language and society V3.pdf……………………………….

Lge an society sociolinguistics

1. Language and
society
Chapter 9
Language and Linguistics
An introduction

2. Table of contents
01
Accent, dialect,
and idiolect
02
Standards and
vernaculars
03
Bilingualism,
code-switiching
and diglossia
04
Practical
applications
05
Stylisticvariation
and stylistics

3. 01
Accent,
dialectand
idiolect

4. 1-Accent, dialect and idiolect
●In everyday usage the terms «accent » and «dialect» are often
confused.
•Is usuallyassociatedwitha particulargeographicalarea of
languagesuchas dialectsof English: Cockney, Geordie(the
speech of Newcastle and Tynesideand «Scouse» (the
speech of Liverpool)
•Is a far greaterdifference(soundsystem, grammar, and
vocabulary) thanmerepronunciation.
Dialect
•Is restrictedto varietiesof pronunciation
•e.g: the phrase «withan accent» issimilarlyemployedin
Great Britainand especiallyin England, to mean«withan
accent otherthanRP»
Accent

5. 1-Accent, dialect and idiolect

6. 1-Accent, dialect and idiolect
●The terms «British English» and «American English » are often loosely employed
even by linguists, as they if referred to two relatively uniform dialects of the
same language.
●There are of course many lexical differences between the speech of the average
well-educated American and that of the average of well-educated Englishman,
Welshman , Scot or Irishman: ‘elevator’ vs. ‘lift’ ,’gas’ vs. ‘petrol’.But most the
vocabulary of Standard American English and standard British English is
identical.
●What makes the notion of Accent so important linguistically, even though it
overlaps with that of dialect, is that membersof language-community react to
the differences of pronunciation in the same way as indicatorsof the speaker’s
regional or social provenance.

7. 1-Accent, dialect and idiolect
The point isthatcertain phoneticdifferencesbetweenaccents maybe
stigmatizedby society, justas certain lexical and grammatical differences
betweendialectsare.
In many countries, but to a particularly high degree in England, there is more
regional variation in the speech of those lower on the social scale than there is in
the speech of those higher up .
William Labov confirmedthatan individual’saccent and dialectvaries
systematicallywiththe formalityand informalityof the situation in whichhe
foundhimself. e.g: The use of post-vocalic /r/ (farm, father…) by the upper
middle class in New York
Bothin America and Britain, womenare more likelythanman to adoptthe accent
or dialectthatisassociated, in generalwithhighersocial status. (Trudgill,1978)

8. We express our personality
and individuality in our
language-behaviour
Alinguistic pattern regarded
as unique among speakers
of a person’s language or
dialect
Language-variation in the
individual and language
variation in the community
are two sides of the same
coin
The distinctive speech
of an individual
Idiolect
1-Accent, dialect and idiolect

9. 1-Accent, dialect and idiolect
•Wemayassociatea particularaccent or
dialectwitha particularpersonality(e.g.
intelligence, friendliness…) and, in mostof our
more superficialday–to–daydealingwith
people, judgethemregardingthe stereotype.
•In somecases at least, membersof lower
social groups seemto acceptthe validityof the
stereotypeswithreferenceto whichmembers
of sociallymore dominant groups evaluate
them.
Stereotypes

10. Differences of accent and dialect can play an important
role in the projection of particular social images .
1-Accent, dialectand idiolect

11. 02
Standards and
vernaculars

12. Standards and Vernaculars
From the point view of the author, « The term Vernacular is
employed in the sense that is commonly bears in everyday usage
to refer not only to non-standars dialects of the same language, but
also to genetically unrelated dialects that stand in the same
functional relationship to the standard in certain countries as
genetically related non-standard dialects do in others.» p276
Some sociolinguistics have used the term « Vernacular» in a
narrower and more technical sense.

13. Standards and Vernaculars
The standardization of a particular Dialect in relation to one or more
vernaculars is not necessarily the result of deliberate policy.
For example, Standard English emerged as such over centuries by
virtue of the political and cultural importance of London; and
Standard French emerged, in a similar manner, as a consequence
of the dominance of Paris. In each case, the standard is based upon
what was in earlier times the speech of the upper classes at court
or living in the capital.
French and English, for political reasons, are more highly
standardized, as written languages, than some of the other major
languages of Europe.

14. Standards and Vernaculars
The disadvantage of attempting to implement the process of
standardization by official decision, if this involves the selection of
one several distinct vernacular already in use, is that it puts the
native speakers of the chosen vernacular in a more favorable
position, politically and socially than the native speakers of other
vernaculars.

15. Standards and Vernaculars
The terms‘standard language’, ‘national language’
and ‘official language’ are not of course
synonymous.
For example, Tanzania has adopted Swahili as its official national
language.But,so far at least, this does not and cannot serve as a symbol
of nationhood and cultural identity for most the country’s citizens, who
belong to a very large number of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups.

16. Standards and vernaculars
Pidgins and creoles
Pidgin:
are very basic linguistic systems
which sometimes emerge in
situations in which speakers of
different languages find
themselves in frequent contact
and need to communicate
Creoles:
are complete languages that
have evolved from more basic
pidgin languages
Originateas highlyrestrictedvernacularsof a particularkind, but
as creolescan in certain circumstancesachievethe statusof
standards.

17. Standards and vernaculars
Pidgins and creoles
Pidgin:
Tok Pisin «pidgin talk» are now
official, standard languages in
New Guinea and Sierra Leon ,
respectively
Creoles:
Notable examplesare the
English-basedcreoleof Jamaica
and the French-basedcreoleof
Haiti
Examples

18. Standards and vernaculars
Pidgins and creoles
When a pidgin is acquired by
children as their native
language it is said to be a
creole
Black English –the
vernaculardialectof lower-
class urbanBlacks in the
northernUnited States-Owes
manyof itsstructural features
to the Creolespokenby the
slave forbearsof itsstructural
featuresCreole

19. 03
Bilingualism,
code-
switiching and
diglossia

20. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Examples include officially bilingual countries like
Canada and Belgium, as well as communities where
Bilingualism is prevalent in daily life.
Bilingualism refers to the ability of individuals or
communities to use two or more languages proficiently.
Definition of Bilingualism

21. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Perfect
Bilingualism is rare
and involves equal
proficiency in both
languages.
Most bilingual
individuals are
compound or
coordinate
bilinguals,
possessing
varying levels of
proficiency in each
language.
Types of Bilingualism

22. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Bilingualism Communities
Bilingual communities demonstrate functional differentiation of languages
across various domains, such as home and public settings.
Sociolinguistic research focuses on identifying these domains and
understanding language use within them.
Simultaneous bilingualism: occurs when a child learns two languages from
birth or early infancy. Both languages are typically acquired in parallel, and
the child becomes equally proficient in both.
Sequential bilingualism: occurs when a person learns a second language
after already having acquired the first language

23. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Code Switching
✓Situational changes may lead to
code-switching, where speakers
switch between languages within
a conversation.
✓Examples include business
discussions in Tanzania
switching from English to Swahili.

24. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Diglossia
Diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation where two distinct
varieties of a language are used within a community or society, each
with its own functions and contexts. One known as the high or "H"
variety, used in formal situations such as education, literature, or
official communication, while the other variety, known as the low or
"L" variety, it is used in everyday, informal communication. Unlike
vernacular, diglossia involves a formal variety (H) alongside an
informal variety (L) with marked differences in prestige and usage
contexts.

25. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Diglossia
Challenges in Defining Languages and Dialects:
•The cultural and political considerations regarding dialects and
languages is related to identity, power dynamics, and social
inclusion. Dialects and languages often carry deep cultural
significance and serve as identity markers, but they can also face
political marginalization and discrimination.

26. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Diglossia
Challenges in Defining Languages and Dialects:
•Some languages have intermediate vernaculars, blurring the
boundaries between standard and non-standard varieties.
•Discussions about dialects and languages must address their cultural
and political implications to promote linguistic diversity and justice.

27. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Diglossia
Challenges in Defining Languages and Dialects:
•Both high and low varieties of language contribute to the richness and
diversity of language by offering different linguistic expressions for different
social situations. While high varieties maintain formal grammar and
vocabulary for professional and academic settings, low varieties provide
flexibility and adaptability for casual and interpersonal communication.

28. Bilingualism, code-switichingand diglossia
Diglossia
Language deficit:
•Language deficit theories unfairly label speakers of non-standard dialects
as linguistically deficient or inferior, leading to educational and social
discrimination.
•Perception of lacking linguistic ability in non-standard speakers, often
associated with speakers of minority or non-prestige dialects.

29. 04
Practical
applications

30. Practicalapplications
The practical application of sociolinguistics highlights the critical need
to challenge language deficit theories and the biases they support in
education and society. By recognizing the linguistic richness and
cultural diversity within communities, educators can create inclusive
learning environments that empower students from all linguistic
backgrounds. This shift requires embracing linguistic diversityas an
asset rather than a deficit, fostering educational equity, and
promoting social justice.

31. Practicalapplications
It was mentioned in the text, and I quote « it is now more widely
recognized than it used to be, in many countries, that the mother
tongue of ethnic minorities should be supported, rather than
discouraged as a barrier to their integration in the wider community. »
p289

32. 05
Stylistic
Variation and
stylistics

33. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
Stylistic variation is introduced as a concept contrasting with accent, dialect differences,
and differences in medium.
Emphasis on the choice of alternative means to express the same idea within a language
system.
Two words or phrases may be descriptively equivalent, and yet differ in terms of social
and expressive meaning. ( ‘father’ vs ‘Daddy’)
Completely free variation, which subsumes complete synonymy, is relatively rare -
especially in literature, where the determinants of contextual acceptability are more
numerous and more diverse than they are in the everyday, unreflecting use of language.

34. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
Social Context:
•the term 'context' is social and falls within the scope
of the sociolinguisticallydefinable notion of the
domainof discourse. Many authors would include
within the social context of an utterance, not only
the more obvious sociolinguistic variables (status,
age, gender of the participants: formality or
informality of the situation; etc.), but also the
author's feelings and communicative intentions.

35. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
Register
•In so far as stylistic variation is determined, or conditioned, by the
social context, it falls within the scope of the sociolinguistic concept
of register.
•Stylistic variation in general, and registervariation in particular, is
not simply a matter of vocabulary. It also affects grammarand, as
far as the spoken language is concerned, pronunciation. For ex-
ample, elliptical utterances (Been shopping? Just wanted to say
«Thanks» for last night, etc.) and tag-questions(You haven't seen
my pen, have you?, etc.) are more frequent in informal English
than they are in formal English.

36. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
It is important to
realize that the more
informal registers of
English and of other
languages are rule-
governed in
essentially the same
way as the more
formal registers are.
It is also
important not to
confuse the more
informal registers
of a language
with non-
standard dialects
of that language.

37. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
Everything that was said earlier about stylistic variation in
connection with distinguishable kinds of non-absolute synonymy
applies also to stylistically significant differences of grammar and
pronunciation. For example, questions can be asked in English by
uttering an interrogative sentence or, alternatively, by uttering a
declarative sentence with a distinctive rising-intonation pattern:
(1) Is it raining?
(2) It's raining?

38. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
(1) and (2) differ in their grammatical structure; and as utterances, if
not as sentences, they are partly, but not completely, equivalent.
Over and above its question-asking function, (2)has the additional
expressive function of indicating or revealing the speaker's surprise,
distress, indignation, etc. Of course, (1)can also have an additional
expressive function, conveyed by the superimposition upon it of a
particular prosodic contour. But it is of itself stylistically more
neutral than (2).

39. 5-Stylistic variation and stylistics
stylisticsas a more or less well-established branch of macrolinguistics
One definition, to which many would subscribe, might run as follows:
stylistics is the study of stylistic variation in languages and of the
way in which this is exploited by their users.
More commonly, however, the term 'stylistics' is restricted, with or
without further qualification, to literary stylistics: the study of the
language of literary texts.
Stylistics

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