is a philosopher. Hence , Plato is a critical thinker . 2. All philosophers are critical thinkers. Plato is a critical thinker. Therefore, Plato is a philosopher. 3. All previous American presidents were men. It follows that the next American president will be a man.

29. Examples 4 . A few German presidents were women. It follows that the next German president will be a woman . 5 . Since ‘‘ Dertogada ’’ is written by Hadith Alemayew , and ‘‘ Dertogada ’’ is about a war hero novel. It follows that Hadith Alemayew wrote a war-hero novel . 6 . Abebe is a heart surgeon at Yekatit Hospital. He says that many heart failures are caused by anxiety. Therefore, in the view of Dr. Abebe, anxieties are the major cause of heart failure.

30. Examples 7 . If Menelik was defeated at Adwa, then Ethiopiawould be colonized by Italy. Ethiopia was colonized by Italy. Hence, Emperor Menelik was defeated at Adwa. 8 . The Liverpool football club had been defeated consistently for the past match weeks. Therefore, it is very likely that the team will win today’s match against MUT Football Club. 9 . All Leaders are politicians. Some Politicians are racist. Hence, some politicians are racist.

31. Examples 10. After hearing Joe Biden's speech about the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance in the council, Mr. Demeke Mekonnen (The current Ethiopian Minister of Foreign Affairs) rolled his eyes and shake his head. Apparently, Mr. Demeke Mekonnen didn’t agree with what Biden said . 11 . J.F.K.M . Library has the shape of a pentagon. It follows that, it has four sides . 12 . There are only 100 lottery ticket, and one of them is the winning ticket. John bought 90 lottery tickets, therefore, John will win the lottery. 13. All humans have DNA, Pat is a human. Thus, pat has DNA. 14. All democrats always tell the truth, president J. Biden is a democrat. Hence, Biden always tells the truth.

32. Examples 12. Either it's raining outside or the sun is shining. It's not raining outside. Therefore , the sun is shining. 13. The Ethiopian national football team hasn’t qualified for the World Cup so far. Thus, it won’t qualify for the next World Cup . 14. Abebe is a student from Addis Ababa University with deep religious values. Thus, Roza, who is also from Addis Ababa University, has deep religious values.

33. Language What is Language? What is the connection between Logic and Language?

34. Logic and Language Function of Language: Emotive Cognitive Emotive (Expressive) Function Emotive or expressive function of language is a function of language which is important for individual to express their feeling or emotions. This function of language, enables individuals to express their positive or negative feelings, emotions, like and dislike and so forth Examples: I love Abebe . I hate David She is beautiful

35. Logic and Language Note: Because of the very reason that emotive function obliges individuals to provide subjective, partial, irrational and unfair judgment based on their emotions or feelings about something, this function of language is not relevant for the science that evaluates argument-logic.

36. B . Cognitive (Informative) Function B. Cognitive (Informative) Function Cognitive or informative function of language is used to describe about the world and its inhabitants. Cognitive function enables individuals to deny or affirm the truth of different propositions or statements, cognitive statements can be evaluated as true or false. Therefore, they can serve as premises or conclusions of different arguments. Examples : WWI started in 1918 Ethiopian is found in East Africa

37. The Intension and Extension of Terms Types of meanings: Intentional meaning Extensional meaning. A. Intentional meaning Intentional meaning, which is also called connotative meaning. consists of the qualities, properties, features, attributes or essential characteristics that the term connotes . B. Extensional meaning Extensional meaning which is also called denotative meaning Refers to the members of the class that the term denotes.

38. Examples: Scientist Scientist a person such as Order of Intension and Extension Increasing Intension: Animal, Decreasing Intension: Increasing Extension: Decreasing Extension:

39. Definitions and Their Purposes Definition’ is a group of words that assigns a meaning to some words or group of words. There are two important technical parts in every definition: Definiendum : Is a Latin term and it refers to the word or group of words that is being defined. Definiens” is the word or a group of words that does the defining . Example : Philosophy is rational and critical enterprise that tries to formulate answer for fundamental question through intensive application of reason .

40. Kinds of Definition 1. A Stipulative D efinition It provides meaning to a new term for the first time. This may be done through either creating a new word or giving a new meaning to an old word. The purpose of a stipulative definition is usually to replace a complex expression by a simple expression. Examples: “Operation Barbarosa ” means the name the Germans gave to the invasion of Russia . “Operation Desert storm” means the code name given to the military invasion of Iraq.

41. Lexical Definitions 2. Lexical Definitions Dictionary definitions are instances of lexical definition. In contrast to stipulative definitions, lexical definitions may be true or false The purpose of a lexical definition is to eliminate ambiguity that would arise over the use of different words. Examples: “bank”, “right” are subject to ambiguity . The term “Bank”, for example, can mean a financial institution or the slope bordering river,” right” can mean freedom, liberty or correct; and so forth.

42. Précising Definitions 3. Précising Definitions It provides a more precise, specific, exact and restricting meaning to a term. The purpose of this definition is to avoid or reduce the vagueness of a word. For example words such as happiness, love, rich, poor, bald, are vague. This is because it is difficult to tell whether these words apply to specific situations or not. These words lack attributes like exactness and preciseness. Example: For example, the definition “poor” means having a daily income of less than 10 birr; is an example of a precise definition because the term “poor” is defined exactly and precisely.

43. Theoretical Definition 4. Theoretical Definitions A theoretical definition provides a theoretical meaning to different terms or words based on the context of broader intellectual framework. For example “ Heat” means the energy associated with the random motion of the molecules of a substance. But all theoretical definitions are not associated with science. many philosophical terms such as “substance”, “form”, “cause”, “change”, “idea”, “good”, “mind”, “justice” and so forth which have been given theoretical definition by different philosophers. The purpose of a theoretical definition is to avoid disagreements over the use of different terms by providing theoretically adequate and reliable description of the entities which are designated by different terms or words.

44. Persuasive Definition 5. Persuasive Definition A persuasive definition assigns meaning to different terms using emotively charged words or phrases to create a favorable or unfavorable attitude. writers or the speakers use different emotively charged words to influence, change, or persuade others. The purpose of persuasive definition, is to persuade listeners or readers over a certain issue. Example: “Abortion’ means the ruthless murdering of innocent human beings”. “Abortion” means a safe and establishes surgical procedure whereby a woman is relieved of an unwanted burden”

45. Definitional Techniques Definitional Techniques Extensional (Denotative) Definitions Intentional (Connotative) Definitions Extensional definition Assigns a meaning to a term by indicating the members of the class that the definiendum denotes. Have four kinds of definitions Demonstrative (ostensive) definitions Such a definition is the meaning of pointing. Such definitions may be either partial or complete Examples : Wall means this, this and this ‘‘J.F. Kennedy memorial Library’’ means that—as you point to it.

46. B. Enumerative definitions Assign a meaning to a term by naming the members of the class the term denotes. Like demonstrative definitions, they may also be either partial or complete. Examples : President means a leaders such as J. Biden, Rishi Sonak , T. Erdogan , V. Putin, K. Jong , etc University means a place where students are expected to get a degree such as Oxford, Harvard, A.A.U, etc C. A definition by subclass Assigns a meaning to a term by naming subclasses of the class denoted by the term. Such a definition, may be either partial or complete Example: Fictional work’’ means either a poem, a play, a novel, or a short story Tree’’ means an oak, pine, elm, spruce, maple, and the like.

47. Intentional ( Connotative) Definitions Intentional definition I s one that assigns a meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or attributes that the word connotes. Have four kind of definitional techniques A. Synonymous definition is one in which the definiens is a single word that connotes the same attributes as the definiendum. Examples: Observe’’ means see. Emotions Means Feelings

48. B. Etymological definition: A ssigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the word’s ancestry in both its own language and other languages. Examples : The word ‘‘license’’ is derived from the Latin verb licere , which means to be permitted. The word Geez Operational definition : A ssigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental procedures that determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing. Examples : One substance is ‘‘harder than’’ another if and only if one scratches the other when the two are rubbed together. A ‘‘potential difference’’ exists between two conductors if and only if a voltmeters hows a reading when connected to the two conductors.

49. D . Definition by genus and difference Assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a genus term and one or more difference words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the term being defined. In logic, ‘‘genus’’ simply means a relatively larger class, and ‘‘species’ ’means a relatively smaller subclass of the genus. Difference,’’ for short, is the attribute or attributes that distinguish the various species within a genus. Examples: Ice : Genus: Water Species: Ice Differences: Cold/Frozen

50. Fallacies Fallacy : Fallacy is a defect or mistake in reasoning, and when the arguer uses other means such as intimidation, manipulation and pity expression in the argument then the arguer said to be committed fallacy. Both deductive and inductive argument may contain fallacy if they do they are either unsound or uncogent , that means that contain false premises and incorrect reasoning in general. Fallacy Formal Informal fallacy

51. A formal fallacy is a fallacy that can be detected by just examining the form or structure of an argument. The formal fallacy occurs in only deductive arguments that have identifiable forms, such as categorical and hypothetical syllogisms. Example one: All Tigers are Animals All mammals are Animal Hence , All Tigers are mammals This arguments have the following forms: All A are B All C are B All A are C # This argument is a deductive, or more specifically, a categorical syllogism. However, the argument is invalid. The argument has got incorrect structure.

52. Examples two If Ape are Intelligent then Apes can solve puzzles Apes can solve puzzles Hence, Apes are intelligen t . This examples have the following forms: If A…..Then….B B Hence, B This argument is a deductive argument, or more specifically, a hypothetical syllogism. We gave letter A for the antecedent and letter B for the consequent. The question is whether the argument is valid or invalid. The argument is clearly invalid because, in principle, it is not the consequence that should have come first but the antecedent.

53. An informal fallacy is a defect that is found in the content of the argument, which could be inductive or deductive . Examples one: All factories are plants. All Plants are thing that contain chlorophyll. Therefore, all factories are things that contain chlorophyll. This examples have the following forms: All A are B All C are D All A are D # This is a deductive argument. When we look at the form, it seems like the argument is valid and the conclusion follows with strict necessity, but it is not. What makes this argument fallacious is because of the word sweet.

54. Informal fallacies There are 22 informal fallacies that are categorized into five groups: Fallacy of relevance Fallacy of weak induction Fallacy of presumption Fallacy of Ambiguity Fallacy of grammatical analogy

55. Fallacy of relevance 1. Fallacy of relevance Committed when the premise of an argument is logically irrelevant to the conclusion makes its bases on psychological or emotional expression. Under the fallacy of relevance, there are eight fallacies .

56. 1 . Appeal to Force In the appeal to force fallacy, the arguer uses either physical or psychological force that could be intimidation to get the audience to accept the conclusion. Examples : Mr. Abebe to Mr. kebede : Ethiopian foot ball club is the best national football team in Ethiopia. If you don’t accept this, I will call the police and they will punch you on the face. Then you will accept the conclusion I have drown. Accept the existence of God. Ignoring this message makes your soul final destination in hell.

57. 2. Appeal to Pity The appeal to pity takes place when an arguer tries to get people to accept a conclusion by making them feel sorry for someone. E xamples : Teacher I have known in the class that I am shy, generous, and deaf. Therefore, according to my health matter and as a mannered student I should deserve at least B in this course. Your honor, my client is known for his generosity, helping poor peoples, deeply religious and humanitarian. Therefore, I can assure you that that my client is innocent of the case accused.

58. 3. Appeal to the people The appeal to the people fallacy is all about the majority voice or preferences . Appealing to the people: Direct approach Indirect approach A direct approach is one in which a given argument is addressed to a large group of people . Indirect Approach: argument addressed to one or more individuals in relation to the majority # The indirect approach is classified in to three parts: A. Bandwagon, B. Appeal to vanity and C. Appeal to snobbery

59. A. Bandwagon is related to the majority's voices, feelings, and interests. Just because the majority preferred a given idea or product, the arguer invites the audience to accept the majority's preferences in general. B. Appeal to Vanity Whenever the arguer relates a product with famous persons for the acceptance of the product, the arguer commits the fallacy of vanity. C. Appeal to Snobbery The appeal to snobbery fallacy is committed whenever the product is associated with a higher social class; most often, they are called the few.

60. Examples: Democracy is a good form of government, because almost all countries are using and following it. Who is going to buy this new fashion Nick shoes bought by famous musician Justin babbler. The new Samsung s9 is not for everyone, it is for a few selected individuals.

61. 4. Argument against person fallacy Argument against person fallacy is a fallacy and it is committed when a person criticizes the opponent's argument, but the criticism is not against the idea presented by the person, but against the person himself. Argument against person fallacy classified : A. Ad- Hominum Abusive B. Ad- Hominum circumstantial, and C. You too ( Tu Quoque )Fallacy

62. A). Ad Hominum Abusive Ad- Hominum Abusive fallacy committed when a person attacks the other argument by verbally abusing it. Therefore, this fallacy is an attack on the person making an argument rather than addressing the argument itself. B). Ad- Hominum circumstantial Ad- Hominum circumstantial fallacy is committed when the person discredits the others argument by alluding to it. C). You too ( Tu Quoque )Fallacy You too, ( Tu Quoque ) fallacy is committed when the person responds to criticism with criticism of their own.

63. Examples: 1 . Dr . : I see abnormalities in your breathing and heart beat. So you must stop taking tobacco ok? Patient: what do you mean Dr.? I have seen you by my own naked eyes the other day that you too were smoking. So your advice is not correct . 2.How a terrorist person can tell us about peace. Hence let’s stop discussion this issue raised by Mr. Samuel.

64. 3 . One of my friends said that plagiarism is illegal. But, she often copies others work as her. 4. Abebech argues in favor of affirmative action for women. But her argument is non sense, at its best because she is the executive committee of the ministry of women’s affairs, and she wants to take advantage of the budget increase for this ministry if affirmative action is endorsed.

65. 5 Fallacy of Accident The fallacy of accident is committed by an argument that applies a general rule to a particular case in which some special circumstance ("accident") makes the rule inapplicable. Examples Property should be given back to the rightful owner. Therefore, It should give back this hand gun to this intoxicated man since he is the rightful owner. This man is in fight with somebody else. 2. Freedom of speech is constitutionally guaranteed. Therefore, john should not be arrested for his speech that incited the riot last week.

66. 6) Missing the point fallacy Committed when the premises of an argument do support a particular conclusion but not the conclusion that the arguer actually draws. In other words, the premises of one argument support a particular conclusion, but another vaguely related conclusion is drawn instead. Examples: Governments in many third world nations are headed by ill-educated politicians; and freedom of press is not allowed. So, in order to have freedom of press, we must kill ill-educated politicians. Addis Ababa has lot of problems, student services and facilities are inadequate. Many of the instructors are inexperienced. it follow that the university should be entirely closed.

67. 7) Straw Man fallacy The straw man fallacy is committed when someone misrepresents their opponent's argument in order to easily refute it. Examples: President Joy Biden argues for increased social security benefits for the poor. Surely he is advocating socialism. Socialism discourage creativity, It also leads to inefficiency. Furthermore, it did not work in Russia and Eastern Europe. Clearly, socialism is not good. John: “I believe sport hunting is immoral.” Michael: “So you want us all to be vegetarians because animals are more important than people?”

68. 8. Red Herring Fallacy Committed when someone introduces an irrelevant issue to divert attention from the original discussion . Sometimes the argument may be about subtly related concepts, but away from the original discussions. Examples : There is a good deal of talk these days about the need to eliminate racism from the nation and nationalities of Ethiopian people. However, racism is a kind of drug that perishes the integrated culture of people. Thus, people should not persuade others that facilitate disturbing relationships.

69. 2. George Floyd was not a hero and people should not be protesting his death at the hands of the police. After all, George Floyd had a past criminal record and was no angel. Why do liberals insist on venerating criminals?” This argument is a red herring because it brings up George Floyd’s past criminal history as a means to deflect from criticisms of the police who murdered him. The fact that someone has a past criminal history is in no way justification for them being killed or injured by the police.

70. Fallacy of Weak Induction The fallacy of weak induction occurs: The relationship between premise and conclusion is insufficient to provide an adequate justification. The premises in the weak induction fallacy may be worthwhile, but they are not adequate to justify the conclusion. The weak induction fallacy is commonly committed in inductive arguments. There are six fallacies associated with the fallacy of weak induction.

71. 9. Appeal to unqualified Authority Appeal to unqualified authority is an instance of authority argument, and it is said to be fallacious or committed when the stated authority fails to have knowledge in a certain field, and It is also committed when the claimed authority makes a bias claim in favor of something. Examples : 1. Mr. Biden, an economist who argues that music enterprises are a key factor in harmonious interaction across cultures. As a result, we may infer that our lives would be disastrous without music, and we must consider the importance of music in our everyday lives.

72. Example Two: 2. Mr. Johnson who is the head of the kuklux clan (which were active white racist group in USA during the 1920) argued that the white race is superior race. Therefore, we should conclude that the black race is an inferior race because Mr. Johnson said so.

73. 10. Appeal to ignorance fallacy Arises when someone claims that a conclusion must be true because there is no evidence to the contrary or that a conclusion must be incorrect because no one has proven it to be true. Examples The existence of God is real, since no one has proved that there is no such a thing as God. The existence of God is not real, because no one yet proved that it is real.

74. 11. Fallacy of Hasty Generalization The logical error of making a claim based on an amount of data much too small to verify the assertion is known as the hasty generalization fallacy. Examples : Yesterday, as i walking in bole, i found two beggars, and they were from the region of Benishangul Gumuz . Today, i found two beggars at 4 kilo, and they were also from the same region. The conclusion is obvious: all beggars in Addis Ababa are from Benishangul Gumuz region. Three Africans were convicted of killing American people in Los Angeles city. Thus, Africans are just criminals who gained their power through killing innocent people.

75. 12. False cause fallacy The false cause fallacy is a type of causal inference in which the argument appears to flow from cause to effect when there is in fact insufficient evidence to think that a causal connection occurs. Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc False cause fallacy: The "None Causa pro Causa" fallacy Oversimplified A. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (after this). This fallacy is committed when the arguer claims that an event that happened before is presumed to cause the next event just because it happened before and not for any other reason.

76. And this fallacy has the following form or structure: A causes B because A happened before B. Example : 1. Ever since we quit going to church, our business has gotten worse. To avoid such complications, we must attend church program. B . None Cause pro Causa Fallacy (not the cause for the cause) This fallacy is committed when the cited cause for the effect of something is not true in reality. Example : 2. What causes Ukraine to be defeated by Russia is simply that Ukrainians are greedy at war.

77. C. Oversimplified Oversimplified occurs when it is assumed that there is a single, simple cause of an outcome when, in reality, it may have been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient causes. And this fallacy has the following form or structure :  ‘’A caused B; therefore, A was the only cause of B." Example: 3. The absence of qualified experts is the primary reason for Africa's lack of good education.

78. 13. Slippery slope fallacy The slippery slope fallacy is a logical fallacy that claims one event or action will lead to another, more extreme event or action. This could be by directly causing that follow-up event, setting a precedent for it, or simply creating an environment where that follow-up event can occur. Slippery Slope Fallacy has the fooling structure " If event A occurs, that will lead to negative outcome B, which causes negative outcome C.“….

79. Example: If students are permitted to use their phones to check the time while taking an exam, they will no longer purchase a local watch. The discontinuation of purchasing watches leads to clothing retailers. Finally, we all had less business, which harmed our local economy.

80. 14. Weak Analogy The weak analogy fallacy is committed when two things that are being compared aren’t really alike in the relevant respects; the analogy is weak, and the argument that relies on it commits the fallacy of weak analogy. Or the analogy between two things or state of affairs are not sufficient to make legitimate arguments as such.

81. Example The government is like a ship, and the president is like its captain. If the captain makes the wrong decisions, the ship will sink. Explanations : This argument uses a weak analogy because the president is not exactly like the captain of a ship. The responsibilities and functions of the president are not like those of the captain of a ship. The president is responsible for large decisions affecting the entire nation, not just the navigation of a ship. Therefore, this analogy is not strong enough to support the argument that the president's wrong decisions would lead the nation to sink.

82. Fallacy of presumption Fallacy of presumption The third classification is Fallacy of presumption Fallacy of presumption are fallacious arguments that depend on some assumption that is typically unstated and unsupported . And under this fallacy there are eight one. 15. The begging question fallacy being circular” or “circular reasoning ”, simply ignores key premises Beg Question

83. Examples: Murder is morally wrong this being the case that, it follow that abortion is morally wrong. The president is telling the truth because he says he is telling the truth.

84. 16. Complex question Fallacy Multiple questions are hidden in a single question. Examples 1: Are you still drinking alcohol excessively? 2: Where did the government hide the opposition party prisoners?

85. 17. False Dichotomy (False Bifurcation) A false dilemma is an informal fallacy that presents two options as the only two, while a false dichotomy is the misinformed belief that the two options presented are the only two. The source of the fallacy lies in a false premise. False Dichotomy: Premise: only two extreme alternatives given. Conclusion: one of the suggested alternative is true .

86. Examples: Either you buy only Ethiopian product or you don‘t deserve to be called a loyal Ethiopian. Yesterday you bought a new V-8 car. It is therefore, you don’t deserved to be called a loyal Ethiopian . Either you're in favor of the Democrats or you're against them.

87. 18. Suppressed Evidence The suppressed evidence fallacy is committed when the arguer overemphasize a certain claims for the exclusions of others in order to conceal evidence that is important and relevant to the conclusions of an arguments. Examples Most Dogs are friendly and pose no threat to people who pet them. Therefore, it would be safe to pet the little dog. NASA is the most significant scientific agency in the world because its surroundings are clean and its compounds include lovely pups.

88. Fallacy of Ambiguity Fallacy of Ambiguity Fallacies of Ambiguity involve some confusion over meaning, specifically over the members referred to by a term used in the argument . 19. Equivocation The fallacy of equivocation is committed when a single word is used in to two different ways in a given arguments.

89. Examples: Some triangles are obtuse. whatever obtuse is ignorant. Therefore, triangles are ignorant. Any law can be repealed by the legislative authority, But the law of gravity is a law. Hence, the law of gravity can be repealed by the legislative authority.

90. 20. Amphiboly This is a fallacy caused by a misinterpretation of grammar, usually by misapplying an adjectival or an adverbial phrase to the wrong subject. Example : 1. The tour guide said that standing in Greenwich village, the empire state buildings could easily be seen. It follow that the empire state building is in Greenwich village.

91. Example Two: John told Henry that he had made a mistakes. It follow that John has at least the courage to admit his own mistakes.

92. Fallacy of Grammatical Analogy 21. Composition The fallacy of composition is committed when the attributes of something wrongly transfer from part to whole. Examples : Each atom in this piece of chalk is invisible. It follow that the chalk is invisible. Each member of a team is married, hence the team must have a wife .

93. 22. Divisions The fallacy of division is the exact opposite of the composition fallacy, and it is committed when the attributes of something are transferred from whole to parts. Examples : Mango Juice is sweet. Therefor, its chemical elements: potassium, calcium, fat and iron are sweet. The UK is the richest country in the world. It follow that, my uncle who live there must be a rich (wealthy) too.

94. Question (Informal Fallacy) We need to work on our peace throughout the country to bring about peaceful integration in society. However, crime is rising at an alarming rate in our country. Thus, hiring more police officers would be the best solution to address the issues that we are facing. After I started wearing my shirt, my team started winning all their games. Therefore, my lucky shirts are the reason why they are winning."

95. 3 . Samson argued that we should implement stricter regulations on carbon emissions to address climate change. Mr. Abebe replied, "So, you're saying you want to destroy the economy and put hardworking people out of jobs? That's imbalanced and impractical !“ 4 . Daniel recommends taking Panadol pills once a day for people who suffer from headaches. Daniel is a logic course lecturer. As a result, it is safe to take two Panadol pills each day for one's health . 5 . So far, no proof has been discovered that indicates Ethiopia doesn’t have 4,000 years of history. Therefore, Ethiopia has 4,000 years of history.

96. 6 . To solve climate change, Abebe stated that we should impose stronger regulations on carbon emissions. However, in order to eradicate the growing crime in our city, we demand strict control. As a result, rather than being established as a symbol, the regulations should be enforced. 7 . Abebe, a phone technician, informed me that my phone needed to have some software upgraded and some hardware parts changed. As a result, I should regard Abebe's claim as a certainty. 8 . Mr. Christian forwarded the following assumption to Mr. Daniel: the assumption you articulated to the House of Federation is infeasible and should not be praised at all. Mr. Daniel responded to Mr. Christian by saying that if you don't want to admire it, make sure you lose your job; you better accept it.

97. 9 . Homosexual marriages are just immoral. 70% of Ethiopians think so! 10 . The current Ethiopian government is confronted with various issues, including insufficient community services, economic concerns, and a large number of inexperienced government executives. Therefore, we can conclude that Ethiopian society doesn't entirely need any government at all.

98. 11 . Five lawmakers from Republican parties have been found guilty of a criminal offense involving the manipulation of government assets. The DC police investigated their case and reported it to the US Supreme Court, which imposed a one-year prison sentence and a $100,000 decision on five politicians who manipulated public assets. As a result, we may infer that the Republicans do not care about the rest of the people; they are simply criminals who work solely for their personal advantage. 12. Some people maintain that moving to other nations illegally, particularly Europe, results in death, discrimination, and high levels of vulnerability. After all, that is the only other option we have if we do not want to see people tortured by their own country's discomfort.