Introduction to Pharmacology Notes for Diploma Students

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GENERAL OVERVIEW

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

MODULE DESCRIPTION
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary pharmacology
Number of credits: 08
 Pre-requisite Modules:
AHT 04101: Anatomy and Physiology of
Domestic Animals
AHT 04102: Basic Microbiology
AHT 04207: Basic Parasitology

MODULE DESCRIPTION
Learning context: Lecture, Group discussion,
Field visits, Practical, Projects, Case study.
Learning materials: Chalkboard, Handouts,
Livestock units, Text books, video, OHP,
internet, teaching manual, Charts, Posters, drugs
and biologicals.
Integrated Methods of Assessment:
Continuous Assessment 60%
Semester Exams 40%

MODULE DESCRIPTION
At the end of this module, Students will be able to:-
Explain basic principles of pharmacology.
Classify drugs used for treatment of diseases.
Describe procedure of dispensing drugs and
biological as per professional ethics.
Explain concepts related to vaccines.
Administer various drugs and biological to treat
and control livestock diseases.

MODULE DESCRIPTION
REFERENCES
Brander, G. (1977). Veterinary allied Pharmacology and
Therapeutics. Bailliere Tindall, London. 3rd Edition.
Jimmy, L.H (1986). Current Veterinary Therapy. Food
Animal Practices.
Jone, L. M. (1977). Veterinary Pharmacology and
Therapeutics. lowa state University Press 4th Edition
Philip, D.H (1976). Drug interactions. Lea & Febiger
Philadelphia. 3
rd
Edition.

MODULE DESCRIPTION
REFERENCES
Monique Bestman et al., (2020) - Poultry signals © -
African edition. A practical guide to Bird-focused poultry
farming: Chapter 6, page 96-100 (KILACHA LIBRARY)
Dawn M.B. Clinical pharmacology & Therapeutics. 2nd
Ed. 2012 (KILACHA LIBRARY).
Mark G.P. Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs.
Small and large animals. 4th Ed. (KILACHA LIBRARY).
Deborah C.S. & Kate H. Small Animal Critical Care
Medicine.2nd Ed. Part XX, Pharmacology, Chapter 157.
(KILACHA LIBRARY).

THE END

Lesson 1
DIAGNOSIS OF ANIMAL DISEASES

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Animals can not speak and tell how they
feel, therefore, Veterinarians (Or Farmers and
Pastoralists) tend to observe their animals and
identify the sick animals when they notice
changes in behavior such as Refusal to eat,
Isolating to shady areas, or physical signs
such as different breathing, coughing, body
swelling and weakness.

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Common disease signs include:
Loss of appetite or not feeding at all.
Body temperature changes or Fever.
Abnormal consistence of the Faeces
Abnormal Colour or consistence of the Urine.
Abnormal color or consistence of Milk.
Swollen and hot areas of the body (Eg. Lymph).
Changes in Breathing rate, Smell and Behavior.

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Body temperature in different Animals (Thermometer)

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Breathing rate, lung noises and other internal
sounds.. (Use Stethoscope)

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Common Postmortem lesions and Signs in
Livestock..
Oedema.
Haemorrhages.
Infarction
Thrombosis
Anemia
Degeneration
Tumors, Necrosis
Rigor-mortis, Livor-mortis and Algor-mortis.

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Sample collection for laboratory diagnosis..
Fresh samples can be sent to the laboratory for the diagnosis
of specific disease from suspected diseased animals.
Samples that can be collected are:
Body fluids : Blood, Lymph, Milk and Secretions.
Scraping: Skin scraping, Intestine or G.I.T Scraping.
Excretory materials: Urine, Fecal, and Mucus.
Body parts: Organs such as Liver, Kidney, Lungs
(Biopsy) and Eggs.
Others: Feeds, water, and Vomits

SIGNS OF DISEASE
Sample collection for laboratory diagnosis..
Fresh samples must be properly collected, transported and
stored in a favorable environment to maintain its integrity.
Each sample collected should be PROPERLY
LABELED by including the following information.
Address and Contact (Mobile number).
The Name or number, type and age of that sick animal.
The number of animals that are sick.
A full history of the disease signs seen and
Information since the animal is/are sick.

THE END

Lesson 2
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
PHARMACOLOGY
Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

INTRODUCTION
Pharmacology: Is the study of the properties
of drugs and their actions on living things.
Or: Is an experimental Science which
deals with properties of drugs and their effects
on living system.

Pharma = Drugs, Ology = Scientific study

INTRODUCTION
Drug: Drugs are all chemical substances
except food that are used to promote or
safeguard the health of the animal.
The use of Drugs in the treatment of
diseases is called Pharmacotherapy.
Pharmacotherapeutics: Is the study concerned
with the application of drugs in the treatment of
diseases. It involves Drug choice, administration
route, form in which drug is applied and dosage.

INTRODUCTION
Therapeutics: Refers to treatment of disease
in general and includes use of drugs, surgery,
radiation, behavioral modification, etc. (ie.
Chemotherapy, Physiotherapy, Radiotherapy,
Gene therapy, etc).
Chemotherapy: This refers to the treatment
of diseases by the use of chemical substances.
Example: Drugs….. [Chemo = Chemical and
Therapy = Treatment]

INTRODUCTION
Drug Dose: Is the quantity of medication to
be administered at one time. Example 10 mg/kg.
Drug Dosage: Is size or frequency of a dose
of a drug, Example 10mg/kg every 8 hours for
5 days i.e. 10mg/kg t.i.d. for 5 days.
The study of medicine dosage is called
Posology.

INTRODUCTION
Toxicology: Is the study of the toxic effects of
the drugs and other chemicals in the body and
in the environments.
Pharmacy: Is the discipline concerned with
the compounding (Collection and
Preparation), Standardization and dispensing
of drugs.

INTRODUCTION
Divisions of Pharmacology:
Pharmacodynamics: Refers to the Molecular,
Physiological and Biochemical effects of drugs, including
drug mechanism of action. It Characterize what the drug does
to the body/patient.
Pharmacokinetics: It is the mathematical
description of temporal changes in concentration of drugs
and/or their metabolites within the body. It includes
Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and excretion (ADME)
of drugs. This refers to what the body does to the drug.

INTRODUCTION
PHARMACOKINETIC MECHANISM:
Drug Absorption: Refers to the movement
of the drug from the site of administration
to the blood stream.
Drug distribution: Is the process by which a
drug reversibly leaves the bloodstream and
enters the extracellular ﬂuid and the tissues.

INTRODUCTION
PHARMACOKINETIC MECHANISM:
Drug Absorption: Refers to the movement
of the drug from the site of administration
to the blood stream.
Drug metabolism or Biotransformation: Is
the chemical alterations of the drug after
entering the body.
Drug excretion: Elimination from the body

INTRODUCTION
PHARMACOKINETIC MECHANISM:
Bioavailability: The amount of drug
reaching the systemic circulation.
Volume of distribution: This is the volume
of fluid that would be required to contain
the amount of drug in the body if the drug
was uniformly distributed at the
concentration equal to that in plasma.

INTRODUCTION
Drugs Nomenclature:
Drugs have three categories of names.
a)Chemical name: It describe drug chemically.
b)Non-proprietary or Generic name: The
name used internationally and approved by
International non-proprietary name (INN).
c)Proprietary name (Brand or Trade name):
Its assigned by the Manufacturer.

INTRODUCTION
SOURCES OF DRUGS:
Drugs can be obtained from various sources:
Animal sources: Drugs can be obtained from
slaughtered animals, extracts or whole organs, in
which these drugs are employed in replacement
therapy in patients showing Organ failure.
Examples: Insulin extract used in the treatment
of Diabetes mellitus and Extract of the Posterior
pituitary used in treatment of Diabetes Inspidus.

INTRODUCTION
SOURCES OF DRUGS:
Drugs can be obtained from various sources:
Plants sources: The principal sources of drugs
in plants are Roots, Leaves and Barks.
Example:
-Glycosides such as Digitalis and Digitoxin
-Atropine from Atropa belladona and
-Opium

INTRODUCTION
SOURCES OF DRUGS:
Drugs can be obtained from various sources:
Mineral sources: Example: Iodine, Copper,
Ferrous (Iron oxide), Kaolin and Cobalt.
Microorganism sources: Example:
Penicillins, Streptomycin, Erythromycin,
Tetracycline and Chloramphenicol.

INTRODUCTION
SOURCES OF DRUGS:
Drugs can be obtained from various sources:
Synthetic sources or Synthetic drugs:
These are synthesized from chemical
compounds in the laboratory.
Example: Sulphonamides,
Antihistamines and Organic arsenicals.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Some are also the factors influencing drug response:
Subject Related Factors
These are:
Body size, Body weight or surface area,
Age, Sex and Race or Species variation.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Some are also the factors influencing drug response:
Drug Related Factors
These are:
Drug dose, Physiological state,
Pathological state, Psychological state and
Genetic factors.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Body size: It influence the concentration of
drug attained at the site of action. Example
fatty animal with fat soluble drugs can get
slightly increased to allow that portion of
drug that will be absorbed in the body fat.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Body weight: This is an indicator of
volume of distribution. Body surface area
provides a more accurate basis for dose
calculation.
Age: Young and old animals may require
reduced dosage due to organ dysfunction.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Species Variation or Race: There is a
differences in responsiveness to drugs
among different species. Example Rabbits
are resistant to Atropine. Also Cats are
very sensitive to phenolic disinfectants and
Organochloride pesticides.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Sex or Physiological state: Some drugs
are contraindicated in Pregnant animals.
Example Salicylic acids. Also, Uterus is
more sensitive to OXTOCIN during
pregnancy and Salicylates reduce body
temperature only in presence of fever.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Pathological status: Examples: …..G.I.T..
Diseases can alter the absorption of Orally
administered drugs…….Liver diseases can
affect Drug metabolism and….Kidney
diseases can affect drug excretion…..
Renal and Kidney failure lead to Toxicity.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Tolerance or Resistance to Drug: Higher
dose is recommended when targeted
pathogen has a particular resistance to a
particular drug. The dosage must be within
the Margin of safety.

INTRODUCTION
FACTORS DETERMINING DRUG
DOSAGE:
Route of Administration: With the same
drug, Intravenous route will require a lower
dose than other routes.
Severity of the Disease or condition: The
nature of the disease (Acute or Chronic)
can lead to the adjustment of dose.

THE END

Lesson 3
ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Antibiotics are the substances produced by
microorganisms, which selectively suppress the
growth of or kill other microorganisms at very low
concentration.
Antimicrobials: Refers to any substance of
natural, synthetic or semisynthetic origin which at
low concentrations kill or inhibits the growth of
microorganisms but causes little or no host damage
[They have SELECTIVE TOXICITY ]

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Classification of Antimicrobials
Antimicrobial drugs can be classified according to:-
Chemical structure.
Type or Mode of action.
Mechanism of action.
Type of organisms.
Spectrum of activity.
Source of antimicrobials.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Chemical Structure
oSulfonamides and related drugs: Dapsone
(DDS), Sulfadiazine, Paraaminosalicylic
acid (PAS).
oDiaminopyrimidines: Trimethoprim,
Pyrimethamine.
oQuinolones: Nalidixic acid, Norfloxacin,
Ciprofloxacin.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Chemical Structure
oBeta lactam antibiotics: Penicillins,
Cephalosporins.
oTetracyclines: Oxytetracycline,
Doxycycline.
oNitrobenzene derivative:
Chloramphenicol.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Chemical Structure
oAminoglycosides: Streptomycin,
Gentamycin, Amikacin, Neomycin.
oMacrolides antibiotics: Erythromycin,
Clarithromycin, Azithromycin.
oLincosamide antibiotics: Clindamycin.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Chemical Structure
oGlycopeptide antibiotics: Vancomycin.
oPolypeptide antibiotics: Polymyxin-B,
Bacitracin, Tyrothricin.
oNitrofuran derivatives: Nitrofurantoin.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Chemical Structure
oNitroimidazoles: Metronidazole,
Tinidazole.
oNicotinic acid derivatives: Isoniazid,
Pyrazinamide, Ethionamide.
oPolyene antibiotics: Amphotericin-B,
Nystatin, Hamycin.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Chemical Structure
oAzole derivatives: Miconazole,
Clotrimazole, Ketoconazole,
Fluconazole.
oOthers: Rifampin, Ethambutol,
Griseofulvin.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Mode or Type of Action
Antimicrobial drugs are classified
into two groups:
Microbicidal drugs: Drugs that kill
Microbial Organisms.
Microbistatic drugs: Drugs that inhibit
growth of Microbial Organisms.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Mechanism of Action
Inhibition of Protein synthesis.
Cell wall formation inhibition.
Inhibit Folic acid synthesis.
Interfere with Nucleic acid synthesis
and
Inhibition of Enzymes activity.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Mechanism

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Type of Organism
oAntibacterial: Example: Penicillins,
Aminoglycosides and Erythromycin.
oAntiviral: Example: Acyclovir,
Amantadine B and Zidovudine.
oAntifungal: Example: Griseofulvin,
Amphotericin B and Ketoconazole.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Type of Organism
oAntiprotozoal: Example:
Chloroquine, Pyrimethamine and
Metronidazole.
oAnthelminthic: Example:
Mebendazole, Niclosamide and
Diethyl Carbamazine.

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Spectrum of Activity

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC
SPECTRA
MEANING EXAMPLE

Narrow Spectrum
Drugs acting on single or limited
number of pathogens
Penicillins (Only
for Gram +
bacteria)

Extended Spectrum
Naturally narrow spectrum but
with modification to
increase the number of pathogen
types it can act on
Ampicillin (A
penicillin act on
both Gram + and
Gram -)

Broad Spectrum
Drugs effective against wide
range of microorganisms
Tetracycline and
Chloramphenical

ANTIBIOTIC DRUGS
Source of Antibiotics
oFungi: Example: Penicillin, Griseofulvin
and Cephalosporin.
oBacteria: Example: Polymyxin B,
Tyrothricin, Colistin, Aztreonam and
Bacitracin.
oActinomycetes: Example: Polyenes,
Aminoglycosides, Macrolides,
Tetracyclines and Chloramphenicol.

THE END

Lesson 4
ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
PRINCIPLES
Diagnosis:
:- Site of infection, responsible
organism and Drug sensitivity.
Decide: Chemotherapy is necessary: :-
Acute infection require chemotherapy
whilst chronic infections may not.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
PRINCIPLES
Select the drug:
:- Specificity (spectrum of activity,
antimicrobial activity of drug).
:- Pharmacokinetic factors
(physiochemical properties of the drug) :-
:- Patient related factors (allergy, renal
disease).

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
PRINCIPLES
Frequency and duration of drug
administration:
:- Inadequate dose may develop
resistance, intermediate dose may not cure
infection, optimize dose should be used for
therapy.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
PRINCIPLES
Continue therapy:
:- Acute infection treated for 5-10
days. But some of the Bacterial infection are
excepted to this. Example.: Typhoid fever,
tuberculosis (after clinical cure, the therapy is
continued to avoid relapse).

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
PRINCIPLES
Test for cure:
:- After therapy, symptoms and
signs may disappear before pathogen
eradicated.
Prophylactic chemotherapy:
:- To avoid surgical site infections.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
General Properties of Ideal Antimicrobial
Agent
 Selective toxicity:
:- This basically refers to Adverse effect on a
chemical to one form of life (Pathogen) without
affecting other forms of life (Host).
It should be non-toxic at all levels and
should not be metabolized to toxic intermediates.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
THERAPEUTIC INDEX
It is also known as Margin of Safety:
:- Is the dosage range between the dose
producing a lethal effect and the dose
producing the desired therapeutic effect.

Therapeutic index = Lethal/Toxic dose 50%
Effective dose 50%

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
THERAPEUTIC INDEX

Therapeutic index

LD50 or TD50
ED50 ED50

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
THERAPEUTIC INDEX
Uses of Margin of safety (T.I)
It is used to determine the safety of the
Drug.
The higher the therapeutic index, the safe is
the Drug.
Therefore: Therapeutic index is the
measure of drug safety.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
SELECTION OF ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
Factors to consider when choosing
which antimicrobial drug to use.
Nature of the pathogen [G+ or G-]
The site of infection.
Degree of infection
The safety of the drug.
Patient factors.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
COMBINATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL
DRUGS
Possible outcomes
Indifference
Potentiation
Antagonism and
Synergism.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
COMBINATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL
DRUGS
S/No. COMBINATION ACTION/EFFECT EXAMPLE
01 Bactericidal +
Bacteriostatic

Antagonism
Tetracyclines and
Penicillin
02 Bactericidal +
Bactericidal

Synergism
Penicillin and
Streptomycin
(PenStrep)
03 Bacteriostatic +
Bacteriostatic

Synergism
Tetracycline and
Macrolides

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
COMBINATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL
DRUGS
Clinical advantages
•Help in infections of unknown cause.
•Help to prevent development of drug
resistance.
•May be more useful in mixed infections.
•May result to synergism.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
COMBINATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL
DRUGS
Disadvantages
May result to super-infection and development of
drug resistance.
A risk of increased adverse effects.
Unnecessary higher costs if no additional effect
on the disease.
Usually make correct dose estimation difficult.

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY
FAILURE OF ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS
oImproper selection of Antimicrobials, dose,
route or duration of treatment.
oTreatment begun too late.
oFailure to take necessary adjuvant
measures., Poor host defense and
oTrying to treat untreatable disease (Viral)
and Dormant organisms.

THE END

Lesson 5
ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
The first Antibiotics discovered in 1929
by Alexander Flemming, at St. Mary‟s Hospital,
London.
:- Natural Penicillins are harvested from
some strains of Penicillium notonun and
Penicillium chrysogenun.
:- Penicillins are β-lactam antibiotics that
are Bactericidal.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
Classes of Penicillins
Natural Penicillins: [Benzylpenicillin/Pen G and
Phenoxymethylpenicillin/Pen V, PPF].
Aminopenicillins : [Ampicillin, Hetacillin and
Amoxicillin]. They are Semisynthesized.
Penicillinase-resistant Penicillin: [Oxacillin and
Cloxacillin]
Extended spectrum Penicillins: [Carbenicillin,
Ticarcillin and Mezlocillin].

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
MECHANISM OF ACTION
-They are Bactericidal drugs.
-They act by activating autolytic enzymes that
destroy the Cell wall in some Bacteria.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
USES OF PENICILLINS
[They primarily act on Gram Positive Bacteria]
Treatment of Bovine Mastitis caused by
Streptococci.
Treatment of Anthrax in all species.
Treatment of Clostridial diseases in Cattle
and Sheep such as Tetanus, Blackleg,
Haemorrhagic Septicaemia.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
USES OF PENICILLINS
[They primarily act on Gram Positive Bacteria]
Treatment of Streptococcal dermatitis in
Dogs.
Treatment of Leptospirosis and
Actinomycosis.
Urinary tract infection (UTI) and Respiratory
tract infection (RTI).

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
TOXICITY OF PENICILLINS
-They are relatively non-toxic.
-Allergic reactions may occur often in man
and small animals following previous
treatment. Some signs that may result are
Cardiac arrhythmia, Cutaneous Oedema,
Salivation and Vomiting.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS
CONTRAINDICATION OF PENICILLINS
-Penicillin sensitive patients and
-Patients with Kidney Problems.
EXCRETION
Large amount is excreted via Urine in
unchanged form and very small amount is
excreted via bile, saliva and milk.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
PENICILLINS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
They are produced by different strains and
species of Streptomyces.
:- Some are Semi-synthesized.
Natural Tetracyclines include:
I.Chlorotetracycline and
II.Oxytetracycline.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
Semi-synthesized Tetracyclines include:
I.Tetracycline hydrochloride.
II.Doxycycline.
III.Monocycline.
IV.Demectocycline and
V.Methacycline.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
MODE OF ACTION
-Tetracyclines are Bacteriostatic in action.
-They act by Interfere with Protein synthesis
in rapidly growing Bacteria.
-They prevent attachment of tRNA to mRNA
as a result Protein synthesis is blocked.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
-Tetracyclines are Broad spectrum antibiotics
act against Gram positive, Gram negative
Bacteria, Rickettsiae, Spirochetes,
Chlamydia, Mycoplasma, Some Protozoa
and larger viruses.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
USES OF TETRACYCLINES
-Treatment of Mastitis as Intramammary
infusions.
-A specific drug for infectious caused by
Brucella, Borrelia, Haemobartonella and
Ehrlichia species.
-Treatment of Chronic respiratory disease
(CRD) in Poultry.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
USES OF TETRACYCLINES
-Treatment of Anaplasmosis.
-Treatment of heart water in Bovine [Cowdriosis].
-Treatment of Pyogenic skin infections and external
otitis in dogs.
-As intrauterine passaries in uterine infections.
-Gastric ulcers by Helicobacter pylori.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
USES OF TETRACYCLINES
-Applied topically to treat infectious bovine
keratoconjuctivitis (IBK) or Pinkeye.
-Treatment of U.T.I and R.T.I in Cats and
Dogs.
-Used as feed additives to promote growth in
Cattle, Swine and Poultry.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
CONTRAINDICATIONS
Tetracyclines are contraindicated in
-Renal dysfunction.
-Young growing animals.
-Together with methoxyflurane Anaesthesia
as this potentiates its Toxicity.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES
TOXICITY
-Renal toxicity.
-Hepatic toxicity.
-Gastrointestinal disturbances.
-Photosensitivity. Especially Demeclocycline.
EXCRETION: Via Urine, less in faeces, bile
and milk but Dox mainly by L. excr.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
TETRACYCLINES

THE END

Lesson 6
ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
- Derived from Saccharopolyspora erythraea
(Streptomyces erythreus)
The most Important are:-
Erythromycin.
Tylosin.
Spiramycin, Azithromycin and
Oleandamycin

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
MODE OF ACTION
-They are primarily Bacteriostatic in action
but may be Bactericidal at high
concentration or depending on the type of
Microorganism.
-They act by inhibit Protein synthesis in
Bacteria by reversibly binding to the P site
of the 50-S Unit of the ribosome.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
They are used against Gram positive
Bacteria, Mycoplasma, Rickettsiae and some of
the larger Viruses.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
USES OF MACROLIDES
-Used to infectious that has been insensitive
to Penicillin.
-Tylosin is used in Cattle, Sheep and Swine
for the treatment of Local and Systemic
Infections caused by Mycoplasma, Gram
positive and some Gram negative Bacteria.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
USES OF MACROLIDES
-Used as growth promoter.
-Treatment of CRD in Poultry and
-Treatment of Staphlococci infections.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
TOXICITY
-Severe Diarrhea if administered orally.
-Oedema of rectal mucosa with mild anal
Prolapse in Swine.
EXCRETION
Erythromycin is excreted by bile duct via feces,
Tylosin unchanged via bile and urine.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES
CONTRAINDICATIONS
-Macrolide sensitive patients
-Patients with liver problems or impairements.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
MACROLIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS
-They are isolated from Streptomyces
venezuelae. There are natural and Synthetic
Chloramphenicals.
MODE OF ACTION:
-They are Bacteriostatic in action.
-They bind to Bacterial ribosomes and inhibit
Protein synthesis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS
PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
-They are broad spectrum antibiotics.
-It has action against Richettsiae,
Mycoplasma and Chlamydia, (G- & G+).
CONTRAINDICATION
Contraindicated to be used in food
producing animals.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS
USES
-Treatment of Salmonellosis.
-Treatment of U.T.I caused by Escherichia
coli and Urobacter aeroginosa.
-Treatment of CRD in Poultry.
-Eye preparation for ocular infections.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS
USES
-Treatment of secondary Bacteria infections
in case of viral infections in Dogs.
-Treatment of local infections in Dogs, Cats,
Birds and Horses.
EXCRETION: By Renal [In Changed form
and small amount Unchanged]

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS
TOXICITY
-Signs of Toxicity include anorexia and nausea.
-In Cats and Newborn Cow may cause death due to
failure to conjugate with glucuronic acid caused by
insufficient enzymes.
-In Man and Cats it causes Bone-marrow damage.
-Inhibit liver Microsomal enzymes.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
CHLORAMPHENICALS

THE END

Lesson 7
ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
It include:
Streptomycin.
Gentamycin.
Kanamycin.
Neomycin and
Dihydrostreptomycin.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
MODE OF ACTION
-They inhibit the rate of Protein Synthesis
and translation of mRNA resulting into the
synthesis of abnormal proteins.
EXCRETION:
Via Urine [Unchanged]

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
-They are narrow spectrum antibiotics
against Gram negative insensitive to
Penicillin.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
USES
-Treatment of Mastitis which are insensitive to
Penicillin.
-Treatment of U.T.I and R.T.I
-Treatment of Ear and Eye infections.
-Treatment of Brucellosis and infections caused by
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and
Proteus spp.
-Bacteria endocarditis [Comb. With Penicillin]

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
TOXICITY AND CONTRAINDICATION
They are more toxic than other
antibacterial drugs.
Should not be used with Nephrotic drugs
[Furosemide] as it is Nephrotoxicity.
Ototoxicity leads to damage of Cochlear
sensory causing deafness and to Vestibular
cell damage causing Ataxia.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMINOGLYCOSIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
Structurally sulphonamides are similar to
a bacterial or protozoal intermediate for
Synthesis of P-Aminobenzoic Acid (PABA).
Basically sulphonamides are:-
Antibacterial and
Antiprotozoal.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
PREPARATIONS
-Sulphamethazine.
-Sulphadimethoxine.
-Sulphathiazole.
-Suiphachlorpyridazine.
-Sulphasalazine and
-Sulphadoxine.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
MODE OF ACTION
-They inhibit Bacterial growth by
Competitively inhibit Dihydropteroate
synthase, the enzyme used for incorporating
PABA into DNA synthesis.
-They are Folate Synthesis inhibitors.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
CLINICAL USES
Highly Soluble Sulfonamides [Systemic
Sulphonamides]
-Used for the treatment of Urinary Tract
Infections: Example: Sulfisoxazole
[Sulfafurazole] and Sulfasomidine.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
CLINICAL USES
Poorly Soluble Sulfonamides [Gut active Sulphonamides]
-Salicylazosulfapyridine [Sulfasalazine] is
hydrolyzed in the large intestine to
Sulfapyridine and 5-aminosalicylic acid, an
antiinflammatory agent that might be used
for management of ulcerative colitis in dogs.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
USES
-To promote growth in swine [Sulphamethazine].
-Treatment and Control of Coccidiosis in Chicken
and Turkey [Sulphaquionoxaline].
-Treatment of Opthalmic/eye infections as
Opthalmic preparations [Sulphacetamide]
-Wound dressing after surgery [Sulphanitamide].

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
USES
-Treatment of U.T.I mostly caused by
Coliforms [Sulphafurazole and
Sulphamethoxazole].
-Treatment of Actinobacillosis, foot rot,
Pneumonia and Enteritis in Cattle
[Sulphadimidine].
-Used as feed additive.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
USES
-Treatment of various Enteric conditions such as
Salmonellosis, Collibacillosis and Necrotic
Enteritis in Pigs [Sulphaguanidine].
-Used in the treatment of soft tissue infections such
as FMD and Rinderpest [Sulphadimethoxine].
-Treatment of respiratory and enteric condition in
Swine and Poultry [Sulphaziazole]

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
POTENTIATED SULPHONAMIDES
These are drugs formed by combinations
of Sulphonamide with diaminopyrimidines
[Trimethoprim, Methoprim, Ormetoprim,
Aditoprim and Pyrimethamine] to treat
Protozoal diseases such as Malaria, Coccidiosis,
Leishmaniasis and Toxoplasmosis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
POTENTIATED SULPHONAMIDES
- Diaminopyrimidines inhibit Dihydrofolate
reductase in Bacteria and Protozoa far more
efficiently than in mammalian cells.
- These agents are not particularly effective
against Bacteria if used alone and resistance
develop rapidly.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
POTENTIATED SULPHONAMIDES
Examples:
-Trimethoprim/Sulfadiazine: Co-trimazine.
-Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole: Co-
trimoxazole and
-Trimethoprim/Sulfadoxine: Co-trimoxine.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
POTENTIATED SULPHONAMIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES
TOXICITY
-Hypersensitivity: Skin rashes and fever.
-Gastrointestinal toxicity: Nausea, Vomiting and
Diarrhea.
-Haematotoxicity: Rarely, Granulocytopenia,
Thrombocytopenia and Aplastic anaemia.
-Nephrotoxicity: Crystalluria and Haematuria.
EXCRETION: Via Urine [Conjugated or Unchanged]

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
SULPHONAMIDES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES
Quinolones are carboxylic acid
derivatives that are Synthetic antimicrobial
agents.
:- Most quinolones with antimicrobial
activity contain a fluorine group and hence are
referred as fluoroquinolones.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES
MODE OF ACTION
-They are Bactericidal drugs.
-Fluoroquinolones inhibit bacterial DNA
synthesis by inhibiting DNA gyrase, an
enzyme that controls DNA supercoiling.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES
USES [Examples]
Ciprofloxacin is used for treating Bacterial
diseases including infectious diarrhoea,
respiratory tract infections, skin infections,
typhoid fever, and urinary tract infections.
Enrofloxacin is a broad spectrum
antibacterial drugs.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES
TOXICITY
Phototoxicity
Hepatotoxicity and
Hypoglycemia.
EXCRETION:
Are excreted via Urine and Bile.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
QUINOLONES

PRACTICAL 01
ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS
KEY
Drug identification [Trade and Generic names]
Withdraw periods
Drug classification [Group of drug]
Mode and Mechanisms of Drugs
Pharmacotherapeutic uses/Drug indications
Contraindications and Mode of excretion

THE END

Lesson 8
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
Developing antifungals is difficult because
Fungal cells closely resemble animal cells.
:- Fungus are widely present in
environment. They prefer wet environments.
:- Fungi [Mycoses] cause mild to life
threatening effects.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
AMPHOTERICIN B
Mechanism of Action
-They are Fungicidal drugs.
-They binds to Ergosterol in fungal cell
membrane to form pores in cell membrane
which cause cell contents to leak out
resulting in cell death.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMPHOTERICIN B
USES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
AMPHOTERICIN B
TOXICITY
Acute reactions: Nausea, Vomiting…
Long term toxicity: Nephrotoxicity and
Anemia.
CNS toxicity.
Rarely, Hepatotoxicity.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
GRISEOFULVIN
Mechanism of Action
-They are Fungistatic drugs.
-They binds to microtubules and prevents
spindle formation during Mitosis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
GRISEOFULVIN
USES

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
KETOCONAZOLE
:- This is the first Oral antifungal
developed acting against Dermatophytosis,
Deep mycosis and Candidiasis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
KETOCONAZOLE
Mechanism of Action
-Broad spectrum antifungal.
-They Inhibits synthesis of ergosterol in
fungal cytoplasmic membranes by blocking
cytochrome P-450 enzyme.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
KETOCONAZOLE
ADVERSE EFFECTS
. Nausea, Vomiting and Anorexia.
. Decrease sex hormones in male and female.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
FLUCONAZOLE
USES
-Candidiasis
-Tinea infections and Cutaneous Candidiasis.
-Systemic fungal infections.
-Preferred drug for Meningitis.
-Eye drop for fungal Keratitis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
SUMMARY
Spectrum of activity

DRUG USES
Nystatin Candidiasis only
Griseofulvin Dermatophytosis only
Terbinafine Dermatophytosis and Candidiasis
Gaspofungin Aspergillosis and Candidiasis

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS
SUMMARY
Important characteristics

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIFUNGAL DRUGS

THE END

Lesson 9
ANTIVIRAL DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
VIRUSES
Viruses are microscopic parasites that lack
the capacity to thrive and reproduce outside of a
host body.

Viral replication
A virus cannot replicate on its own.
It must attach to and enter a host cell.
It then uses the host cell‟s energy to synthesize
protein, DNA, and RNA.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
VIRUSES
-Viruses are difficult to kill because they live
inside the cells.
-Any drug that kills a virus may also kill cells.
Competent immune system:
Best response to viral infections.
A well-functioning immune system will
eliminate or effectively destroy virus
replication.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
Mechanism of Action

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIVIRAL DRUGS
Examples:
Antiviral Drugs., Nonretroviral. [They act by
inhibiting viral replication]. Used to treat
Influenza infections, Herpes simplest virus,
Vericella zoster viruses, Cytomegalovirus and
Hepatitis A, B and C: -_ Acyclovir, Ganciclovir,
Oseltamivir and Zanamivir.
Antiretroviral Drugs: -_ Amprenavir, Indinavir,
Ritonavir, Enfuvirtide and Trizivir.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIVIRAL DRUGS

THE END

Lesson 10
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Diminazene aceturate
MODE OF ACTION: They binds to organelles that
contain DNA [Kinetoplast and Nucleus]. As a result
the Drug-DNA Complex inhibits DNA replication
leading to the death of the Organism.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR
ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Diminazene aceturate
EXAMPLES:
Berenil, Veriben, Diminaphen and Diminakel

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR
ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Diminazene aceturate
USES: Treatment of Clinical Trypanosomiasis
TOXICITY: CNS disturbances manifested by Ataxia
and Convulsions. Also Local reactions may occur at
the site of Injection.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR
ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Isometamidium
MODE OF ACTION: They blocks nucleic acid
synthesis by interacting with DNA base pair and by
inhibition of RNA and DNA Polymerase.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR
ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Isometamidium
USES: Used for treatment and Prevention of
trypanosomiasis. Example: Samorin and Trypamidium.
TOXICITY: Tissue damage usually occurs at the site of
Injection.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR
ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Isometamidium
CONTRAINDICATIONS: Should not be used together with
other trypanocides….Should not be administered by Intravenous
or Subcutaneous routes and Treatment should not be repeated
within 1 month even with other antitrypanosomal drugs to avoid
Cummulative toxicity.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR
ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Homidium salts
MODE OF ACTION: Similar to Isometamidium.
Examples: Homidium Chloride [Novidium] and
Homidium bromide [Ethidium].

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
TRYPANOCIDE OR ANTITRYPANOSOMES :
These are the Drugs effective against
Trypanosomes.
Homidium salts
USES: Used for treatment and Prevention of
trypanosomiasis.
TOXICITY: Tissue damage usually occurs at the site of
Injection., Liver damage at high dose which can cause
death.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
BABESIACIDAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against Babesiosis.
Imidocarb dipropionate
Mechanism of Action: The mechanism for Imidocarb is
uncertain but two proporsed mechanisms are:
i.It act by interfering with the production and/or
utilization of Polyamines.
ii.It act by preventing the entry of Inositol in to the
Erythrocyte (RBC) containing the Parasite.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
BABESIACIDAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against Babesiosis.
Imidocarb dipropionate
USES: They are used both as Curative and
Prophylactic drugs. Example: Imizol
TOXICITY: Local reaction usually occurs at the site of
Injection [S/C or I.M]., Not administered via I.V.. Over
dosage leads to Salivation and Diarrhoea.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
BABESIACIDAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against
Babesiosis.
Diminazene aceturate
USES: They are used in the treatment of clinical
Babesiosis in Cattle, Sheep, Horses and Dogs.
Others
Amicarbalide and Quinorium sulphate [Acaprin].

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
ANTICOCCIDIAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against
Coccidiosis.
Decoquinate
MODE OF ACTION: They blocks DNA synthesis by
inhibiting DNA Gyrase enzyme.

USES: Used in Calves, Young Goats and Poultry for
prevention of Coccidiosis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
ANTICOCCIDIAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against
Coccidiosis.
Amprolium
MODE OF ACTION: They prevent coccidia from
utilizing thiamine by blocking thiamine receptors.
USES: Treatment and prevention of Coccidiosis in
Poultry and Cattle. Combination with Sulphur drugs
increases the efficiency.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
ANTICOCCIDIAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against
Coccidiosis.
Amprolium
Adverse effects: Thiamine defficiency may occur
following over dosage.
Others
-Sulphonamides., - Nicarbazin., - Robenedine and
Halofuginone.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
ANTICOCCIDIAL DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against Coccidiosis.
DRUG USES
Sulphonamides Both prevention and treatment of Coccidiosis in all
animal species.
Nicarbazin Used in Chicken for prevention
Robenedine Used in Chicken for prevention
Halofuginone Prophlaxis in Chicken, Turkeys and Other animals.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
ANTITHEILERIA DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against
Theileriosis.
Hydroxyquinone compounds
MODE OF ACTION: They kill the parasite by blocking
some vital metabolic pathways linked with respiratory
functions. Examples: Parvaquone [Clexon and
Parvexon] and Buparvaquone [Butalex].
USES: Treatment of Theileriosis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIPROTOZOAL DRUGS
ANTITHEILERIA DRUGS :
There are the Drugs effective against
Theileriosis.
Halofuginone
MODE OF ACTION: They destroy parasitized
lymphocytes, there by the Schizonts are destroyed upon
release to the extracellular environment.
USES: Treatment of Theileriosis.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTIBACTERIAL DRUGS
ANTIANAPLASMOSIS :
There are the Drugs effective against Anaplasma.
Tetracycline
USES: Treatment of Anaplasmosis by I.M and I.V
Injection. To eliminate carrier state long acting
Tetracyclines are used.
Imidocarb
USES: Treatment of Anaplasmosis by S/C route…Two
to three doses for Carrier states.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

THE END

Lesson 11
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
These are drugs used for treating Worms
[Helminths] infections.
They include:-
Antinematodal Drugs.
Antitrematodal Drugs and
Anticestodal Drugs

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Characteristics of Ideal Anthelmintics
It must be Effective with a Broad spectrum
of activity including the ability to kill larvae
and adult stages of target organism and the
ability to target multiple classes of Parasites
that are of Pathogenic, Zoonotic or
Economic importance.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Characteristics of Ideal Anthelmintics
It must have a wide margin of safety [Wide
Therapeutic Index]. The toxic dose is at least
three times the therapeutic dose.
It must have short withdrawal period in food
producing animals.
It must be Economically cheap.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Characteristics of Ideal Anthelmintics
It must be free from unpleasant side effects
and non-hazardous to the operator.
They must be compatible with other
materials which may be administered at the
same time.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Classification of Anthelmintic Drugs
They can be classified according to:-
i.Type of Helminthes they act [Antitrematodes,
Anticestodes and Antinematodes].
ii.Spectrum of activity [Narrow and Broad].
iii.Chemical Structure and
iv.Mode of action.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Classification of Anthelmintic Drugs
There are four main groups.
Benzimidazoles.
Nicotine-like Nematocides.
Organophosphates and
Antibiotics.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
GROUP MECHANISM OF ACTION EXAMPLE
Benzimidazoles They Inhibit ATP Formation
[Inhibition of Energy
metabolism]
Thiabendazole,
Albendazole, Mebendazole
and Fenbendazole
Nicotine-like
Nematocides
They Paralyses the worm by
causing depolarizing
neuromuscular blockage
Levamisole
Organophosphates They inhibit acetylcholine
breakdown by
irreversibly inhibiting
acetylcholinesterase
Dichlovors, Trichlorfon
and Coumaphos
Antibiotics They inhibit neurotransmission
by interfering with GABA
receptors
Ivermectin and
Milbemycin

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
PHARMACOTHERAPEUTICS
They are generally used in the treatment
and control of Helminthes in Animals.
:- Some have narrow spectrum of activity
whilst others are Broad spectrum anthelmintic
drugs.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
USES OF ANTHELMINTICS
Albendazole, Fenbendazole and Oxyfenbendazole
are effective against adult and larval stage of major
G.I.T worms and Lungworms in ruminants.
Mebendazole, Fenbendazole, Oxybendazole and
Albendazole are used to treat mature taeniosis,
Echinococcosis in Dogs and Monienziasis in
Ruminants, Cysticercosis in sheep and Cattle and
tapeworm in Man.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
USES OF ANTHELMINTICS
Feberidazole, Mebendazole, Oxybendazole and
Febantel are effective against Hookworms and
Whipworms in Dogs and Cats.
Mebendazole is used in the treatment of Trichinosis
[Especially at Muscular stage].
Thiabendazole is used in ruminants against major
G.I.T Nematodes.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
USES OF ANTHELMINTICS
Thiacetarsamide and Ivermectin are used for
treating heartworms. Thiacetarsamide is used for
eliminating adult worms where Ivermectin
eliminate worm larvae.
Levamisole is used against most mature G.I.T
worms and lungworms in ruminants. In Pigs it is
used against Ascarids, intestinal threadworms,
lungworms, nodular and kidney worms.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
USES OF ANTHELMINTICS
Triclabendazole, Albendazole, Praziquantel
clorsulon, Nitroxynil or Trodax are used against
liver flukes in ruminants.
Praziquantel is effective against all species of
tapeworm and kill both adult and young stages of
tapeworm except Hydatid cyst.
Piperazine is effective against Ascarids and
nodular worms in all species.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
USES OF ANTHELMINTICS
Ivermectin in ruminants is effective against all
major G.I.T worms and lungworms.
In all species Ivermectin is effective against many
types of ectoparasites.
Pyrantel is used in pigs against Ascends, Nodular
worms and Stomach worms. In Dogs it is effective
against all G.I.T nematodes.
…………………. and many others……………!!!

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Toxicity and Contraindications
Albendazole and Oxyfendazole may be
teratogenic.
In Dogs following repeated administration,
Hepatotoxicity may occur with Albendazole and
Oxyfendazole.
Ivermectin causes local irritation following
Subcutaneous Injection.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS
Toxicity and Contraindications
Levamisole is the Most Toxic anthelmintic drug
with narrow therapeutic index. Signs of Toxicity
include, Overstimulation, Convulsions, Asphyxia
and Salivation.
Butamisole is contraindicated to animals with renal
and hepatic disorders.
Organophosphates may cause death due to
Respiratory paralysis and Cardiac arrest.

GROUPS OF ANTIBIOTICS
ANTHELMINTIC DRUGS

DRUG STABILITY
Define:
Is the ability of a Chemical or Drug to
retain its chemical, physical, microbiological
and biological properties within specified
limits throughout its shelf-life.
Many Physical [Pus, Debris, Stomach content
and Environmental conditions) Chemical and
Microbiological factors can affect the stability of any
chemical substance including drugs.

DRUG STABILITY
Factors Affecting Drug Stability
Temperature: High temperature accelerate
Oxidation, Reduction and Hydrolysis reactions
which lead to drug degradation.
pH: The Acidity and Alkalinity influences the
rate of decomposition of most drugs. Many Drugs
are stable within the pH of 4 and 8.
Moisture: Water can influence the catalysis of
chemical reactions such as Oxidation, Hydrolysis
and Reduction. Also promotes Microbial growth.

DRUG STABILITY
Factors Affecting Drug Stability
Light: It can lead to Oxidation in some drugs due
to thermal effect and radiation.
Pharmaceutical Dosage Form: Solid dosage
forms are more stable than liquid dosage forms
due to the presence of water in liquid forms.
Drug Concentration: Rate of drug degradation
is constant for the solutions of the same drug with
different concentrations. Concentrated solution
drugs are more stable than diluted solution drugs.

DRUG STABILITY
Factors Affecting Drug Stability
Drug Incompatibility: The reaction may occur
between the components of Pharmaceutical
dosage forms itself or between Drug Components
and the cover of the Container.
Air [Oxygen]: It accelerates Oxidation of some
active ingredients.
Expiry: Every drug has the shelf life. Some
medications reduces their shelf life after being
exposed to physical environments.

DRUG STABILITY
Adverse Effects of Drug Instability
•Loss of Active Ingredient/Drug.
•Loss of Vehicles such as Water or Alcohols
•Loss of content Uniformity.
•Loss of elegancy. Example fading of Tablets and
Colored Solutions.
•Reduction in Bioavailability.
•Production of Potential Toxic Materials.

THE END

Lesson 12
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick

KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
These are Organic or In-Organic
compounds used to eradicate and control of
Ectoparasites of the class Arachnida and Insecta
such as Mites, Fleas, Ticks and Flies living on
the animal skin and in the environment.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Properties of ideal Acaricide and Insecticides
Should destroy all parasites at every stage of
their life cycle.
Should be rapid in action.
Should be rapidly destroyed in the
environment.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Properties of ideal Acaricide and Insecticides
Should have low or non toxic effects to the
host.
Should be compatible with various bases and
resides required for application.
Should be economical and competitive in the
market.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
Classification is based on two major ways:-
I.According to their mode of entry.
II.According to their chemical structure.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO THEIR MODE OF ENTRY.
Stomach Poisons: After being applied, they
are eaten up by parasites to the midgut before
being distributed throughout the body via the
blood stream. Example: Organophosphates
(OPCs) and Organochlorinated (OCs)
compounds.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO THEIR MODE OF ENTRY.
Contact Poisons: They enter the parasite
through direct contact. Example via Skin or
Cuticles of insects. OPCs, Ocs, Carbamates
and Sevin. They are also known as
Neurotoxins.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO THEIR MODE OF ENTRY.
Systemic Poisons: They are absorbed via
Skin or Stomach, then distributed throughout
the body of the parasite………..OPCs.
Repellants: When applied to the surface or
atmosphere they drive away the insects:
Example Pygrease.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO THEIR MODE OF ENTRY.
Fumigants: They Enter through respiratory
system……..Pyrethroids.
_______________________________________

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Arsenicals: They are Oldmoded. The major
setback is persistence to the body and
environment.
Carbamates: They act as contact poisons.
Example: Carbaryl [AKHERI Powder®] and
Propoxul.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Organochlorinated compounds [OCCs]:
High lipid solubility, non-volatile. Rapid
action on insects: Ticks, Mange and Flies.
Examples:- Benzene hexachloride [BHC],
Dicophane, DDT, Dieldrine, Toxaphene and
Chlordane.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Amitraz [Amidine]: Contain Amitraz
diamidine. It is Contact poison. They are
traded in different ways such as TRIATIX,
TWIGATRAZ and TACTIC.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Pyrethroids: There are two types:
:- Naturally occurring Organic Pyrethrum
compounds. It is an important Acaricide.
Example: Ectomin, Grenade, Decatics and
Dominex.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Pyrethroids: There are two types:
:- Synthetic occurring Organic compounds.
These are more stable than Natural Pyrethroids.
Example: Cypermethrin, Flumethrin and
Decamethrin [PARANEX ® 100EC] :- Both are
Contact poisons.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Organophosphorus compounds [OPCs]:
There act as Contact, Stomach or Systemic
Poisons. They are readily broken down hence
do not accumulate in environment and also
are not persistent in the body after exposure.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Classification of Acaricide and Insecticides
ACCORDING TO CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
Organophosphorus compounds [OPCs]:
Examples:
Diazinon, Malathion, Coumaphos
[Asuntal®], Chlorphenviphos [Steladon® and
Supadip®], Dichlorvos and Quintofos.

PESTICIDES

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
USES OF ACARICIDES AND
INSECTICIDES
Amitraz is effective against Ticks, Fleas,
Lices and Mange Mites.
Diazinon is used in the control of Lice, Fleas,
Ticks, Blowflies, Bedbugs and Flies affecting
plants.
Malathion is used for maize preservation.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
USES OF ACARICIDES AND
INSECTICIDES
Carbaryl is used in the control of Ticks,
Lice, Fleas and Poultry mites. Also used in
the control of insects affecting plants.
Pyrethrins are used in the controlling of
Ticks, Fleas, Lices and Tsetse flies and
effective against flies affecting Livestocks.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
USES OF ACARICIDES AND
INSECTICIDES
Propoxur is used in Dogs to control Fleas.

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES

PESTICIDES

PESTICIDES
ACARICIDES AND INSECTICIDES
Assignment
KALTC Farm Dip-tank has a capacity of 50,000
Liters and the Acaricide on use is Cyperdip 62.5%
Cypermethrin . If the recommended Dip wash
concentration is 0.125%.
Calculate…:-
a.The amount of Acaricide reguired.
b.The Acaricide:water ratio.

THE END

Lesson 13
VETERINARY VACCINES

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick
KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Vaccines: This refers to any preparation
of dead or attenuated pathogens, or their
products, that when introduced into the body,
stimulates the production of protective
antibodies or T-cells without causing the
disease. The science of producing vaccines to
prevent diseases is called Vaccinology.

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Vaccination: This refers to a process in
which the animals are infected with a much
weakened or dead pathogen in a controlled
way to build up a proper defense against
infections.
………….Only vaccinate animals if they are
healthy.

VACCINES

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Antigens: This refers to any substance
that induces the immune system to produce
antibodies against it….
OR…
Antigens are molecules capable of
stimulating an immune response.

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Types of Antigens
Exogenous – Foreign to the host immunity
Endogenous – Produced by intracellular
bacteria and virus replicating inside a host
cell
Autoantigens – They are produced by the
host

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Antibody [Immunoglobulins]: This is
a protein produced by the immune system in
response to the presence of an antigen.

Antibodies have a complementary
shape to a specific antigen they attack.

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Types of Antibodies

VACCINES
INTRODUCTION:
Difference between Antigen and Antibody

VACCINES
Characteristics of Ideal Vaccine:
Immunogenic [Ability to induce humoral or cell mediated
immunity]
Long lasting immunity
Safe
Stable in field conditions
Combined
Single dose
Affordable (and accessible) to all

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Whole Organism
: Live/Attenuated Vaccines.
: Killed/Inactivated Vaccines.
Toxoids
Peptide Vaccines > Conjugate Vaccines
Recombinant Vaccines [Subunit or Gene]
Nucleic acid Vaccines.[DNA and RNA]

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Whole Pathogen Vaccines: These
vaccines use pathogen that have been altered.
This is the oldest and most well-known
method of vaccination.
- Using the pathogen in its natural state would
cause active disease and could potentially be
dangerous to the individual receiving it and risk the
disease spreading to other.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Live/Attenuated Vaccines: These
vaccines contain whole pathogen (Virus or Bacteria)
which have been weakened [Attenuated] so that they
create a protective immune response but do not
cause disease in healthy individuals.
……For most modern vaccines, this “Weakening” is
achieved through genetic modification. It can be
naturally occurring phenomenon of artificially.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Live/Attenuated Vaccines: These
vaccines contain whole pathogen (Virus or Bacteria)
which have been weakened [Attenuated] so that they
create a protective immune response but do not
cause disease in healthy individuals.
……They multiply in the host....They tend to create
a strong and lasting immune response…For weak
immunity hosts, this vaccine can cause disease.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Live/Attenuated Vaccines:
Examples of these Vaccines:
-Rotavirus vaccine, - Yellow fever vaccine
-MMR vaccine - Oral typhoid vaccine
-Nasal flu vaccine (Not the Injected vaccine)
-Shingles vaccines - Anthrax vaccine
-Chickenpox vaccine (Special group only)
-BCG vaccine against TB (Special groups only)

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Live/Attenuated Vaccines:
Potential safety problems:
-Under-attenuation
-Mutation leading to reversion to virulence
-Preparation instability
-Contaminating viruses in cultured cells
-Heat lability
-Administration to immunocompromized or pregnant patients
may be dangerous.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Killed/Inactivated Vaccines: These
vaccines contains Killed (Bacteria vaccines) or
Inactivated (Viral vaccines) pathogens usually by
Heat or Chemical in a way that they can not replicate
in the hosts body.
……Inactivated vaccines are generally safe even with weak
immunity, but are not entirely risk free…......They do not
always produce a strong and long lasting immunity as
Live/Attenuated vaccines.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Killed/Inactivated Vaccines:
Example of these Vaccines
-Inactivated Polio vaccine or IPV (In the 6-in-1 vaccine,
pre-school booster, teenage booster and pertussis vaccine
in pregnancy)
-Some inactivated flu vaccines which are described as
„Split virion‟
-Hepatitis-A vaccine (Special group)….-Rabies Vaccine
-Japanese encephalitis vaccine

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Toxoid Vaccines: Some Bacteria release
toxins (Poisonous protein) when they attack the
body, and it is in the toxins rather than the bacteria
itself that we want to be protected against.
…….The immune system recognizes these toxins in
the same way that it recognizes other antigens on the
surface of the bacteria and is able to mount an
immune response to them.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Toxoid Vaccines: Some Bacteria release
toxins (Poisonous protein) when they attack the
body, and it is in the toxins rather than the bacteria
itself that we want to be protected against.
…….Some vaccines are made with inactivated
versions of these Toxins. They are called
„TOXOIDS‟ because they look like toxins but are
not poisonous. They trigger a strong immune system

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Subunit Vaccines: They contain one or
more specific antigens (or „Flags‟) from the surface
of the pathogen.
…..The advantage of subunit vaccines over whole
pathogen vaccines is that, the immune response can
focus on recognizing a small number of antigen
targets („Flags‟)….They do not usually produce
strong /long lasting immunity hence repeated doses..

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Recombinant protein Vaccines: They
are made using Bacteria or Yeast cells.
………Recombinant gene technology is used here.
Examples:
- Hepatitis B Vaccine (In the 6-in-1 vaccine and as
the separate hepatitis B vaccine).
- MenB Vaccine…It contain proteins from the
surface of Meningococcal Bacteria.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Conjugate Vaccines: The word
„Conjugate‟ means “Connected” or “Joined”. With
some bacteria, to get protection from a vaccine you
need to train the immune system to respond to
Polysaccharides (Complex sugars on the surface of
Bacteria) rather than proteins….
………They produce stronger immune response.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Nucleic acid Vaccines: They provide the
genetic instructions of the antigen to cells in the
body and in turn the cells produce the antigen, which
stimulates an immune response.
………Nucleic acid vaccines are quick and easy to
develop, and provide significant promise for the
development of Vaccines in the future.

VACCINES
TYPES OF VACCINES:
Nucleic acid Vaccines: They provide the
genetic instructions of the antigen to cells in the
body and in turn the cells produce the antigen, which
stimulates an immune response.
………RNA Vaccines: They use the mRNA inside
the lipid membrane.
………DNA Vaccines: They are stronger than
RNA….Currently there is no licensed DNA vaccine

VACCINES
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF
VACCINES:
Facts about Vaccines:
Biological products
lose potency with time
Process irreversible and accelerated if
proper storage conditions are not adhered
to.

VACCINES
STORAGE AND HANDLING OF
VACCINES:
Facts about Vaccines:
Vaccines handling should follow the
“COLD CHAIN SYSTEM”..
The „Cold chain‟ is the system of
transporting and storing vaccines within the
safe temperature range of 2˚C to 8˚C.

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES
Vaccines must be stored and/or stacked to
allow cold air to circulate freely.
NO food or drinks stored with vaccine
Do not store any vaccine in a dormitory
style or bar-style, combined
refrigerator/freezer unit under any
circumstances.

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES
In a refrigerator:
PLACEMENT OF WATER BOTTLE DO NOT STORE VACCINES IN
Unit door Vegetable bins
Top shelf Meat drawers
Floor The door
Vegetable/Fruit bins The floor
Near the vent
Along the walls
NB: Sufficient number of Water bottles labeled “DO NOT USE” is necessary

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES
In a refrigerator:
…..<>2-3 inches between vaccine and the
walls…...<>Store each type of vaccine or
diluent in a separate container…<>First in,
first out….<>When possible, store diluent
with the corresponding refrigerated vaccine…

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES
In a refrigerator:
….. <>Labels shelves and containers to
clearly identify vaccine and diluent.
<>Keep vaccines in original packaging with
lids closed….<>Do not pack a unit too
tightly….<>Restrict air
circulation…<>Impact vaccine temperature.

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES
Temperature requirement:
….. <>Refrigerator temperature range 36°F
and 46°F (2°C and 8°C) .
…….<>Freezer temperature range -58°F
and +5°F (-50°C and -15°C).
……Data logger requirements (Temp Control,
chats and thermometers, Thermostats)

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES

VACCINES
STORAGE OF VACCINES
Vaccines should always be stored in their
original packaging until point of use to
protect them from light.
Temperature monitoring is important..
Prepare a temperature chat and keep daily
report of the following:..<Temp range, Date,
Time, Name of person ckeked and action taken if
temp excursion (out-of-range) occurs>

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Emergency transport situations:
Equipment failure
Power outages
Severe weather conditions
Natural disasters

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Emergency transport situations:
Do not leave vaccine in a non-
functioning unit
Keep unit doors closed during a
power outage
Transporting frozen vaccine requires
special care

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Vaccine Transport container and Materials:
Portable vaccine fridge/freezer
Hard-sided (or Styrofoam) insulated cooler
Frozen water bottles
Insulating material (bubble wrap and
corrugated cardboard cut to cooler size,
two layers each per container)
Data logger

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Cold chain Documentation:
Date and time transfer began
Temperature of unit when vaccine removed
Temperature of transport container when vaccines
placed inside
Temperature(s) recorded during transport
Date and time transport was completed
Temperature of unit at receiving facility

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Cold chain Equipment‟s/Apparatus:
Refrigerators
Walk in cold [WIC) Rooms
Cold Boxes
Vaccine Carrier
Ice packs and Cold Packs.

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Compromised Cold chain:
Exposure to heat, cold, or light can
result in loss of Vaccine potency.
Indications of Compromised cold chain
No physical indication of compromise
Not effective in protecting
Increase in disease cases

VACCINES
TRANSPORT OF VACCINES
Four elements of effective Cold chain:
Well-trained staff.
Reliable storage units.
Valid temperature monitoring
equipment.
Accurate vaccine inventory
management.

VACCINES
FACTORS AFFECTING VACCINE
EFFECTIVENESS
Host factors
 Presence of condition that may either affect
immune response or influence individual disease
susceptibility.
Previous exposure to antigen.
Interference due to co-administered vaccines
or drugs.

VACCINES
FACTORS AFFECTING VACCINE
EFFECTIVENESS
Logistic issues
Schedule compliance
Cold chain
Administration issues.

VACCINES
FACTORS AFFECTING VACCINE
EFFECTIVENESS
Epidemiological factors
Force of infection
Herd immunity
Mismatch with circulating strains
Emergence of new viral or bacterial variants

VACCINES
FACTORS INFLUENCING VACCINE
EFFECTIVENESS (EFFICACY)
Host factors
Age at vaccination
Immune status
Number and timing of doses
Year since vaccination

VACCINES
FACTORS INFLUENCING VACCINE
EFFECTIVENESS (EFFICACY)
Vaccine factors
Production
Storage [Example: Temperature and Light]
Transportation [Example: Packaging]
Route of administration

VACCINES
FACTORS INFLUENCING VACCINE
EFFECTIVENESS (EFFICACY)
Agent factors
Strain included in the vaccine formulation

NB: Stability of vaccine is the ability of a
vaccine to retain its chemical, physical,
microbiological and biological properties within
specified limits throughout its shelf-life.

VACCINES
FACTORS AFFECTING VACCINES
STABILITY
Temperature [May cause degradation and impurities formation]
pH [The degradation by hydrolysis depends on pH]
Radiation
Repeated freezing and thawing
Some antiseptics and inactivating agents
Light
Reaction with the container or reactions with the
components in the mixture.

VACCINES
VACCINES STORAGE

VACCINES
ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION
Oral route – Drinking water or direct (dye can be used)
Intramuscular
Subcutaneous – Use wing-web for birds
Intradermal
Ocular - Drops
In-oval
Spray (Inhalation) – Using Atomiser or Backpack
aprayer

VACCINES
ROUTES OF ADMINISTRATION

VACCINES
DOSE CALIBRATION
Note:
oAdminister vaccines immediately after
preparation, or at least within an hour. Increase in
temperature decreases the number of antigens
[Example: Virus] in the solution.

VACCINES
DOSE CALIBRATION
In Poultry, the amount of vaccination fluid
needed for drinking water vaccination can be
calculated as follow:-

Volume (Litres) = [Age in days x 1.5 x (Number of Birds ÷ 1,000)]

Example: For 20,000, 18-day-old broilers, the volume needed is-
Volume (Litres) = 18 x 1.5 x 20,000/1,000 = 540 Litres

VACCINES
DOSE CALIBRATION

THE END

Lesson 14
DRUG ADMINISTRATION ROUTES

Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick
KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

INTRODUCTION
The routes of drug administration/delivery can
be divided broadly into two major categories.
i.Local routes: The simplest route in which a
drug can be given at the desired site of action.
Systemic side effects can be avoided because of
low absorption rate.
ii.Systemic routes: The drug is administered in the
place other than the site of action. Systemic side
effects are higher compared to Local routes

INTRODUCTION
Factors Determining Route Of Drug
Administrations
Drug characteristics such as state of drug
[solid/liquid/gas], and other properties of drug
such as its Solubility, Stability, pH, and Irritancy.
Clinical scenarios such as emergency or regular
treatment.
Patient conditions like unconscious state, or if
patient is experiencing diarrhea or vomiting.

INTRODUCTION
Factors Determining Route Of Drug
Administrations
Comorbid diseases [More than one disease at once]
Rate and extent of absorption of the drug from
different routes.
Age
Effect of digestive enzymes and first-pass
metabolism on the drug.
Intentional choice.

INTRODUCTION
TOPICAL ROUTES
The drugs applied to skin or mucous
membrane for local actions. Examples:
Oral Cavity: Drugs can be delivered only to oral
mucosa in the form of lozenges or rinse, for
example, Clotrimazole for oral Fungal infections.
GIT: Non-absorbable drug can be used to have
local effect only, for example, Neomycin for gut
sterilization before surgery.

INTRODUCTION
TOPICAL ROUTES
Rectum and Anal canal: Drug in liquid/solid form
is used through this route for various actions.
Examples: Evacuant enema: The drugs are used
for bowel evacuation such as soap water enema.
Soap acts as lubricant and water stimulates the
rectum., Retention enema: Methylprednisolone in
ulcerative colitis. Also Suppository solid dosage
form like rectal Bisacodyl for bowel evacuation.

INTRODUCTION
TOPICAL ROUTES
Eye, Ear, and Nose: Drugs can be delivered to
nasal mucosa, eyes, or ear canal in the form of
drops, ointments, and sprays. This route can be
employed for allergic/infective conditions of
these organs.
Bronchi [Inhalation]: Example Salbutamol in
Bronchial asthma and chronic obstructive
pulmonary disorder (COPD).

INTRODUCTION
TOPICAL ROUTES
Vagina: Drugs can be applied or inserted in the
form of tablet, cream, or pessary to vagina.
Example Oxytetracycline pessaries [Bolus].
Urethra: Medication in the form of solution or
jellies can be applied to urethra, for example,
lignocaine.
Deeper areas that must be reached through
injection: Example: Intrathecal and Intraarticular.

INTRODUCTION
SYSTEMIC ROUTES
Through this route, drug reaches the blood,
then distributed across the body, and produces
systemic effects. Broadly, this route can be divided
into three categories which are:
i.Enteral routes
ii.Parenteral routes, and
iii.Specialized drug delivery

INTRODUCTION
SYSTEMIC ROUTES
i.Enteral routes
ii.Parenteral routes, and
iii.Specialized drug delivery
Examples: Oral route [Drug is absorbed in
the intestinal veins], Sublingual route [Liguid
soluble drug is applied to bucal mucosa and
absorbed by mucosal veins] and Rectal route [Drug
is absorbed by Haemorrhoidal veins]

INTRODUCTION
SYSTEMIC ROUTES
i.Enteral routes
ii.Parenteral routes, and
iii.Specialized drug delivery
Examples: Transdermal route [Adhensive
patches], Inhalation [Such as general Anesthetics]
and Injections [Intradermal, Subcutaneous,
Intramuscular, Intravenous, Intrathecal, Epidural…]

INTRODUCTION
SYSTEMIC ROUTES
i.Enteral routes
ii.Parenteral routes, and
iii.Specialized drug delivery
Examples: Ocusert [Drug is kept beneath
lower eyelid, for example, Pilocarpine in Glaucoma],
Progestasert [Intrauterine contraceptive device],
Liposomes [Example: Liposomal Amphotericin for
Fungal Infections] and Monoclonal Antibodies.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
The routes of drug administration is
determined by the two major factors:-
The Properties of the drug.
- Example: Water soluble, Lipid soluble or
Ionized.
The Therapeutic objectives.
- Example: The desirability of a rapid onset,
the need for long-term treatment, or restriction of
delivery to a local site.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
The Properties of the Drug
Depending on the properties of the drug, they
are prepared in different forms for easy
administration.
Drug dosage form: Is a system or device by
which the drug is delivered to the body.

Therefore: Route of Drug Administration is
the way to get a drug into or onto the body.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
The Properties of the Drug

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
The Properties of the Drug
Drug dosage form: Is a system or device by
which the drug is delivered to the body.
It is comprises of Active Pharmaceutical
Ingredient and Inactive/Inert ingredients/Substances.
The Active Ingredient/API [Responsible for a
Drug‟s therapeutic effect] is combined with the
Inert ingredients [With little or no therapeutic
value] that facilitate administration of the drug.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
The Properties of the Drug
Drug dosage form: Is a system or device by
which the drug is delivered to the body. It comprises
of Active and Inactive ingredients.
The Dosage forms may also contain Additives,
Binders, Diluents [Sterile water], Excipients
[Carries Active ingredient], Suppository and
Preservatives [To Prevent/Minimize the Growth
of Microorganisms mostly in Multidose vials].

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
The forms in which drugs are dispensed.
Solid Dosage form: Tablet, Caplet [Tablet with
capsule-like material], Capsules, Powders,
Pellets, Lozenges/Troches and Granules.
Semi-Solid Dosage form: Oil-in-water (O/W)
emulsion [Creams, Lotion], Water-in-oil (W/O)
emulsion [Ointment], Gels and Suppositories.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
The forms in which drugs are dispensed.
Liquid Dosage forms: Solution [Aqueous
solution (Water based), Alcoholic Solution
(Alcohol based), Hydroalcoholic solution (Water-
and-Alcohol Based) Example. Elixir] and
Dispension /Suspension.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
The forms in which drugs are dispensed.
Liquid Dosage forms: Depending on their
contents, Solution can be classified in to
Aromatic water, Syrup (Sugar-based), Extract
[Extracted from Planr/Animal Sources], Tincture
[Alcoholic/Hydroalcoholic Solution that contain
plant Extract], Spirit, and Irrigating solution
[for cleansing an area of the body]

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
The forms in which drugs are dispensed.
Inhalation Dosage forms: Example – Spray,
Aerosol, Gases, Powders, Solutions and
Suspensions.
Transdermal Dosage forms: Example –
Transdermal patch.
NB: The strength of the same medication can
vary from one dosage form to another.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
Assignment:
What are the Merits and Demerits of
Solid Dosage forms and Liquid Dosage
Forms?

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Solutions
Elixir: Is a clear, sweet solution that contains
dissolved medication in a base of water and Ethanol.
Syrup: Is a sugar-based solution that may be
medicated or non-medicated.
Parenteral Solutions: Is a sterile solution that
is administered by a needle or catheter via injection
or infusion. Example: Ampoules, Vials, Pre-filled syringes,

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Solutions
Dispension: Is the solution in which
medication is not dissolved, but distributed
throughout the vehicle.
Suspension: Is a solution in which the mixture
of un-dissolved, very fine, solid particles distributed
through liquid solution. [Shake well before Use these
kind of Liquid medications]

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Solutions

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Tablets, Caplets and Pills
Tablet: The Active Ingredient is blended with
Excipients and Compressed. They composed of
one/more active ingredients and inert substances.
Caplet: Is a tablet that is shaped like a
capsule, but smooth-sided like a tablet. It is often
easier to swallow than large tablets, and is more
stable than capsules.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Tablets, Caplets and Pills
Pills: They contain small round solid bodies
intended for oral administration.
Pills are distinguished from tablets because
pills are manufactured by a wet massing and
molding technique, while tablets are formed by
compression.
NB: Elongated Tablets are called Bolus/Boluses

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Tablets, Caplets and Pills

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Lozenges
They are also known as troches or pastilles,
are hard, oval, or discoid solid dosage forms with a
drug contained in a flavored sugar base.
They are dissolved in the mouth and generally
have local therapeutic effects.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Lozenges

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Capsules
Is the solid dosage form in which the Active
Pharmaceutical Ingredient [API] and excipients are
enclosed within a soluble container/gelatin or shell.
Two-piece capsules are commonly referred to
as hard-shell capsules, and one-piece capsules are
often referred to as soft-shell capsules.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Capsules

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Powders and Granules/Crystals
Powders: They are finely ground mixtures of
dry drugs and inactive ingredients that can be used
topically or internally. When used internally, they
should be dissolved in water prior to admiistration.
Granules: They are larger than powders and
are wetted, allowed to dry, and ground into coarse,
irregularly shaped pieces.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Powders and Granules/Crystals
Granules: They are larger than powders and
are wetted, allowed to dry, and ground into coarse,
irregularly shaped pieces.
………. Granules are generally more stable than
powders and are more suitable for use in solutions
because they are not as likely to float on the surface
of a liquid.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Powders and Granules/Crystals

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Pellets/Implants
Pellets are solid dosage forms composed of
small particles of uniform shape sometimes called
beads. Excipients are not necessarily present.
Typically, pellets are nearly spherical but this
is not required. Pellets may be administered by the
oral [gastrointestinal] or by the injection route.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Pellets/Implants

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Emulsions [Ointments and Creams]
An Emulsion is a mixture of two liquids that
do not blend.
Ointment: Is the oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion that
contains a small amount of oil dispersed in water.
Creams: Is a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion that
contains a small amount of water dispersed in oil.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Emulsions [Ointments and Creams]

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Gels or Jellies
A gel contains solid medication particles, like
a suspension, in a thick liquid. It can be used
internally and externally.
The particles in a gel are ultrafine and are
linked to form a semisolid.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Gels or Jellies

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Pastes and Suppositories
Paste: It contains more solid material and less
liquid base than a solid. Pastes are like ointments,
but are stiffer, less greasy, and applied more thickly.
One example of a paste is zinc oxide.
Suppository: Is an inactive ingredient, which
melts or dissolves in the body cavity, releasing the
Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Pastes and Suppositories
Suppository: Is an inactive ingredient, which
melts or dissolves in the body cavity, releasing the
medication.
A suppository is designed to be inserted
Rectally, Vaginally, or Urethrally.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Pastes and Suppositories

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Aerosols and Spray
Spray: Is the inhalation dosage form consists
of a container that has a valve assembly unit that
contains various bases, such as alcohol or water, in a
pump-type dispenser.
When activated, it emits a fine dispersion of
liquid, solid, or gaseous material.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Aerosols and Spray
Aerosol: Is a Spray that contains very fine
liquid or solid drug particles in a gas propellant that
is packaged under pressure.
The medication may be released as a Spray,
foam or solid, depending on the formulation of the
product and on the design of the valve.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Aerosols and Spray

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Transdermal Patch
It is designed to hold a specific amount of
medication to be released into the skin and absorbed
into the bloodstream over time via a patch or disk.
The patch consists of a backing, drug
reservoir, control membrane, and adhesive layer.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms
o Transdermal Patch

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
Drug Dosage Forms

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
ORAL ROUTE
Advantages:
Easier to use.
Safest and most common [slow absorption, thus
low toxicity].
No need for sterile preparations.
Solids and liquids are easily administered by this
route.
Danger of acute drug reaction not high.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
ORAL ROUTE
Disadvantages:
Possibility of vomiting.
Unreliable absorption particularly in ruminants.
Antibiotics and other chemotherapeutics may suppress
GIT Microflora especially in ruminants.
Intratracheal delivery and bronchopneumonia may
accidentally occur.
Difficult in dose control.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
ORAL ROUTE
Methods of Oral administration:
Medicated feed, Salt blocks and Drinking water.
Placing directly into the mouth, as tablets, liquids, at root
of the tongue in dogs.
Use of syringes placed at the back of the tongue or
between cheek and teeth. Drenching gun is used.
Stomach tube: Through nose in horses, through mouth in
cattle, sheep, goats and pigs.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAVENOUS ROUTE [I.V]
It involve direct injection of drug into vein.
Drug can be given as bolus administration as well as
slow IV infusion. Bolus administration is single,
large dose rapidly/slowly injected as single unit, for
example, furosemide, whereas slow IV
injection/infusion involves addition of drug into a
bottle containing dextrose/saline.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAVENOUS ROUTE [I.V]
Advantages:
Can have immediate action, no first pass effects.
Ideal if dosed in large volumes.
Suitable for irritating substances and complex mixtures.
Valuable in emergency situations.
Dosage titration permissible.
Ideal for high molecular weight proteins and peptide
drugs.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAVENOUS ROUTE [I.V]
Disadvantages:
Unsuitable for oily substances.
Bolus injection may result in adverse effects.
Injections must be given slowly to avoid toxicity
problems. Example: Calcium injections and Tetracycline
injections.
Strict aseptic techniques needed.
Short duration of action.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAVENOUS ROUTE [I.V]
Sites of administration:
Large animals (Ruminants): Jugular vein.
Dogs: Saphenous vein.
: Recurrent tarsal vein.
Pigs: Ear vein.
Fowls: Wing vein.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAMUSCULAR ROUTE [I.M]
Advantages:
Suitable if drug volume is moderate.
Suitable for oily vehicles and certain irritating
substances.
Absorption is rapid than subcutaneous route.
Moderately irritating drugs can be given by deep
IM using small volumes.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAMUSCULAR ROUTE [I.M]
Disadvantages:
Tissue reaction and necrosis occurs if irritating
drugs are given IM.
Drug may be deposited in nerves, blood vessels,
fat or in connective tissue leading to serious
consequence.
Can be painful.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INTRAMUSCULAR ROUTE [I.M]
Sites of administration:
All species including Cattle and Dogs:
: Gluteals and
: Upper Thigh muscles.
Pig, Horse and Cattle: Neck Muscles.
Fowls : Thigh Muscle.
: Breast muscles.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
SUBCUTANEOUS ROUTE [S.C]
The Drug is injected into Subcutaneous tissue
which has nerve supply but less vascular supply, for
example, insulin and adrenaline.
This route is unsuitable for irritant drugs as
well as has slow onset, thus cannot be used in
emergency.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
SUBCUTANEOUS ROUTE [S.C]
Advantages:
Suitable for slow-release drugs.
Ideal for some poorly soluble suspensions.
Disadvantages:
Pain or necrosis if drug is irritating.
Unsuitable for drugs administered in large
volumes and unsuitable for Irritant drugs.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
SUBCUTANEOUS ROUTE [S.C]
Sites of administration:
Any point in the body with adequate loose skin.
Example: Axillary fold.
Technique for Injection
Cleaning and disinfection of the area.
Pick skin fold and direct the needle at the right angle in to
the cutis.: Several sites can be used for large amounts
intended for low absorption.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
TRANSDERMAL (PATCH) ROUTE
Advantages:
Bypasses the first-pass effect.
Convenient and painless.
Ideal for drugs that are lipophilic and have poor
bioavailability.
Ideal for drugs that are quickly eliminated from
the body.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
TRANSDERMAL (PATCH) ROUTE
Disadvantages:
Some patients are allergic to patches, which can
cause irritation.
Drug must be highly lipophilic.
May cause delayed delivery of drug to
pharmacological site of action.
Limited to drugs that can be taken in small daily
doses.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
RECTAL ROUTE
Advantages:
Partially bypasses first-pass effect.
Bypasses destruction by stomach acid.
Ideal if drug causes vomiting.
Ideal in patients who are vomiting.
Drug cannot be destroyed by enzymes.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
RECTAL ROUTE
Disadvantages:
Drugs may irritate the rectal mucosa.
Drug may be lost in the faeces.
Not a well-accepted route.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INHALATION ROUTE
Advantages:
Absorption is rapid and immediate effects.
Ideal for gases.
Effective for patients with respiratory problems and has
fewer systemic effects.
Dose can be titrated.
Localized effect to target lungs and lower doses used
compared to that with oral or parenteral administration.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
INHALATION ROUTE
Disadvantages:
Most addictive route [drug can enter the
brain quickly].
Patient may have difficulty regulating dose.
Some patients may have difficulty using
inhalers.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
SUBLINGUAL ROUTE
Advantages:
Bypasses first-pass effect.
Bypasses destruction by stomach acid.
Drug stability maintained because the pH
of saliva relatively neutral.
May cause immediate pharmacological
effects.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
SUBLINGUAL ROUTE
Disadvantages:
Limited to certain types of drugs.
Limited to drugs that can be taken in small
doses.
May lose part of the drug dose if
swallowed.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
OTHER PARENTERAL ROUTES
Intraperitoneal route
Advantages:
Relatively rapid response.
Large volumes of drugs can be given.
Disadvantages:
Irritant solutions can not be given IP as this leads to
peritonitis.
Injection into intestinal loops can occur.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
OTHER PARENTERAL ROUTES
Intraperitoneal route
Site of administration:
Ruminants: Through right Paralumber fossa.
Dogs, Pigs, Cats: Lift hind limbs and inject into
the posterior part of the abdomen.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
OTHER PARENTERAL ROUTES
Intradermal:
Used in hypersensitivity testing and
vaccination. Example: Tuberculin in cattle.
Intraarticular:
Used in cases of arthritis. Drug is administered
into joint capsule/space. Example: In Horses with
lameness.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
OTHER PARENTERAL ROUTES
Intrathecal:
Penetration of membranes enclosing the CNS
[Subarachnoid space/CSF]. Meningitis and anaesthetics.
Epidural:
Used at parturition especially in cattle to
eliminate straining . Inject between 1st & 2nd
coccygeal vertebra, lumbosacral space for anterior
epidural.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
OTHER PARENTERAL ROUTES
Intracardiac:
Used in Cardiac arrest emergencies.
Minors: [Reading assignment]
Intraocular, Intranasal, Intraarticular,
Intradermal, Intramedullary, Endotracheal (ET
Tube), Intramammary (Infusion), Intrauterine,
Intrapleural, Aural (ear), Intraosseous (bone marrow)
and Intraarterial.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Six methods of giving injections.
Example in Cattle.
Preparing for injection.
Selecting the Needle.
Drawing Medication in to the Syringe.
Giving Subcutaneous Injection.
Giving Intramuscular Injection.
Giving Intravenous Injection.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Preparing for injection.
-Restrain the animal. Use Head gate or Crush
(Squeeze chute).
-Read the label.
-Find the Injection site.
-Select the Syringe or Dosing gun.
-Vary the injection sites.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Selecting the needle.
-Choose a needle based on the animal‟s Weight.
-Choose needle length based on the type of
injection.
-Use a new, Sterile needle for every 10 to 15
injections.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Drawing Medication in to the Syringe.
-Take a syringe and cap it with a needle.
-Remove the needle cap.
-Take a new bottle and remove the aluminum cap.
-Poke the needle through the rubber cap.
-Draw the medication into the syringe.
-Lower the bottle and slowly remove the needle.
-Place the bottle upright in a safe place for future use and lastly point
the needle upwards to allow any air bubbles present to float to the top.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Giving Subcutaneous Injection.
-Use the TENTING technique.
-Angle the needle so that it is at a 30 to 45 degree
angle from the surface.
-Guide the needle into the injection site.
-Administer the shot.
-Reduce the bleeding that may occur.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Giving Intramuscular Injection.
-Reduce the painful feeling of the needle plunging
in.
-Select a location to administer the IM Injection.
-Put the needle into the animals muscle.
-Administer the Medicine.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
Giving Intravenous Injection.
-If you don‟t have enough skills, seek a veterinary
assistance to perform IV.
-Locate the vein. Example: Jugular vein.
-Check to make sure that there are no bubbles in your
syringe.
-Insert the syringe at a 30 to 45 degree angle to the
surface.
-Administer the Medicine.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
METHODS FOR INJECTION OF DRUGS
General steps are:
Restrain the animal and take the weight.
Disinfect the area or site.
Draw the drug from the vial to the syringe
Inject the animal to administer the medicine.
Withdraw the needle and ensuring that, no
bleeding or injury.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
COMMON INJECTION TOOLS
Hypodermic needles of different Gauges.
Sterile Disposable Syringe with Needle
Automatic Syringe
Calibrated Manual [Plastic and Glass]
Syringes
Alcohol and Cotton Wool.

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
COMMON INJECTION TOOLS

ADMINISTRATION ROUTES
ONSET OF ACTION
The length of time needed for a medicine to give its action.
Intravenous 30-60 seconds
Intraosseous 30-60 seconds
Inhalation 2-3 minutes
Sublingual 3-5 minutes
Intramuscular 10-20 minutes
Subcutaneous 15-30 minutes
Rectal 5-30 minutes
Oral 30-90 minutes
Topical/transdermal variable [minutes to hours]

THE END

Lesson 15
DRUG HALF LIFE AND DOSE
CALCULATION
Instructor: Mr. Kasti M Frederick
KILACHA AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK TRAINING INSTITUTE

Module 02
Code: AHT 05102
Name: Elementary Pharmacology
NTA LEVEL 5

DRUG HALF LIFE
INTRODUCTION
- The time for drug concentration in the
body to decline by one half.
- It is given by:
t
1/2 = 0.693/r
Key
t
1/2 is the half life and ‘r’ is the elimination
rate constant.

DRUG HALF LIFE
-Factors that influence Drug half-life

Pathological status of the eliminating
organ.
Age of the animal.
Concomitant administration of other drugs.
Urinary pH.
Intra and interspecies variation.

DRUG HALF LIFE
- Importance of Drug half-life

It can be used to predict the dosage interval
for a drug that is given repeatedly to
maintain a desired effect.
It can also be used to predict the amount of
drug remaining in the body.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
DOSE: Is the amount of medication
measured. Can be in Mass or Volume units [mg or
mL].
DOSAGE: Is the amount of medication based
on units per weight of the animal [Example 50 mg/kg or
10 mL/kg].
CONCENTRATION : The Concentration of
the Drug is calculated by the manufacturer [In %,
mg/mL or mg/tablet].

DOSE CALCULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The Dose can be calculated in Mass units or
in Volume units.
The Concentration must be in Mass per
Volume or per Mass or per Tablets.
Drugs are manufactured in a variety of
concentrations. Record keeping of the Concentration
of drug used must be clearly indicated on the
patient‟s records.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
INTRODUCTION
The THREE Important factors to know
before calculating the dose are:-
Weight of the animal (In Kilogram,
otherwise simple conversion must apply).
The recommended dosage for the species.
Concentration or the Strength of drug used.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SIMPLE CONVERSIONS
Metric conversions
o1kg = 1000g and 1 pound (lbs) = 0.454Kg
o1g = 1000mg
o1mg = 1000mig
o1 Centimeter cubic (1 cm
3
)= 1 cc.
o1 L = 1000 mls and 1ml = 1 cc.
o1% = 1 item in 99 or 100 of another.
o1:100 = 1g / 100 ml = 1% / 10 mg/ml.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SIMPLE CONVERSIONS
Percentage (w/v) to mg/ml:

Example: Convert 2% in to mg/ml.

This is to say 2g (Solute) dissolved in 100ml
(Solvent), so to give 200g/ml (Solution). If you
change the mass from g to mg then you will get
2000mg/100ml.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SIMPLE CONVERSIONS
Percentage (w/v) to mg/ml:

Example: Convert 2% in to mg/ml.

Therefore: 2000mg = 20mg/ml.
100 ml
Simply: Multiply the % figure by 10.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SIMPLE CONVERSIONS
mg/ml to percentage (w/v):

Example: Convert 10mg/ml in to %.

This is to say, if 1g in 100ml = 1% also 1ml in
100g = 1%, then 10mg is in 1ml. Therefore for
100ml, the 10mg must be multiplied by 100 to give
1000mg/100ml.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
FORMULA
To calculate Dose in milligrams:

Dose = Weight (Kg) × Dosage (mg/Kg)

To calculate Dose in milliliters:
Dose (mL)= Dose (mg)
Concentration (mg/ml)

DOSE CALCULATIONS
FORMULA
To calculate Dose in milliliters:

Dose (mL)= Weight (Kg) x Dose (mg/Kg)
Concentration (mg/ml)
To calculate the Total number of Doses:
Total quantity = Number of doses x Size of Dose

DOSE CALCULATIONS
EXAMPLE 01
A Goat weighing 20Kg requires a daily
injection of 7.5 % Ampicillin in solution. The dosage
for Goat is 10mg/Kg. What is the volume of the dose
to be administered?

Given: Dose = BWT X DZ = 20 x 10 = 200
Conc. (7.5x10) 75
The Volume of the dose will be 2.67mls/day

DOSE CALCULATIONS
EXAMPLE 02
The veterinarian asks you to give a patient 500
mg of Enrofloxacin Intravenously. The concentration
of Enrofloxacin is 3.15%. How much volume of
Enrofloxacin will you administer?

Given: 500 mg ÷ 31.5 mg/ml = 15.9 ml
Therefore, 15.9 ml of Enrofloxacin will be
administered.

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SAMPLE QUESTION 01
A 20.5 kg Mixed breed Dog is scheduled for
an Orthopedic procedure today and the veterinarian
in charge has asked you to give a Cefazolin injection
at a dosage of 22 mg/ kg. The concentration of
Cefazolin is 100 mg/mL. How many mL of
Cefazolin will you administer to the dog?

[Answer: 4.5mL]

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SAMPLE QUESTION 02
A Young animal weighs 13.5Kg is prescribed
a medication for 0.8mg/Kg/Dose. The stock strength
is 10mg/2ml. What volume will you give the patient?

[Answer=2.2mL]

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SAMPLE QUESTION 03
A patient needs 0.075g of medicine that comes
in 30mg tablets. How many tablets will the patient
take?

[Answer = 2.5 Tablets]

DOSE CALCULATIONS
SAMPLE QUESTION 04
Calculate the amount of PeniStrep drug that
you will administer to a Cow weighing 85 Kg who
is suffering from mild Anthracis if the recommended
dosage is 3mg/Kg Body weight. The strength of
PeniStrep is 5%.

[Answer = 5.1 mL]

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Interpretation of Drug Prescriptions
Prescription: This refers to a legal order
for a specific product, to be dispensed to a
patient by a licensed Specialist.
A prescription order can be made by any
Veterinary professional with prescribing
authority.

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Components of a Hard Copy Prescriptions
oThe prescriber‟s name, address, contacts and Drug
Prescriber Administration [DEA] Prescriber registration
number (For Controlled Drugs).
oPatient name and Address.
oThe date the prescription was written.
oInscription [Name, Strength, Dosage form, and quantity
of medication ordered].
oDirections for Use [The Signa] and refill instructions.
oThe Prescriber‟s hand written signature.

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Examples

DRUG PRESCRIPTION

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Assignment
Write the prescription for the Cattle From
KILACHA Dairy Farm that is to be
Dewormed for Strongyloid bovis. using
Ivermectin Anthelminthic Drug.…….
……………………................ Use the full
drug information/Instructions from the next
slide ……………………………………….

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Assignment

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Classification of Medicines
Name Symbol Meaning
General sales list or Over
the Counter Drugs
GSL or OTC
They may be sold in
general shops. Example:
Paracetamol tablets
Pharmacy Only Drugs
P
They may be sold in a
pharmacy but not a
general shops. Example:
Piriton
®
Prescription Only
Medicine
POM
They may be supplied on
Prescription. Example:
Amoxillin

DRUG PRESCRIPTION
Drugs Storage and Transportation

THE END OF MODULE 02
“ If there is NO STRUGGLE, there is NO PROGRESS”
Frederick Douglass

Introduction to Pharmacology Notes for Diploma Students

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