INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERS -CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERS
-CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER QUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS
by DR. I.D. MALL�Department of Chemical Engg.�Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee�Roorkee- 247667

1. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
DR. I.D. MALL
Department of Chemical Engg.
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Roorkee- 247667
INTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERSINTRODUCTION TO WATER POLLUTION PARAMETERS
-CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER -CONCEPT, OBJECTIVES AND NEED OF WATER
QUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSISQUALITY MONITORING, SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS

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POLLUTION PARAMETER

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
WATER IS LIFE IT
STARTS WITH
WATER AND ENDS
WITH WATER.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
WATER IN ANCIENT INDIAWATER IN ANCIENT INDIA
Water is not lost in undergoing various processes of
hydrological cycle namely, evaporation, condensation,
rainfall, stream-flow etc., but gets converted from one form
to another was known during the Vedic period.
Water intake by plants, division of water into minute
particles by sun rays and wind, different types of clouds,
their heights, their rainfall capacities etc., along with the
prediction of rain-fall quantity in advance by observation of
natural phenomenon is illustrated Puranas, Vrahat Samhita
(550 A.D), Meghmala (900 A.D.) and other literature.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
WATER IN ANCIENT INDIAWATER IN ANCIENT INDIA
•The reference of rain-gauges are available in
Arthasastra of Kautilya (400 B.C), and Astadhyayi of
Panini (700 B.C).
•The quantity of rain-fall in various parts of India was
also known to Kautilya. Indians were acquainted
with the cyclonic and orographic effects on rain-fall,
radiation and convectional heating of earth.
• Various other phenomena of infiltration,
interception, stream-flow, geomorphology, artesian
wells and erosive action of water were well
understood.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
WATER IN ANCIENT INDIAWATER IN ANCIENT INDIA

Ground-water development and quality
consideration were getting sufficient attention as
evidenced by Vrahat Samhita (550 A. D.)
Water management and conservation, well organized
water pricing system in 400 B.C.

Construction methods and materials of dam, tanks
etc., bank protection, spillways and other
considerations mentioned in the ancient books
reflect the high stage of development of water
resources and hydrology in ancient India.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION
•It is no accident that Earth is often referred to as `the
water planet'. Earth is unique amongst planets of our
solar system largely because of its abundant water -
in oceans, in the atmosphere, in glaciers and as
fresh water on land. Without water, life as we know
it, could not exist.
•Even though water is abundant, the amount of
potable fresh water available is a tiny fraction of the
total amount of water in the world. The vast majority
of the world's water is in the oceans, but because of
the salts in ocean water it is largely unsuitable for
use. The supply of fresh water is limited, vulnerable
to human abuse and not evenly distributed in both
time and space.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
•World oceans cover about three fourth of
earth’s surface. According to the UN
estimates, the total amount of water on earth
is about 1400 million cubic kilometre
(m.cu.km.) which is enough to cover the
earth with a layer of 3000 metres depth.
However the fresh water constitutes a very
small proportion of this enormous quantity.
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
•About 2.7 per cent of the total water available on the
earth is fresh water of which about 75.2 per cent lies
frozen in polar regions and another 22.6 per cent is
present as ground water. The rest is available in
lakes, rivers, atmosphere, moisture, soil and
vegetation. What is effectively available for
consumption and other uses is a small proportion of
the quantity available in rivers, lakes and ground
water.
INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
GLOBAL WATER CRISISGLOBAL WATER CRISIS
•The dawning of the 21st Century brings with
it a global water crisis. If we continue
business as usual (increasing population,
water usage, pollution and wastage) it is
estimated that by the year 2030 the global
water demand for freshwater will exceed the
supply. Currently more than one-third of the
world's population experiences serious water
problems and polluted water sickens more
than 1 billion people each year. (UNESCO
Sources No 84, November 1996).

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INDIAN WATER CRISISINDIAN WATER CRISIS
•India has 2.45 % of the world's
land area, 16 % of the population
and 4 % of its water resources -
yet water is an increasingly
scarce resource, unless we learn
to manage it better.

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WHAT IS WATER POLLUTIONWHAT IS WATER POLLUTION
Any physical, biological, or chemical change in
water quality that adversely affects living
organisms can be considered pollution.
–Point Sources - Discharge pollution from specific
locations.
•Factories, Power plants
–Non-Point Sources - Scattered or diffuse, having no
specific location of discharge.
•Agricultural fields, Feedlots.
Atmospheric Deposition - Contaminants carried
by air currents and precipitated into watersheds
or directly onto surface waters.

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IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF WATER IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF WATER
POLLUTIONPOLLUTION
Point Sources
Specific discharge locations
Nonpoint sources
not traceable to any specific location
Biological oxygen
demand
amount of O
2
needed to break
down organic materials
Water
Quality
Good
8-9
Do (ppm) at 20˚C
Slightly
polluted
Moderately
polluted
Heavily
polluted
Gravely
polluted
6.7-8
4.5-6.7
Below 4.5
Below 4
Fig. 19.2, p. 478

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POINT AND NON-POINT SOURCESPOINT AND NON-POINT SOURCES

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•Poor water quality continues to pose a
major threat to human health. Diarrhoeal
disease alone amounts to an estimated
4.3 % (62.5 million Daily) of the total Daily
global burden of disease (WHO, 2002). It
was estimated that 88% of that burden is
attributable to
unsafe water supply, sanitation and hygiene
and is mostly concentrated on children in
developing countries.

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Water Quality IssuesWater Quality Issues
•Seasonal variations
•Hydrogeological
processes
•Discharge rate
affecting the quality
•Pollution due to
Industrial, domestic
and industrial activities
•Eutrophication in
surface water
•Sea water intrusion
•Sand quarrying in river
beds
•Corrosion and scale
formation in
distribution lines
•Inadequacies in
Treatment processes
•Inadequate care in
distribution practices
•Lack of good sanitation
practices
•Inadequate laws and
legislations

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Point Sources
Agricultural
Nonpoint Source
Forest
Nonpoint Source
Urban
Nonpoint Source
Septic Systems
FECAL COLIFORM SOURCESFECAL COLIFORM SOURCES

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
Pollution of StreamsPollution of Streams
Oxygen sag curve
Clean ZoneClean Zone DecompositionDecomposition
ZoneZone
Septic ZoneSeptic Zone Recovery ZoneRecovery Zone Clean ZoneClean Zone
Normal clean water organisms
(Trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
Trash fish
(carp, gar,
Leeches)
Fish absent, fungi,
Sludge worms,
bacteria
(anaerobic)
Trash fish
(carp, gar,
Leeches)
Normal clean water organisms
(Trout, perch, bass,
mayfly, stonefly)
8 ppm
Dissolved oxygen
Biological oxygen
demand
Oxygen sag
2 ppm
8 ppm
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n
T
y
p
e
s

o
f
T
y
p
e
s

o
f
o
r
g
a
n
i
s
m
s
o
r
g
a
n
i
s
m
s
Time or distance downstreamTime or distance downstream
Direction of flow
Point of waste or
heat discharge
Fig. 19.3, p. 479

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
Pollution of LakesPollution of Lakes
EutrophicationEutrophication

algal bloomsalgal blooms
Slow Slow
turnoverturnover

1-100 yrs to flush1-100 yrs to flush
Thermal Thermal
stratificationstratification
little/no mixinglittle/no mixing
Discharge of untreated
municipal sewage
(nitrates and phosphates)
Nitrogen compounds
produced by cars
and factories
Discharge of treated
municipal sewage
(primary and secondary
treatment:
nitrates and phosphates)
Discharge of
detergents
( phosphates)
Natural runoff
(nitrates and
phosphates
Manure runoff
From feedlots
(nitrates and
Phosphates,
ammonia)
Dissolving of
nitrogen oxides
(from internal combustion
engines and furnaces)
Runoff and erosion
(from from cultivation,
mining, construction,
and poor land use)
Runoff from streets,
lawns, and construction
lots (nitrates and
phosphates)
Lake ecosystem
nutrient overload
and breakdown of
chemical cycling

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
SEASONAL STRATIFICATION OF SEASONAL STRATIFICATION OF
A LAKEA LAKE

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FOUR STAGES IN THE LIFE OF FOUR STAGES IN THE LIFE OF
LAKESLAKES

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
Groundwater Pollution: SourcesGroundwater Pollution: Sources
Low flow ratesLow flow rates
FewFew
bacteriabacteria
Cold temperatures: slow Cold temperatures: slow
down reactionsdown reactions
Waste lagoon,
pond, or basin
Mining
site
Pumping
well
Water
pumping
well
Sewer
Cesspoll,
septic
tank
Hazardous
waste
injection
well
Buried gasoline
and solvent
tanks
Landfill
Road
salt
Unconfined freshwater aquifer
Confined freshwater aquifer
Confined aquifer
Discharge
Leakage
from faulty
casingGroundwater
Groundwater flow

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
THE ZONES OF POLLUTION IN STREAMSTHE ZONES OF POLLUTION IN STREAMS

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
Oxygen-Demanding WastesOxygen-Demanding Wastes
•Water with an oxygen content > 6 ppm will
support desirable aquatic life.
•Water with < 2 ppm oxygen will support
mainly detritivores and decomposers.
•Oxygen is added to water by diffusion from
wind and waves, and by photosynthesis from
green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.
•Oxygen is removed from water by respiration
and oxygen-consuming processes.

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Oxygen Sag CurveOxygen Sag Curve

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Oxygen Sag Oxygen Sag

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PLANT NUTRIENTS AND CULTURAL PLANT NUTRIENTS AND CULTURAL
EUTROPHICATIONEUTROPHICATION
•Oligotrophic - Bodies of water that have
clear water and low biological productivity.
•Eutrophic - Bodies of water that are rich in
organisms and organic material.
–Eutrophication - Process of increasing nutrient
levels and biological productivity.
•Cultural Eutrophication - Increase in biological
productivity and ecosystem succession caused by
human activities.

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MAJOR CATEGORIES OF POLLUTIONMAJOR CATEGORIES OF POLLUTION

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MAJOR CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTIONMAJOR CATEGORIES OF WATER POLLUTION
1) INFECTIOUS AGENTS: Bacteria,
Viruses, Protozoans and Parasites.
•SOURCES: Human and animal excreta
•HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes disease, health
problems
2) ORGANIC CHEMICALS : Oil, Gasoline,
Pesticides, Plastics, Detergents
•SOURCES: Industrial and household waste,
agricultural production, roads, golf courses, oil spills
•HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes disease, health
problems

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
3) INORGANIC CHEMICALS : Acids, Bases,
Metals (Pb, As, Se) and Salts
•SOURCES: Industrial effluents, processing fossil fuels /
petroleum distillation, mining, household chemicals,
farming / road salt, surface runoff
•HARMFUL EFFECTS : causes health problems such as
cancer and nervous system damage, pollutes freshwater,
harms aquatic life, lowers crop yields
4) RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS: U, Th, Ce, I, Ra
•SOURCES: Mining and Processing Ores, Weapons
Production, Power Plants
•HARMFUL EFFECTS: causes health problems such as
cancer, birth defects, miscarriages and mutations

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
5) SEDIMENT: Sand, silt, clay, soil
•SOURCES: Deforestation, logging, mining mineral
resources, urban construction
•HARMFUL EFFECTS : Harms aquatic organisms and
food webs, reduces biological production, carries
pesticides/bacteria, clogs lakes/reservoirs/ streams/harbors
6) PLANT NUTRIENTS: Nitrates, Phosphates and
Ammonia
•SOURCES: Agricultural and Urban runoff (fertilizers),
Sewage, Manure.
•HARMFUL EFFECTS: algal blooms, ecosystem
disruption, health problems

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7) OXYGEN DEMANDING WASTES :
Animal Manure, Sewage, Plant Residues
•SOURCES: Septic Tanks, Sewage, Agriculture Runoff,
Food Processing, and Paper Mills
•HARMFUL EFFECTS: lowers dissolved oxygen
content, harms aquatic life, ecosystem disruption
8) THERMAL: Heat
•SOURCES: Power Plants / Industrial
Cooling, Loss of Riparian Flora
•HARMFUL EFFECTS : lowers dissolved oxygen
content, harms aquatic life, ecosystem disruption, thermal
shock

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
INORGANIC POLLUTANTSINORGANIC POLLUTANTS
•Metals
–Many metals such as mercury, lead, cadmium, and nickel are
highly toxic.
•Highly persistent and tend to bioaccumulate in food chains.
–Lead pipes are a serious source of drinking water pollution.
–Mine drainage and leaching are serious sources of environmental
contamination.
•Nonmetallic Salts
–Many salts that are non-toxic at low concentrations can be
mobilized by irrigation and concentrated by evaporation, reaching
levels toxic to plants and animals.
•Leaching of road salts has had detrimental effect on many
ecosystems.
•Acids and Bases
–Often released as by-products of industrial processes.

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ORGANIC CHEMICALSORGANIC CHEMICALS
•Thousands of natural and synthetic
organic chemicals are used to make
pesticides, plastics, pharmaceuticals,
pigments, etc.
•Two most important sources of toxic
organic chemicals in water are:
–Improper disposal of industrial and household
wastes.
–Runoff of pesticides from high-use areas.
•Fields, roadsides, golf courses

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WATER QUALITY IMPACT ANALYSIS
Water Quality Criteria: The level of specific
concentrations of Constituents which are expected, if
not exceeded to assure the suitability of water for
specific use.
Water Quality Standards: These are legal regulations
established by the states limiting the concentration of
various constituents in water.
Stream Quality Standards: Ambient water ways .
Effluent Standards: Discharge of liquid effluents into
those water ways

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
Water Quality StandardsWater Quality Standards
•Stream standards
•Effluent standards
•Drinking water standards

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BENEFITS OF WATER QUALITY BENEFITS OF WATER QUALITY
STANDARDS STANDARDS
•Water quality standards serve as the
foundation for the water quality-based
approach to pollution control and are
a fundamental component of
watershed management.

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STREAM STANDARDSSTREAM STANDARDS
SET LIMIT ON POLLUTANTS, SET LIMIT ON POLLUTANTS,
ON SURFACE WATERON SURFACE WATER
RIVER

EFFLUENT STANDARDS
TREATMENT SET LIMITATION RAW
EFFLUENT AMOUNT OF POLLUTION WATER
IN EFFLUENT

SEWAGE WATER
TREATMENT TREATMENT
RAW SEWAGE POTABLE WATER

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INDIAN STANDARDS FOR QUALITY INDIAN STANDARDS FOR QUALITY
MONITORINGMONITORING
•Water : General
• Indian standards for waste water effluent (YOP 1991)
• Groundwater resource estimates as per norms:GWEC (1985 to 1992)
• Fresh-water resources and withdrawals (1970 to 1980)
• Global water quality:river pollution indicators (1991-92)
• Housing,safe drinking water & toilets ament.:India (1991)
• Liquid effluents from oil refineries : MINAS (YOP 1995)
• Growth of water quality monitoring network (1977 to 1992)
• Industries along Ganga : pollution control status (YOP 1995)
• Excedences of BOD & total coliform refernce levels (1979 to 1989)
• State-wise break-up of effluent treatment plants (YOP 1995)
• Lower-bound estimates of annual toxic releases (1980 to 1988)
Water : Industry
• Emissions and liquid effluents from oil refineries (YOP 1991)

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CLASSIFICATION OF CLASSIFICATION OF
DRINKING WATER SOURCESDRINKING WATER SOURCES
1)Surface water
2) Ground water
3) Sub soil water in
River Beds
•Surface Water (low TDS
but high Turbidity,
suspended matter and
bacterial contamination)
•Ground water (Colorless,
less bacterial contamination
but has high TDS, Fluoride,
nitrate, Hardness, Alkalinity
etc.)
•Sub-Soil Water (Purest form
of Drinking Water - Colorless
and low TDS)

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PRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIAPRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

45. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
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PRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIAPRIMARY WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

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WATER QUALITY MONITORINGWATER QUALITY MONITORING
It is the foundation on which water quality
management is based. Monitoring provides
the information that permits rational
decisions to be made on the following:
•Describing water resources and identifying
actual and emerging problems of water
pollution.
•Formulating plans and setting priorities for
water quality management.
•Developing and implementing water quality
management programme.
•Evaluating the effectiveness of management
actions.

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QUALITY OF THE AQUATIC QUALITY OF THE AQUATIC
ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT
•Water quality
•The composition and state of the
biological life present in the water body,
•The nature of the particulate matter
present,
•The physical description of the water body
(hydrology, dimensions, nature of lake
bottom or river bed, etc.).

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Complete assessment of the quality Complete assessment of the quality
of the aquatic environmentof the aquatic environment
•Chemical analyses of water, particulate matter and
aquatic organisms (such as planktonic algae and
selected parts of organisms such as fish muscle), ·
•Biological tests, such as toxicity tests and
measurements of enzyme activities,
•Descriptions of aquatic organisms, including their
occurrence, density, biomass, physiology and
diversity (from which, for example, a biotic index
may be Developed or microbiological characteristics
determined), and
•Physical measurements of water temperature, pH,
conductivity, light penetration, particle size of
suspended and deposited material, dimensions of
the water body, flow velocity, hydrological balance,
etc.

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IMPORTANT PROCESSES IMPORTANT PROCESSES
AFFECTING WATER QUALITYAFFECTING WATER QUALITY

50. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
IMPORTANT PROCESSES IMPORTANT PROCESSES
AFFECTING WATER QUALITYAFFECTING WATER QUALITY

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FRESHWATER QUALITY FRESHWATER QUALITY
DETERIORATION AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL DETERIORATION AT THE GLOBAL LEVEL

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THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A WATER THE PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A WATER
QUALITY MONITORING PLANQUALITY MONITORING PLAN
•A clear statement of aims and objectives, ·
information expectations and intended uses,
•A description of the study area concerned,
•A description of the sampling sites,
•A listing of the water quality variables that will be
measured,
•Proposed frequency and timing of sampling,
•An estimate of the resources required to
implement the design, and a plan for quality
control and quality assurance.

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DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER
QUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENTQUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT
•Uses of water. Does water meet user requirements for
quantity and quality? (For example, with respect to
meeting use-defined standards. In this context
conservation of biodiversity may be considered a water
use.)
•Influences on water quality from direct use or from
other human activities or natural processes. What are
these influences?
•Impacts on water quality (e.g. water as a medium for
pollutant transport and exposure).
•Control and regulation of water quality. What is the
capacity of water to assimilate pollutants? Are
standards met? Are control strategies and
management action appropriate and effective?

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DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES OF WATER
QUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENTQUALITY MONITORING AND ASSESSMENT
•How does water quality differ geographically in
relation to uses and quality influences?
•How have past trends in water quality,
influences and policies led to the present status?
•What factors in present water quality and in the
past, present and planned activities, give an
insight into future trends? What will these be?
•How does water quality influence other parts of
the environment, such as marine coastal waters,
soils, biota, wetlands?

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WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATIONINTERPRETATION
•Step 1: Prepare sample containers for sampling. These
containers mustn't contain any of the compounds that
samples are to be analyzed for. Sampling bottle material must
be suitable for sampling the water without affecting the
compound.
•Step 2: The sampling procedure. This must be rigorous,
ensuring that a representative sample is collected and at no
time is the sample or sample bottle contaminated by the
collector. This is no trivial task when it comes to collecting
samples with low levels of compounds such as phosphorus.
Depending on the compounds to be analyzed, a preservative
may be necessary.
•Step 3: Transport to the laboratory for analysis. This
needs to be done under appropriate conditions, often in a
dark cooler with ice packs.

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WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND WATER SAMPLING, ANALYSIS, AND
INTERPRETATIONINTERPRETATION
•Step 4: Processing the water sample. Many samples
need to be filtered before testing. In some cases, the filtering
step must be done in the field as soon as the sample has been
collected. The sample analysis needs to be carried out
according to a protocol that doesn't introduce contaminants or
otherwise compromise the sample. After suitable processing,
the sample is ready to be analyzed.
•Step 5: Analysis. This fifth step can also introduce
problems. The laboratory needs to have quality
control/assurance procedures in place so analytical values
aren't compromised.
•Step 6: Interpretation. An agency or individual submitting
the sample needs to take a good look at the numbers and try to
make sense of them. Because there may have been problems
with one or two steps in the sequence, the numbers may make
little sense.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
OVERALL PLAN FOR WATER OVERALL PLAN FOR WATER
QUALITY SURVEYQUALITY SURVEY
•The overall Plan for water quality survey
–Detail plan of sample collection
–Provision of laboratory analysis
–Description of the methods to be used for data
•The Plan must address
–Location of sampling point
–Parameters to be analysed
–Time Schedule including time of Day, time of year and frequency
•CONSERVATIVE SAMPLES: Concentration of conservative
material changes with time.e.g Chlorides, Total solids, heavy
metals etc.
•NONCONSERVATIVE SAMPLES: Concentration of non
conservative material do not change with time BOD,COD,Temp.etc.

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PLANNING FOR SAMPLINGPLANNING FOR SAMPLING
Objective of water quality monitoring System:
•To assess the impact of activities by man
upon the quality of water and its suitability
for require uses.
•To determine the quality of water in its
natural state which might be available to
meet the future needs
•To keep under observations the sources &
path way of specified hazardous substances

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
TYPE OF SAMPLESTYPE OF SAMPLES
GRAB SAMPLES: Grab Samples are samples
collected at a particular time and space. They represent
the composition at that time and place. When a source
is known to vary in time, as in the case of waste
effluents, grab samples collected at suitable time
intervals and analysed separately can be of greater
value.
COMPOSITE SAMPLES: Composite samples are a
mixture of grab samples collected at one sampling
point at different times. The composite samples are
useful for observing values. Individual samples are
collected in wide mouth bottles every hour and mixed in
volume proportional to the flow.
INTEGRATED SAMPLES: Integrated samples are a
mixture of grab samples collected from different points
simultaneously and mixed in equal volumes.

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POLLUTION PARAMETER
SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR WATER SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR WATER
STATIONS STATIONS
•Baseline stations (Headwater lakes or undisturbed
upstream river stretches)
•Streams
Minimum: 4 per year, including high- and low-water
stages
Optimum: 24 per year (every second week); weekly for
total suspended solids
•Headwater lakes
•Minimum: 1 per year at turnover; sampling at lake outlet
Optimum: 1 per year at turnover, plus 1 vertical profile at
end of stratification season
•

61. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR SAMPLING FREQUENCY FOR
WATER STATIONSWATER STATIONS
•Trend stations (Major river basins, large lakes or major aquifers)
•Rivers
Minimum: 12 per year for large drainage areas, approximately 100,000 km2
Maximum: 24 per year for small drainage areas, approximately 10,000 km2
•Lakes/reservoirs
For issues other than eutrophication:
Minimum: 1 per year at turnover
Maximum: 2 per year at turnover, 1 at maximum thermal stratification
For eutrophication:
12 per year, including twice monthly during the summer
•Groundwaters
Minimum: 1 per year for large, stable aquifers
Maximum: 4 per year for small, alluvial aquifers

62. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
SITE SELECTIONSITE SELECTION
The selection of sampling site is decided by various uses of the
water and by their location, relative magnitude and importance
SITE SELECTION FOR RIVERS:
•Immediately down stream of an international boundary
•At a place of abstraction for public supply of larger town
•In an important fishing, recreation and amenity zone
•At a place of abstraction for large scale agricultural irrigation
•At afresh water tidal limit of major river
•Art a place of abstraction of large industrial supply
•Down stream of industrial effluent discharges and important
tributatory influencing main river
•Base line station where water is available in natural in natural
state

63. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTSLOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS
•Sampling point to be located to provide an accurate
description of existing water Quality
•Sampling point to be selected to maximize the ease
of sampling
•Location of sampling point primarily dependent on
the Physical situation
•For rapidly moving ,narrow shallow stream :
complete mixed, both laterally and vertically-one
sample point at each location
• For wide rivers canals,, Lakes or estuaries it may be
necessary to collect multiple samples at each cross
sections along the stream

64. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
•If water bodies stratified at least two
samples must be taken, one at the mid point
of the epilimnion ( above the thermocline or
Chemocline) and one at mid point of the
hypolimnion( below the thermocline or
Chemocline)
•For stream less than 1000ft wide but more
than 100 ft wide three equally spaced
sampling points are prescribed across the
cross section
•For wide rivers or lakes ( wider greater than
1000ft at lest five equally spaced sampling
points are suggested

65. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS IN LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS IN
FLOWING WATERS FLOWING WATERS

66. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
SITE LOCATION FOR LAKESITE LOCATION FOR LAKE
•At a place where principle feeder tributary
meets the lake
•At a central place of lake
•At a place from where water is pumped for
water supply for major city
•At a place from where water is discharged
from lake

67. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
Watershed Probabilistic SamplingWatershed Probabilistic Sampling
•Objectives:
–Sample randomly selected
sites throughout major river
basins to assess and
characterize overall water
quality through the integration
of chemical, physical, and
biological parameters.

68. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS LOCATION OF SAMPLING POINTS
IN LAKESIN LAKES
For lakes or reservoirs of 10 m depth or more it is
essential, therefore, that the position of the
thermocline is first investigated by means of
regularly-spaced temperature readings through the
water column (e.g. metre intervals).
•1 m below the water surface,
• just above the determined depth of the thermocline,
•just below the determined depth of the thermocline,
and
•1 m above the bottom sediment (or closer if this can
be achieved without disturbing the sediment).

69. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR
WATER QUALITY MONITORINGWATER QUALITY MONITORING
Test Principle
Colour Platinum–cobalt method, spectrophotometer,
Total, Suspended
Dissolved and Fixed
Solids
Gravity Method
Turbidity Turbidity meter, Nephlo meter (NTU), Jackson turbidity
meter (JTU)
Alkalinity, Acidity Titration method using Methyl Orange
Hardness EDTA method
Choride Titration method using silver nitrate solution and potassium
chromate indicator
Oil and grease Partition gravimeteric method by extracting with trichloro tri
fluoro ethane, petroleum ether or hexane.

70. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR
WATER QUALITY MONITORINGWATER QUALITY MONITORING
Test Principle
Dissolved oxugen Wrikler method using MnSO4
BOD Mercury free BOD analyzer
COD Reflux method with potassium dichromate and silver sulphate
catalyst in strong sulphuric acid. HACK COD analyzer
TOC TOC analyzer based on methane, CO2
Coliforms Membrane filter method (coliform per 100 ml), multiple tube
fermentor method (MPN)
AOX/TOX, EOX and
POX
AOX analyzer
Sulphate Titrimetric method (Barium ions)
Sodium Flame photometry, Zinc uranyl acetate method
Fluoride Selective ion electrode method, SPADNS method, Fluoride
distillation

71. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR
WATER QUALITY MONITORINGWATER QUALITY MONITORING
Test Principle
Phosphorus wet oxidation with potassium peroxydisulphate
Nitrogen, ammonia titration or colorimetrically using Nessler’s reagent
Nitrogen, Kjeldahl sulphuric acid and a catalyst, alcohol coupled with Photometry
Nitrogen, nitrite Spectrophotometric method using sulphanilamide, N-(1-naphthyl)-
ethylenediamine dihydrochloride to form an intensely red-coloured
azo-compound
Nitrogen, nitrate Phenol di sulphnoic method, UV spectrophtometer
Sulphite Precipitation cadmium acetate method, iodometeric method
Heavy metals Spectrophotometeric method, AAS, ICP-MS etc.
Selenium Fluorometric Method, photometric diaminobenzidine method
Mercury Mercury analyzer by converting all forms of mercury to metallic
mercury, ICP-MS
Phenols Colurimeteric method using 4-amino antipyrine, spectrophotometer
in UV range, chloform extraction method.
Pesticides Chromotographic method (FID), HPLC

72. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
ANALYSISANALYSIS
•Analysis
–Analytical Technology
–Sample Preparation
–Monitoring (Air, Water, and Waste)
–Quality Assurance & Method Development
–Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
–Dioxin & PCBs
–Pesticides
–Future Trend on Monitoring Technique

73. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGY FOR ANALYTICAL TECHNOLOGY FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORINGENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
•Electrochemical analysis
•Absorption spectroscopy
•Atomic absorption spectroscopy
•ICP emission spectroscopy
•Ion chromatography
•Liquid chromatography.
•Gas chromatography.
•Mass Spectrometry
•Immunoassay
•Biological Monitoring of pollutants.

74. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODSTYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODS
CHARECTERSTIC INSTRUMENTAL
PROPERTIES METHODS
Emission radiation Emission spectroscopy(x-
ray,uv, visible,
electron, Auger), fluorescence,
phosphorescence and luminescence
(x-ray,uv,and visible),
Absorption of radiation spectrophotometry and phoometry
( X-ray, uv, visible, IR),
photoacoustic,
spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic
resonance and electron spin
resonance spectrscopy.

75. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODSTYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODS
CHARECTERSTIC INSTRUMENTAL
PROPERTIES METHODS
Scattering of radiation Turbidimetry, nephelometry,
Raman spectroscopy.
Refraction of radiation Refractometry, interferometry.
Diffraction of radiation X-ray and electron diffraction
methods.
Rotation of radiation Polarimetry, optical rotary
dispersion, circular dichroism.

76. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
TYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODSTYPES OF INSTRUMENTAL METHODS

CHARECTERSTIC INSTRUMENTAL
PROPERTIES METHODS
Electrical potential Ppotentiometry, chronpotentiometry.
Electrical charge coulometry .
Electrical current Amperometry,polarography

Electrical resistance conductometry.
Mass gravimetry.
Mass to charge ratio Mass spectrometry.
Rate of reaction kinetic methods.
Thermal chracteristics thermal gravimetry
Radioactivity Activation and isotope dilution methods.

77. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
UV/VISIBLE MOLECULAR UV/VISIBLE MOLECULAR
ABSORPTION SPECTROMETRYABSORPTION SPECTROMETRY
•Absorption spectroscopy based upon
electromagnetic radiation in the
wavelength 170-780 nm.
•Measurement of Transmittance T or
Absorbance A.
•Used for the analysis of wide variety of
pollutants organic, inorganic, etc.

78. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
POTENTIOMETRYPOTENTIOMETRY
•Based on the measurement of the potential
of electro chemical cells in the absence of
appreciable current.
–Reference electrode
–Indicator electrode.
–Potential measuring devices.
•Electrodes- Silver/silver chloride, membrane
Indicators.
•Ion selective membranes
–Permits the rapid and selective determination of
numerous cations and anions by direct
potentiometric measurement.

79. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
Gas chromatography Liquid chromatography
Mobile phase :
- gas vaporization of sample
- m.w. < 500
- heat stability
Separation : chemical affinity
and diff. In b.p. of mixtures on
stationary phase
Mobile phase :
- liquid solubility of sample
- wide range of mol. wt.
- near to room temp.
Separation : affinity diff. of
mixtures between stationary
phase and mobile phase
CHROMATOGRAPHYCHROMATOGRAPHY

80. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
- GAS CHROMATOGRAPH
Flow
Control
Sample
Intro-
Duction
System
OVEN
COLUMN
DETECTOR
Carrier
Gas
Gas Filters
Sample
Injected
Here
Qualitative &
Quantitative
Data
Integrator/
Data System
GAS CHROMATOGRAPHYGAS CHROMATOGRAPHY
•What Does the Basic Gas Chromatographic
System Look Like?

81. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
•Carrier Gas
•Injection (split, splitless, direct, On-
column)
•Column
•Oven
•Detector
•Electron Capture Detector (ECD)
•Flame Ionisation Detector (FID)
•Photo Ionisation Detector (PID)
•Thermal conductivity detectors (TCD
•Flame photometric detector (FPD)

82. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID HIGH PRESSURE LIQUID
CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)
•HPLC is widely used because of sensitivity,
ready adaptability, suitability for separating
nonvolatile species or thermally fragile ones.
•Mobile phase is Liquid.
•Partition chromatography- Liquid-Liquid bonded
phase
•Adsorption chromatography- best suited for non-
polar compounds. MW < 500
•Ion exchange (IC) chromatography –
Anion/cation exchangers.

83. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
HPLC HPLC
•Mobil phase
•Injector
•Column (separation mode, RT.,
Capacity factor, Selectivity,
Resolution)
•Detector : RI, UV/VIS, FL., EC,
Conductivity

84. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
Mobile Phase
Reservoir
Gradient
Device
Pump
Pressure
Gauge
Pulse
Damper
InjectorColumn Detector
Fraction
Collector
Data
System
HPLC SystemHPLC System

85. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
MOLECULAR MASS SPECTROMETRYMOLECULAR MASS SPECTROMETRY
Provide information about
•The elemental composition of sample of matter.
•The structure of inorganic, organic and biological
molecules.
•The quantitative/qualitative composition of
complex mixtures.
•The structure and composition of solid surfaces.
•Isotopic ratio of atoms.

86. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
MASS SPECTROMETRYMASS SPECTROMETRY
•Ionization process
–Ionization
–Fragmentation
–Electron ionization
–Chemical ionization

87. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
•Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry
(ICPMS)
•Magnetic Sector Mass Spectrometry (MSMS)
•Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (QTMS)
•Ion Trap Quadrupole Mass Spectrometry (ITMS)
•Time of Flight Mass Spectrometry (ToFMS)
•Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass
Spectrometry(ICRMS)
•Ion Mobility Mass Spectrometry(IMMS)
•Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry(IRMS)

88. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
Chromatography Spectroscopy
High Sensitive Analytical Instrumen
(hypernated analytical instrument)
+
GC
GC
ICP-MS(AED)
IR
GC/MS
GC/ICP-MS(AED)
GC/IR
HPLC(IC)
MS(APCI, ESI)
ICP-MS
IR
HPLC(IC)/MS
HPLC(IC)/ICP-MS
HPLC(IC)/IR
NMR HPLC(IC)/NMRHPLC(IC)/NMR
Research Stage
HYPERNATED TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN GC, HYPERNATED TECHNOLOGY BETWEEN GC,
HPLC HPLC && SPECTROSCOPY SPECTROSCOPY

89. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
Water Quality Monitoring Instruments Developed and/or Water Quality Monitoring Instruments Developed and/or
Manufactured in IndiaManufactured in India
Instrument
Pollutants/
parameters
Principles of operation, range and
accuracy
Water-quality
monitor/water
analysis kit
pH, dissolved
oxygen, ORP,
temperature,
conductivity
Electrochemical analyzer, sensor
using glass, AG/age polarographic,
thermistor plantized or induction or
potentiometric
Digital pH meter pH Glass electrode
0-14 pH ± 0.02 pH units
Water sampler Sample effluent
collection
Automatic collection of 20 hours
water samples of desired volume,
primary source
Direct recording
spectrophotomete
r/colorimeter
Particulate and
dissolved impurities
Absorption spectroscopy
350-700 nm
Direct recording
polarograph
Various elements
and diverse types
organic substances
Polarography
sensitivity 0.003-1.5ma/mg in 20 steps
Specific ion
electrode (water)
Specific elements
for spot check
Specific ion reference and
measuring electrode 0.5 ppm
Turbidity meter Suspended solids Detection of scattered lights
Gas
chromatography
equipment
Elements/compound
s
Gas chromatography with various
detectors, electron capture, flame,
thermal conductivity sensitivity 10
-12

g

90. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
WATER QUALITY MONITORING INSTRUMENTS WATER QUALITY MONITORING INSTRUMENTS
DEVELOPED AND/OR MANUFACTURED IN INDIADEVELOPED AND/OR MANUFACTURED IN INDIA
Instrument
Pollutants/
parameters
Principles of operation, range and
accuracy
Mercury analyser Conversion and
absorption
UV absorption
Water surface
follower
For slowly varying
water levels
Charge or resistance monitored,
servo principle used to keeping the
sensor at 0.2 mm in water
Minicurrent meter
for water flow rate
Water flow rate Propeller in jewel bearings
Water level
recorder
Water level Change of resistance between rods,
set value of water level indicated
Wave height
recorder
Wave height and
wave level
Using variable capacitance sensors,
range 20 cms.,
Accuracy 5%
20-channel data
logger
(a) Simultaneous
temperature
measurement
(b) Water speeds at
various
locations
Thermistor probes
Automatic printer

Five vane, 15-mm diameter
propeller, signal conditioner and
loggers

91. INDRODUCTION TO WATER
POLLUTION PARAMETER
CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION
•Water is often regarded as an essentially free
resource. However, it is not free, each drop of the
water costs to society, nation, and world in totality.
Global water consumption increased 6 times in the
past century.
•The wars of the next century will be over water – not
oil or politics and it is feared that the growing water
scarcity is causing interstate tension which may
explode into violent conflicts over the earth’s
fundamental water resources.
•With increasing demand and depleting water
resources it is our prime duty to control pollution of
water and save each drop of water.