Language Variation

1. Varieties of EnglishVarieties of English
VARIATION: Natural phenomenonVARIATION: Natural phenomenon
Language is a form of social behavior and communities Language is a form of social behavior and communities
tend to split up into groups, each displaying differences of tend to split up into groups, each displaying differences of
behaviorbehavior
Language manifests differences of behaviorLanguage manifests differences of behavior
Language is the variety of speakersLanguage is the variety of speakers
Speakers vary in their vocabulary and skills to use itSpeakers vary in their vocabulary and skills to use it
 Linguistic variables have both social and style variation, Linguistic variables have both social and style variation,
some only social, but none style variation onlysome only social, but none style variation only

2. DialectDialect
 No universally accepted criteria for distinguishing No universally accepted criteria for distinguishing languageslanguages
from from dialectsdialects, although a number of paradigms exist, which , although a number of paradigms exist, which
render sometimes contradictory resultsrender sometimes contradictory results
 The exact distinction is a subjective one, dependent on the user's The exact distinction is a subjective one, dependent on the user's
frame of referenceframe of reference
Language varietiesLanguage varieties are often called are often called dialectsdialects rather than rather than languageslanguages::
BecauseBecause
solely they are not,or not recognized as solely they are not,or not recognized as literary languagesliterary languages
 the speakers of the given language do not have a the speakers of the given language do not have a statestate of their of their
ownown
they are not used in press or literature, or very little. they are not used in press or literature, or very little.
because their language lacks because their language lacks prestigeprestige
Difference between Accent and DialectDifference between Accent and Dialect

3. a a varietyvariety of a of a languagelanguage characteristic of a particular group characteristic of a particular group
of the language's speakersof the language's speakers
applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a
dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as dialect may also be defined by other factors, such as
social classsocial class
Defined as: Defined as: a sub-division of a language, used by a a sub-division of a language, used by a
group of speakers who have some non-linguistic group of speakers who have some non-linguistic
characteristics in common or characteristics in common or the specific form of a the specific form of a
language used by a language used by a speech communityspeech community
Most common characteristic: the regional oneMost common characteristic: the regional one
Link can also be occupational and socialLink can also be occupational and social
Sometime variety depends upon the occasion to use as Sometime variety depends upon the occasion to use as
wellwell
the word "dialect" is sometimes used to refer to a lesser-the word "dialect" is sometimes used to refer to a lesser-
known language most commonly a known language most commonly a regional languageregional language, ,
especially one that is unwritten or not standardizedespecially one that is unwritten or not standardized

4. often accompanied by the erroneous belief that the often accompanied by the erroneous belief that the
minority language is lacking in vocabulary, grammar, or minority language is lacking in vocabulary, grammar, or
importanceimportance
the difference between language and dialect is the the difference between language and dialect is the
difference between the abstract or general and the difference between the abstract or general and the
concrete and particularconcrete and particular
 Identifying a particular dialect as the "Identifying a particular dialect as the "standardstandard" or " or
"proper" version of a language are in fact using these "proper" version of a language are in fact using these
terms to express a social distinctionterms to express a social distinction
thethe statusstatus of language is not solely determined by of language is not solely determined by
linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and linguistic criteria, but it is also the result of a historical and
political developmentpolitical development
MandarinMandarin and and CantoneseCantonese are often considered dialects are often considered dialects
and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility, and not languages, despite their mutual unintelligibility,
because they share a common literary standard and because they share a common literary standard and
common body of literaturecommon body of literature

5. The number of speakers, and the geographical area covered by them, can The number of speakers, and the geographical area covered by them, can
be of be of arbitraryarbitrary size size
 a dialect might contain several sub-dialectsa dialect might contain several sub-dialects
A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication oral or A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication oral or signedsigned, ,
but not necessarily written with its own but not necessarily written with its own vocabularyvocabulary and and grammargrammar
A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation
including phonology and including phonology and prosodyprosody
the "dialects" of a "language" which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet the "dialects" of a "language" which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet
older tongue may or may not be mutually intelligibleolder tongue may or may not be mutually intelligible
 a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves
subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree
changing more rapidly than otherschanging more rapidly than others
among the modern Romance tongues, with among the modern Romance tongues, with ItalianItalian and and SpanishSpanish having a having a
high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares
with with FrenchFrench, despite both languages being , despite both languages being geneticallygenetically closer to French closer to French
than to each otherthan to each other
French has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish and ItalianFrench has undergone more rapid change than have Spanish and Italian

6. Standard and non-standard dialectsStandard and non-standard dialects
A standard dialect: a dialect that is supported by institutionsA standard dialect: a dialect that is supported by institutions
 Such institutional support may include government recognition or Such institutional support may include government recognition or
designation; designation;
presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools; presentation as being the "correct" form of a language in schools;
published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a published grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks that set forth a
"correct" spoken and written form; "correct" spoken and written form;
an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect in prose, an extensive formal literature that employs that dialect in prose,
poetry, non-fiction, etc.poetry, non-fiction, etc.
Standard Standard American EnglishAmerican English, Standard , Standard British EnglishBritish English, Standard , Standard
Indian EnglishIndian English, Standard , Standard Australian EnglishAustralian English, and Standard , and Standard
Philippine EnglishPhilippine English may all be said to be standard dialects of the may all be said to be standard dialects of the
English languageEnglish language

7. A A nonstandard dialectnonstandard dialect: has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and : has a complete vocabulary, grammar, and
syntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional supportsyntax, but is not the beneficiary of institutional support
 An example of a nonstandard English dialect is An example of a nonstandard English dialect is Southern EnglishSouthern English
 The The Dialect TestDialect Test was designed by was designed by Joseph WrightJoseph Wright to compare to compare
different English dialects with each otherdifferent English dialects with each other

8. Regional dialectRegional dialect
not a distinct language not a distinct language
a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a countrya variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country
Some regional dialects have been given traditional names which Some regional dialects have been given traditional names which
mark them out as being significantly different from standard mark them out as being significantly different from standard
varieties spoken in the same placevarieties spoken in the same place
Ex:Ex: 'Hillbilly English' from the Appalachians in the USA and 'Hillbilly English' from the Appalachians in the USA and
'Geordie' from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK'Geordie' from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK

9. Minority dialect:Minority dialect:
Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group
have their own variety which they use as a marker of have their own variety which they use as a marker of
identity, usually alongside a standard varietyidentity, usually alongside a standard variety
 Ex:Ex: African American Vernacular English in the USA, African American Vernacular English in the USA,
London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in
AustraliaAustralia
Indigenized varietyIndigenized variety
Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second Indigenized varieties are spoken mainly as second
languages in ex-colonies with multilingual populationslanguages in ex-colonies with multilingual populations
 The differences from the standard variety may be linked The differences from the standard variety may be linked
to English proficiency, or may be part of a range of to English proficiency, or may be part of a range of
varieties used to express identity. varieties used to express identity.
'Singlish' spoken in Singapore is a variety very different 'Singlish' spoken in Singapore is a variety very different
from standard English, and there are many other varieties from standard English, and there are many other varieties
of English used in India of English used in India

10. SociolectSociolect
the the varietyvariety of language characteristic of a social background or of language characteristic of a social background or
statusstatus
 A A dialectdialect which evolves from regional speech may also have which evolves from regional speech may also have
sociolectical implicationssociolectical implications
 Ex: standard Ex: standard ItalianItalian is a dialect in that it is particular to is a dialect in that it is particular to TuscanyTuscany; ;
yet, being the national language of Italy, it is also a sociolect in that yet, being the national language of Italy, it is also a sociolect in that
it carries a certain prestige from being the it carries a certain prestige from being the lingua francalingua franca throughout throughout
the country – both in broadcasting, in the press, and by people of the country – both in broadcasting, in the press, and by people of
high social statushigh social status

11. IdiolectIdiolect
 a a varietyvariety of a of a languagelanguage unique to an individual unique to an individual
manifested by patterns of word selection and manifested by patterns of word selection and grammargrammar, or words, , or words,
phrases, phrases, idiomsidioms, or pronunciations that are unique to that , or pronunciations that are unique to that
individualindividual
 Every individual has an idiolectEvery individual has an idiolect
the grouping of words and phrases is unique, rather than an the grouping of words and phrases is unique, rather than an
individual using specific words that nobody else usesindividual using specific words that nobody else uses
idiolect can easily evolve into an idiolect can easily evolve into an ecolectecolect—a —a dialectdialect variant specific variant specific
to a householdto a household
languages are congruences of idiolects and thus exist only in the languages are congruences of idiolects and thus exist only in the
intersection between individual speakersintersection between individual speakers
Idiolects change through contact with other idiolects, and change Idiolects change through contact with other idiolects, and change
throughout their lifetime as well as from generation to generationthroughout their lifetime as well as from generation to generation

12. RegisterRegister
term was originated by: term was originated by: Thomas Bertram ReidThomas Bertram Reid in in 19561956
Become common: in the Become common: in the 1960s1960s introduced by a group of introduced by a group of
linguists who wanted to distinguish between variations in linguists who wanted to distinguish between variations in
language language according to the according to the useruser and and variations according variations according
to to useuse, ,
 each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between
them at different timesthem at different times
 (Halliday et al, 1964)(Halliday et al, 1964)
focus is on the way language is used in particular situationsfocus is on the way language is used in particular situations
HallidayHalliday (1964) identifies three variables that determine (1964) identifies three variables that determine
register: field (the subject matter of the discourse), register: field (the subject matter of the discourse), tenortenor
(the participants and their relationships) and mode (the (the participants and their relationships) and mode (the
channel of communication, e.g. spoken or written)channel of communication, e.g. spoken or written)

13. Very informal,
Casual, Familiar
INFOR
MAL →

Neutra
l
←
FORM
AL
Formality
scale
Very formal,
Frozen, Rigid
from Quirk et al (1985), who use the term attitude rather than style
or register
Joos (1961) describes five styles in spoken English:
Frozen: Printed unchanging language such as bible quotations; often
contains archaisms
Formal: One-way participation, no interruption. Technical vocabulary;
"Fussy semantics" or exact definitions are important. Includes introductions
between strangers
Consultative: Two-way participation. Background information is provided
— prior knowledge is not assumed. "Backchannel behaviour" such as "uh
huh", "I see", etc. is common. Interruptions allowed
Casual: In-group friends and acquaintances. No background information
provided. Ellipsis and slang common. Interruptions common.
Intimate: Non-public. Intonation more important than wording or grammar.
Private vocabulary

14. IsoglossIsogloss
Greek Greek isosisos equal + equal + glossaglossa a tongue a tongue
the geographical boundary or delineation of a certain the geographical boundary or delineation of a certain linguisticlinguistic
featurefeature
Ex: the pronunciation of a Ex: the pronunciation of a vowelvowel, the meaning of a word, or use of , the meaning of a word, or use of
some syntactic featuresome syntactic feature
A line on a map enclosing an area within which a particular linguistic A line on a map enclosing an area within which a particular linguistic
feature is foundfeature is found
Various types of isogloss are distinguished: an Various types of isogloss are distinguished: an isophoneisophone is a feature of is a feature of
pronunciation, an pronunciation, an isolexisolex an item of vocabulary, an an item of vocabulary, an isomorphisomorph a feature a feature
of wordformation, and an of wordformation, and an isosemeisoseme a particular word meaning a particular word meaning
the isogloss separates rather than connects points of equal languagethe isogloss separates rather than connects points of equal language

15. The line on the map of southern England separates the areaThe line on the map of southern England separates the area
where the vowel in a word such as where the vowel in a word such as cutcut is /V/black circles is /V/black circles
from the area where the vowel is /U/crossesfrom the area where the vowel is /U/crosses
from Laver (1994)from Laver (1994)

16. Isoglosses on the Isoglosses on the Faroe IslandsFaroe Islands

17. PidginPidgin
a new language which develops in situations where a new language which develops in situations where
speakers of different languages need to communicate but speakers of different languages need to communicate but
don't share a common languagedon't share a common language
The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one The vocabulary of a pidgin comes mainly from one
particular language; the 'lexifier‘particular language; the 'lexifier‘
 An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable An early 'pre-pidgin' is quite restricted in use and variable
in structurein structure
the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules the later 'stable pidgin' develops its own grammatical rules
which are quite different from those of the lexifier which are quite different from those of the lexifier
Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as
a second language and used for communication among a second language and used for communication among
people who speak different languagespeople who speak different languages
 Ex:Ex: Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama spoken in Vanuatu Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama spoken in Vanuatu

18. CreoleCreole
Latin Latin crearecreare, meaning "to beget" or "create" , meaning "to beget" or "create"
The term was coined in the sixteenth century during the great The term was coined in the sixteenth century during the great
expansion in European maritime power and trade and the expansion in European maritime power and trade and the
establishment of European colonies in the establishment of European colonies in the AmericasAmericas, , AfricaAfrica, and , and
along the coast of South and Southeast along the coast of South and Southeast AsiaAsia up to the up to the PhilippinesPhilippines
, , ChinaChina, , IndiaIndia, and in , and in OceaniaOceania
Originally, therefore, "Creole language" meant the speech of Originally, therefore, "Creole language" meant the speech of
those those Creole peoplesCreole peoples
a stable a stable languagelanguage that originates seemingly as a that originates seemingly as a nativizednativized pidginpidgin
When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it
becomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creolebecomes the mother tongue of a community, it is called a creole
Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most
of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its of its vocabulary from another language, the lexifier, but has its
own unique grammatical rulesown unique grammatical rules


19. •Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) suggest that four different
processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:
•Accommodation
•Imitation
•Telegraphic condensation
•Conventions
•Presumably, between six ad twelve Smillion peole still
using pidgin languages and between ten and seventeen
using descendents from pidgins
•Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use,
and is like any other language in its full range of functions
•creoles have certain grammatical similarities to each other
and, arguably, not languages that they are derived from
•Creoles exhibit more internal variability than other
languages
•Creoles are simpler than other languages

20. creole languages have generally been regarded as creole languages have generally been regarded as
degeneratedegenerate, or at best as rudimentary , or at best as rudimentary dialectsdialects of one of of one of
their parent languagestheir parent languages
"creole" has come to be used in opposition to "creole" has come to be used in opposition to
"language" rather than a qualifier for it"language" rather than a qualifier for it
Ex: Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai`i Creole Ex: Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai`i Creole
English.English.
'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used by 'pidgin' and 'creole' are technical terms used by
linguists, and not necessarily by speakers of the linguists, and not necessarily by speakers of the
language. For example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call language. For example, speakers of Jamaican Creole call
their language 'Patwa' (from patois) and speakers of their language 'Patwa' (from patois) and speakers of
Hawai`I Creole English call theirs 'PidginHawai`I Creole English call theirs 'Pidgin''

21. Theories to describe creole phenomenonTheories to describe creole phenomenon
1. The monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles1. The monogenetic theory of pidgins and creoles

a single origin for these languages, deriving them through a single origin for these languages, deriving them through
relexificationrelexification from a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the 17th from a West African Pidgin Portuguese of the 17th
century and ultimately from the century and ultimately from the
Lingua franca of the MediterraneanLingua franca of the Mediterranean
 originally formulated by originally formulated by Hugo SchuchardtHugo Schuchardt in the late 19th in the late 19th
century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by century and popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by
Douglas Taylor as well as in Douglas Taylor as well as in Whinnom (1956Whinnom (1956), ), Thompson (1961Thompson (1961) )
and and Stewart (1962Stewart (1962))
• 2-European dialect origin hypotheses
The French creoles are the foremost candidates to being the
outcome of "normal" linguistic change
creoleness to be sociohistoric in nature and relative to their
colonial origin though

22. 3. The Domestic Origin Hypothesis3. The Domestic Origin Hypothesis
Proposed by Proposed by Hancock (1985Hancock (1985) for the development of a local form of ) for the development of a local form of
English in West AfricaEnglish in West Africa
towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to towards the end of the 16th century, English-speaking traders began to
settle in the Gambia and Sierra Leone rivers as well as in neighboring settle in the Gambia and Sierra Leone rivers as well as in neighboring
areas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coastsareas such as the Bullom and Sherbro coasts
These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed These settlers intermarried with the local population leading to mixed
populations and as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was populations and as a result of this intermarriage, an English pidgin was
created, which in turn was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on created, which in turn was learned by slaves in slave depots, who later on
took it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging took it to the West Indies and formed one component of the emerging
English creolesEnglish creoles
4. Foreigner talk or baby talk4. Foreigner talk or baby talk
 a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to a pidgin or creole language forms when native speakers attempt to
simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know simplify their language in order to address speakers who do not know
their language at alltheir language at all
Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and the speech Because of the similarities found in this type of speech and the speech
which is usually directed at childrenwhich is usually directed at children

23. Gradualist and developmental hypothesesGradualist and developmental hypotheses
One class of creoles might start as One class of creoles might start as pidginspidgins, rudimentary second , rudimentary second
languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more languages improvised for use between speakers of two or more
non-intelligible native languagesnon-intelligible native languages
Keith Whinnom (in Keith Whinnom (in Hymes (1971Hymes (1971)) suggests that pidgins need )) suggests that pidgins need
three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being three languages to form, with one (the superstrate) being
clearly dominant over the othersclearly dominant over the others
 The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the The lexicon of a pidgin is usually small and drawn from the
vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions. vocabularies of its speakers, in varying proportions.
Morphological details like word Morphological details like word inflectionsinflections, which usually take , which usually take
years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple, years to learn, are omitted; the syntax is kept very simple,
usually based on strict word orderusually based on strict word order
 In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech — syntax, lexicon, In this initial stage, all aspects of the speech — syntax, lexicon,
and pronunciation —tend to be quite variable, especially with and pronunciation —tend to be quite variable, especially with
regard to the speaker's backgroundregard to the speaker's background

24. If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a If a pidgin manages to be learned by the children of a
community as a native language, it may become fixed and community as a native language, it may become fixed and
acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology, acquire a more complex grammar, with fixed phonology,
syntax, morphology, and syntactic embeddingsyntax, morphology, and syntactic embedding
Pidgins can become full languages in only a single Pidgins can become full languages in only a single generationgeneration
"Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language "Creolization" is this second stage where the pidgin language
develops into a fully developed native languagedevelops into a fully developed native language
The vocabulary, too, will contain more and more words The vocabulary, too, will contain more and more words
according to a rational and stable systemaccording to a rational and stable system

25. Universalist approachesUniversalist approaches
UniversalistUniversalist models stress the intervention of specific general models stress the intervention of specific general
processes during the transmission of language from generation processes during the transmission of language from generation
to generation and from speaker to speakerto generation and from speaker to speaker
The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards The process invoked varies: a general tendency towards
semanticsemantic transparencytransparency, first , first language learninglanguage learning driven by driven by
universal process, or general process of universal process, or general process of discoursediscourse organizationorganization
creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly creoles are inventions of the children growing up on newly
founded founded plantationsplantations
 Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without Around them, they only heard pidgins spoken, without
enough structure to function as enough structure to function as natural languagesnatural languages
 the children used their own the children used their own innateinnate linguistic capacities to linguistic capacities to
transform the pidgin input into a full-fledged languagetransform the pidgin input into a full-fledged language

26. JargonJargon
JargonJargon is is terminologyterminology that relates to a specific activity, profession or that relates to a specific activity, profession or
groupgroup
develops as a kind of shorthand, to quickly express ideas that are develops as a kind of shorthand, to quickly express ideas that are
frequently discussed between members of a groupfrequently discussed between members of a group
more precise or specialized usage among practitioners of a fieldmore precise or specialized usage among practitioners of a field
"guild" or "insider" jargon"guild" or "insider" jargon
divorced from meaning to outsidersdivorced from meaning to outsiders
Used in various fields:Used in various fields:
sports broadcastsports broadcast
to refer to concepts within the belief systems of organized religionto refer to concepts within the belief systems of organized religion
medical professionals medical professionals
Information TechnologyInformation Technology and the and the InternetInternet
Nautical TermsNautical Terms
to refer to political strategies and tacticsto refer to political strategies and tactics

27. SlangSlang
SlangSlang is the use of informal is the use of informal wordswords and expressions to describe and expressions to describe
an object or conditionan object or condition
vocabularyvocabulary that is meant to be interpreted quickly but not that is meant to be interpreted quickly but not
necessarily literallynecessarily literally
slang words or terms are often a slang words or terms are often a metaphormetaphor or an or an allegoryallegory
sometimes regional in that it is used only in a particular sometimes regional in that it is used only in a particular territoryterritory
particular to a certain particular to a certain subculturesubculture, such as , such as musiciansmusicians, and , and
members of members of minority groupsminority groups
usage of slang expressions can spread outside their original usage of slang expressions can spread outside their original
arenas to become commonly usedarenas to become commonly used
some words eventually lose their status as slang, others continue some words eventually lose their status as slang, others continue
to be considered as such by most speakersto be considered as such by most speakers

28. the process tends to lead the original users to replace the words with the process tends to lead the original users to replace the words with
other, less-recognized terms to maintain group identityother, less-recognized terms to maintain group identity
slang is the complete opposite of slang is the complete opposite of jargonjargon
Criteria for true slangCriteria for true slang proposed by Dumas & Lighter proposed by Dumas & Lighter
 lowers, temporarily, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing lowers, temporarily, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing
or glaring misuse of or glaring misuse of registerregister
Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or Its use implies that the user is familiar with whatever is referred to, or
with a group of people that with a group of people that areare familiar with it and use the term. familiar with it and use the term.
a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social a taboo term in ordinary discourse with people of a higher social
status or greater responsibilitystatus or greater responsibility
 replaces a well known conventional synonym, to avoid the replaces a well known conventional synonym, to avoid the
discomfort caused by the conventional item or to elaborate it discomfort caused by the conventional item or to elaborate it
Slang terms are often known only within a Slang terms are often known only within a cliqueclique or or ingroupingroup