Lad

lad

1. Language is the medium of communication and mostly manifested in written, oral and manual forms. Language is a cognition that truly makes us human. Whereas other species do communicate with an innate ability to produce a limited number of meaningful vocalizations, or even with partially learned systems, there is no other species known to date that can express infinite ideas (sentences) with a limited set of symbols (speech sounds and words ). Language refers to a form of communication in which we learn to use complex rules to form and manipulate symbols that are to generate an endless number of meaningful sentences. Sequence of Language Development staring at birth. L anguage is practically absent, at about 4 weeks small throaty sounds are noticed and around five year’s child speaks without infantile articulation.

2. Language Acquisition is the process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate.

3. Theories of Language Development The different theories of language development can be broadly classified into three approaches: Behaviorism , Nativism and Interactionism Behaviorism : Behaviorism holds that language develops as a result of environmental influences. Nativism : it holds that language development is inborn. The nativist perspective argues that humans are biologically programmed to gain knowledge. The main theorist associated with this perspective is Noam Chomsky. Interactionism : it empha sizes the interaction between environmental influences and innate abilities in language development . Interactionists argue that language development is both biological and social. Interactionists argue that language learning is influenced by the desire of children to communicate with others. The  Interactionists argue that "children are born with a powerful brain that matures slowly and predisposes them to acquire new understandings that they are motivated to share with others" The main theorist associated with interactionist theory is Lev Vygotsky . Interactionists focus on Vygotsky's model of collaborative learning.

4. How is Language Structured The basic elements of Language are: Syntax- Set of rules and principles for constructing sentences Semantics- Study of meaning of sentences. Pragmatics- Studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning

5. Stages of language acquisition There are five basic stages of language acquisition: Cooing : Appears at about 6 months or so. All infants coo using all the phonemes from every language. It comprises mostly of vowel sounds. Babbling : to talk or say something in a quick, confused, excited or foolish way. It Appears at around 9 months. Infants are starting to selectively use the phonemes from their native language. Consonants are also introduced along with vowels and he is able to correlate words with objects or people. It starts using words with repetitive sounds like “dada”, “mama” etc. One-word utterances : At around 12 months, children start using words. Starts using fairly complex words. Also can recognize correct pronunciation of familiar words. The next stage observed is two word utterance by age of 18 months. Telegraphic speech : Children start making multi-word utterances that lack function words i.e. conjunctions & articles. (about 2 years old) for eg . “water now” Normal speech : By about 5-6 years of age, children have almost normal speech with good command over syntax and semantics. In later stage development of vocabulary and pragmatics takes place.

6. The stages of language acquisition from birth to about 6 months – so called pre linguistic stage at around 6-8 months onset of babbling (first manifestation of phonology) at around 10-12 months first words at around 20-24 months onset of the two-word stage ( first manifestation of syntax) till about 36-40 months: so called ‘telegraphic speech ’ By about 5-6 years of age Normal speech

7. Functions of Language Language performs a number of functions based on the purpose of its use. Language with a functional purpose is illustrated by Michael Halliday as follows : Instrumental: Language performs'an instrumental function the way an individual satisfies the need by asking for something (May I drink some water?). Regulatory : It performs a regulatory function controlling another's behaviour (e.g. Teacher asks the student, "Stay quiet, please"). Interactional : It performs an interactional function-used for maintaining interpersonal ( eg . wishing a friend a happy birthday). Personal: Language performs a personal function - where one talks about oneself (e.g. I am feeling very elated today). Heuristic: It performs a heuristic function to find out about the world in general (le .g. Is there a drug to cure Cancer?) Imaginative : It performs an imaginative function where one talks about one's imagination (e.g. write an essay on the topic "you are on the clouds"). Informational : It also performs an informational function - to seek and give varied types of information (e.g. What is the current rate of population growth in our country ?).

8. Chomsky Noam Chomsky American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, logician, political commentator and activist . Sometimes described as the “father of modern linguistics” He argues that language acquisition is an innate structure, or function, of the human brain. Chomsky believes that there are structures of the brain that control the interpretation and production of speech. Children do not need any kind of formal teaching to learn to speak. Chomsky proposed that all humans have a language acquisition device (LAD). Language Acquisition Device All human being are born with an innate tendency to learn a language . This innate , language specific ability that facilitate the acquisition of language in man is called Language Acquisition Device. The LAD processes and shapes the primary linguistic data received by the child from his surroundings and enables him to acquire ideas about the rules of language. The LAD contains knowledge of grammatical rules common to all languages. LAD which encodes the major principles of a language and its grammatical structures into the child’s brain. Children have then only to learn new vocabulary and apply the syntactic structures from the LAD to form sentences

9. Universal Grammar He later expanded this idea into that of Universal Grammar , a set of innate principles and adjustable parameters that are common to all human languages. All the languages of the world have the same basic underlying grammatical structure. All the languages of the world share similar characteristics of using nouns, verbs, pronouns though necessarily in a similar manner. Chomsky points out that a child could not possibly learn a language through imitation alone because the language spoken around them is highly irregular – adult’s speech is often broken up and even sometimes ungrammatical. Every language is extremely complex, However, all children, regardless of their intellectual ability, become fluent in their native language within five or six years. The LAD also allows children to understand the rules of whatever language they are listening to.

10. Chomsky also developed the concepts of transformational grammar, surface structure, and deep structure . Transformational grammar is grammar that transforms a sentence. It is a set of rules which allows us to transform the meaning of a sentence into the actual words in the sentence. Surface structures are words that are actually written. Surface structure of sentence consist of the words and their organization. Deep structure is the underlying message or meaning of a sentence.  The deep structure exist in long term memory as a set of abstract concepts and rules.

11. Vygotsky and language development Language is a social concept that is developed through social interactions. According to Lev Vygotsky , a 20th-century Soviet psychologist, language acquisition involves not only a child exposure to words but also an interdependent process of growth between thought and language. Vygotskys influential theory of the "zone of proximal development" asserts that teachers should consider a child prospective learning power before trying to expand the child grasp of language. Vygotsky theory of language is based on constructivist learning theory, which contends that children acquire knowledge as a result of engaging in social experiences. A child intellectual development is crucial to his language development. By interacting with his environment, a child develops the ability to develop private, inner speech.

12. Vygotsky viewed language as man’s greatest tool, a means for communicating with the outside world. According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive development: 1. It is the main means by which adults transmit information to children. 2. Language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation.

13. Vygotsky (1987) differentiates between three forms of language: social speech which is external communication used to talk to others (typical from the age of two); private speech (typical from the age of three) which is directed to the self and serves an intellectual function; Vygotsky sees "private speech" as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and therefore aid their development. Private speech is the use of language for self-regulation of behavior . Finally private speech goes underground , diminishing in audibility as it takes on a self-regulating function and is transformed into silent inner speech (typical from the age of seven)

14. Stages in language development The primitive / Natural S tage : it is characterised by pre- intellectual speech and preverbal thought Native psychological stage : it is characterised by : the child’s experience with his own body and objectives and the use of tools and increasingly correct use of language structure without the understanding of their logical meaning Egocentric speech stage : it is characterised the use of external sign as aids in the solution of internal problems, counting on the fingers In growth stage: the external operations turn inward, develop the ability for counting , develop logical memory.

15. Vygotsky and language development Language is a social concept that is developed through social interactions. According to Lev Vygotsky , a 20th-century Soviet psychologist, language acquisition involves not only a childs exposure to words but also an interdependent process of growth between thought and language. Vygotskys influential theory of the "zone of proximal development" asserts that teachers should consider a childs prospective learning power before trying to expand the childs grasp of language. 2. Vygotskys theory of language is based on constructivist learning theory, which contends that children acquire knowledge as a result of engaging in social experiences. "Through social and language interactions, older and more experienced members of a community teach younger and less experienced members the skills, values, and knowledge needed to be productive members of that community," 3. According to Vygotsky , words are signals. Rather than engage children in a primary signal system, in which objects are referred to merely as themselves, adults engage children in a secondary signal system, in which words represent objects and ideas.

16. 4. A childs intellectual development is crucial to his language development. By interacting with his environment, a child develops the ability to develop private, inner speech. 5. Through the development of inner speech, children straddle the divide between thought and language, eventually being able to express their thoughts coherently to others. 6. The language learning process occurs as a result of give and take. Parents and teachers usher a child through a process of guided discovery, addressing her learning potential. Eventually, children internalize language skills. 7. Vygotskys constructivist language theory exists in opposition to Jean Piagets theory of language acquisition. According to Piaget, children construct knowledge about language through a complex process of assimilation, stressing the inherent capability of a childs brain to adapt to stimulation. By contrast, Vygotsky stresses the social nature of language learning, emphasizing the environment within which a child is raised.

17. Problems of Language Development Children develop language skills through socialisation . School is a socialising agency where children learn their language. But all children are not in equal their language ability. Some children face problems in this regard. The main problems of language development faced by children are presented as follows : Lack of initial listening and speaking opportunities. Inability to express through the spoken or written medium. Blocks due to genetic impairment of emotional problems of an impoverished environment. Ambiguities in comprehension such as phonological, lexical or deep structural ambiguities, etc. Inadequate cognition of word meanings. Poor concept development. Over emphasis on writing prematurely