Lecture 7 Module VII Agriculture Insurance - Support Services (2).pdf

Agriculture Insurance - Support Services

1. COURSE AE-A-10
TITLE: AGRICULTURAL RISK MANAGEMENT AND INSURANCE
MSc (Agribusiness Economics)
Batch 2022 –2024
Final Semester (Jan ‘24–Apr ’24)
Course by
Dr Raosaheb Mohite
Visiting Faculty –Agri Value Chains
Gokhale Institute of Political Science and Economics (GIPE)
Deccan Gymkhana, Pune 411 001, MH State, India
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2. Lecture 7
Module VII
Agriculture Insurance Support Services
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3. 7. Agricultural Insurance – Support Services
Scope for using ‘Satellite Imagery’
/Remote Sensing Technology.
Insurance Delivery Strategies………
Nationally Consistent Database……
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4. Scope for using Satellite Imagery/
Remote Sensing Technology
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5. Remote Sensing
Technology (RST):
Pilot Project*
•The Working Group recommended
that a pilot project on using remote
sensing technology in crop insurance,
should be undertaken by AIC (Private
sector participation) from the Kharif
2007 season onwards.
The areas for the pilot project may
include:
•Acreage estimation
•Crop health reports
•Yield modelling
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•Reduction of sample size of CCEs
•Remote Sensing data as proxy
indicators, for finalizing quantum
of ‘on-account’ indemnity, under
the National Agricultural
Insurance Scheme (NAIS).
The Working Group Report says “Finally,
RST alone can make the switch over from
an area approach, to farm level yield
estimation”. ‘This should be possible, in
the ‘not too distant future’ in India
Recommendations of the Working Group Report* (Source: XI Five Year Plan – 2007 – 2012)

6. Scope for using Satellite
Imagery/ Remote Sensing
Technology
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7. MAR 2024 OFFLINE/RM/RIA&I/AE-A-10/GIPE/M-7 7
weather satellite,
designed to monitor
meteorological
conditions
Meteorological
measurements
Intropical cyclone:
Tracking and forecasting
https://www.britannica.com/technology/weather-satellite/additional-info#More-Articles

8. Prototyping a Generic
Algorithm for Crop
Parameter Retrieval
across the Season Using
Radiative Transfer Model
Inversion and Sentinel-2
Satellite Observations
Source: Remote
Sens.2021,13(18),
3659;https://doi.org/10.3
390/rs13183659
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9. Standing Crop Yield Assessment using Drone
Technology
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Drones to assess
crop yield
for Fasal Bima
settlements
Advanced growth
stage - about to fully
mature but before
reaching harvest
stage
Used by Government
agencies/ insurance
companies
– for pre-final yields
and losses
- Insurers can assess
their likely payouts, if
any
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10. Standing Crop Yield Assessment using Drone
Technology
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Drones to assess
crop yield
for Fasal Bima
settlements
Harvest ‘ready’
stage
- Used by
Government
agencies/ insurance
companies (for
estimating final
yield / losses
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11. .
Increase in farming yield
Quick decision making by farmers
Drones are easy to maintain
Helps save water and other agri-
resources
Helps collect evidence for insurance
claims during crop failures
99% accurate crop and field data
gathering
Allocation of effective and efficient
farming resources
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Use of Drones in agriculture improves competitiveness
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12. Smart Farming: The idea behind smart farming is to give the
agricultural sector the infrastructure it needs to exploit cutting-edge
technologies, such as:
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https://semantictech.in/blogs/benefits-of-drones-in-agriculture/
big data,
the cloud,
the internet of things (IoT),
for
- automating,
- tracking and
- analysing activities.

13. Hand-held devices
Use of Android Phone for data capture
Use of Handheld sensors for data
collection
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14. Application of thermal imaging cameras mounted on
industrial drones
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.
Use of thermal imaging in precision agriculture.
This is an area where the
unique advantages of
drones are extremely
useful, as they can be
used to map large areas
of plantations from high
altitude, easily reach the
most inaccessible areas
and work without
trampling damage.
Soil heat map
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15. Applications of thermal imaging cameras
mounted on industrial drones
•The technology is commonly used to identify diseased and infected
crops.
•In addition to the presence of parasites, acidity, water requirements
and stress levels can be easily determined by thermal mapping.
•For example, when designing water pipes and sprinkler systems, a
thermal imager can provide important and crucial information.
•In addition to monitoring plantations, thermal imaging also makes it
easier to monitor and keep an eye on livestock
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16. Applications of thermal
imaging cameras mounted
on industrial drones
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Use of thermal imaging in precision agriculture.
This is an area where the
unique advantages of drones
are extremely useful, as they
can be used to map large
areas of plantations from
high altitude, easily reach the
most inaccessible areas and
work without trampling
damage.
Soil heat map

17. High-definition
pictures using
Satellites and Drones
Health of the crop
•Health/ Quality
•Stage of growth
•Chlorophyll levels
•Disease free
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“Crop Insurance schemes can be more
effectively implemented by the use of the
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) –
enabled and camera – fitted mobile
phones….”

18. Use of ISRO technology
for production forecasts
•ISRO technology is being used to carry out production forecasts for at
least eight major crops such as wheat, Kharif and rabi rice, mustard,
jute, cotton, sugarcane, rabi sorghum and rabi pulses.
•The extensive use of data from remote sensing satellites, the
Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), which is a proven
indicator for vegetable/ crop health or vigour, clearly shows better
crop conditions during this July
•Union Agriculture Minister observed that there was comparative
improvement in the crop condition and increased productivity in the
agriculture sector in July 2019 vis-a-vis July 2020.
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19. Normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
•The normalized difference vegetation index is a
widely-used metric for quantifying the health and
density of vegetation using sensor data.
•It is calculated from spectrometric data at two
specific bands: red and near-infrared. The
spectrometric data is usually sourced from remote
sensors, such as satellites.
•NDVIquantifies vegetation health using near-
infrared (which is reflected by vegetation) and red
light (which is absorbed by vegetation).
•NDVI calculated using ArcGIS software from a
Landsat 8OLI picture.
NDVI always ranges from -1 to +1.
But there isn’t a distinct boundary
for each type of land cover.
•For example, when you have
negative values, it’s highly likely that
it’s water. On the other hand, if you
have a NDVI value close to +1,
there’s a high possibility that it’s
dense green leaves.
•But when NDVI is close to zero,
there aren’t green leaves and it
could even be an urbanized area
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NIR = Near Infrared light band

20. Crop Loss
Assessment Pilots
•The Department of Agriculture, Cooperation
and Farmers Welfare, through Mahalanobis
National Crop Forecast Centre (MNCFC) carried
out pilot studies for Optimization of Crop
Cutting Experiments (CCEs) in various States
involving 8 agencies and organizations during
Kharif 2018 and Rabi 2018-19 under PMFBY.
•The pilot study found that there is a possibility
of 30-70% reduction of CCEs (based on the
crop and geographical region).
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Similarly, the surveys
were conducted in
Karnataka and Kerala to
estimate the extent of
damage to coffee
plantations due to floods
and landslides.
It found more than 33%
crop loss! (2019)

21. •Around 1 lakh CCEs for Rice crop were
conducted during Kharif 2019 using the Smart
Sampling Technique.
•Pilot studies have been undertaken for
estimation of yield at a Gram Panchayat level
through 14 agencies by use of technology,
including satellite data, UAV (Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles such as drones), Artificial Intelligence,
Machine Learning and more.
•As soon as statistically sound methodology for
yield estimation through technology is
established for the crop, the same may be
adopted.
- Narendra Singh Tomar - Union Minister of Agriculture and
Farmers Welfare (2019)
Based on these results
and the technologies
which were verified
during the Pilot studies,
the Government rolled
out Smart Sampling
Technique (CCE location
selection using satellite
data), in 96 districts of 9
States, for rice crop,
during Kharif 2019.
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Crop Loss
Assessment

22. Case Study Of
Govindbhai Somabhai Chavda
“Rainfall Insurance is transparent and paid out at the right time but claims are small
compared to my actual loss” - Govindbhai Somabhai Chavda,
Shahpur, Mangrol, Junagadh, Gujarat
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“Providences are stronger than deliberations.” Few things would epitomize it better than Govindbhai’s trial of rainfall insurance. It
was one of those routine trips from his village to Mangrol during which Govindbhai saw a group of his fellow-villagers listening
attentively to some talk by an outsider.
A part-time farmer but a school teacher by occupation, Govindbhai could not douse his curiosity and ventured further to gain
more details. Never could Govindbhai or anyone else have imagined that he would walk out with a stake much bigger than any of
them who had been deliberately called to participate. Govindbhai ended up having a rainfall insurance coverage for 5.5 acres.
The role of premium subsidy by AKRSP (I) did play a big role in Govindbhai’s decision as he clearly put it, “Subsidy by AKRSP(I) was
a key motivator as I would have been reluctant to take chance with entire premium burden on myself.” The higher stake and the
occupational traits (being a school teacher) made Govindbhai drill deeper into the nuances of his rainfall insurance. His keen
observation was apparent when he pointed out, “The cheques for payment of rainfall insurance claims did not have an at-par
facility which cost me some precious rupees.
Despite his incisive eye, he attributes his experience of rainfall insurance to sheer luck, “I just came to know about weather
insurance by chance. In the end, it turned out to be a good bet for me.” For a part-time farmer, one may imagine that Govindbhai
would have been content with getting an indemnity payout of nearly three times the premium paid by him.
In his words, “Claim received by me is a small portion, about 50%, of the actual loss suffered by me.”
He goes on to articulate his situation better, “After I had invested INR 22,000 for 5.5 acres of my crop, I spent Rs 3500 as premium
to insure my investment. Why should I be satisfied with a total payout of INR 10,000 only when my actual loss in term of my
investment is much higher at INR 17,500? If I start considering the loss in terms of potential revenue, the payout seems even
smaller.” The explanation that basis risk and the covariant nature of rainfall insurance result in distortions of payouts vis-à-vis the
actual losses of an individual farmer fails to placate Govindbhai.
He avers, “I do not wish to be paid out in normal years but whenever I suffer a big loss, I should a get a reasonable claim.” Will
weather insurance ever be able to address Govindbhai’s requirement?

24. Practical Application
Of Remote Sensing
Technology (RST)
•Remote Sensing Technology (RST) has the potential to
offer plenty of complimentary and value added aids for
crop insurance.
•It provides insurers with:
• tools like
•hazard mapping,
•crop health reports,
•acreage-sown confirmation,
•yield modelling, etc.,
•Which importantly verify claims, but also
strengthens the position of insurers, vis-à-vis
the re-insurance market.
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The technology is already being tried out in agriculture insurance, in
countries like the United States of America (USA), Canada, Australia,
etc., for locating damaged areas and estimating the extent of
damage

25. Precision Farming and Risk Mitigation:
Farm level critical data collection
On-farm hardware for
access to critical farm
data:
collect real-time field
data,
monitor crop progress,
optimize inputs,
improve yield,
manage carbon credits
provide complete
lifecycle traceability
of your grain
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https://www.farmersedge.ca/farmers/

26. Suite of precision tools for end-to-end farm management
to mitigate risk and maximise returns per acre
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https://www.farmersedge.ca/farmcommand/

27. Soil Moisture
Data
collection by
SMAP
NASA’S Soil Moisture Active
Passive (SMAP) Satellite
collecting global soil
moisture data
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28. Online farm
management
system
Data stored and accessible
within a typical online farm
management system
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29. AIC pilot studies with Remote Sensing
Technology (RST)
•The Agriculture Insurance Co. of
India Ltd (AIC), conducted a few
pilots between 2003 and 2005, w/
reference to
•estimating cropped acreage
under different crops;
•stress detection and crop health
reporting; and
•generating yield estimates at
insurance unit level for insured
crops.
•The study revealed some
inadequacies in the implementation
of the RST technology as below:
•difficulty in getting cloud-free
images (particularly during the
Kharif season),
•unsuitability for crops with lower
foliage/ biomass,
•high-resolution data being
expensive, etc.
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30. National and Regional
Crop-type mapping
using Earth Observation
Satellite Data*
•*data collected using
satellites such as Landsat
and Sentinel
•Maps are freely available
in many parts of the world
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Satellite imagery of a village in Bihar submerged completelyGlobal satellite imagery of Healthy Rice fields
Images taken using Pleiades 50 cm-resolution global
satellite imagery to capture healthy rice fields in 2016,
in Bhojpur District, Bihar, India
Farmers faced heavy losses after floods in 2016

32. Remote sensing data and Insurance
•Remote sensing data on crop area and relative productivity levels,
will be available well before the cut-off date for receipt of crop
yield data provided by the DES*, facilitating adequate ground
validation.
•In-season monitoring will assist monitoring of crop progress and
provide advance warning of expected claims after the season.
•Similarly, the geo-referenced GIS database, would provide the
basis for reliable analysis and risk mapping zones.
*DES = Directorate of Economics and Statistics
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33. Potential applications of RST – a summary
(i) Estimating actual acreage-sown at
the insurance unit level to check the
discrepancy of ‘over-insurance’ (acreage
insured higher than acreage sown).
(ii) Investigating anomalies /
discrepancies in acreage-sown, through
ground surveys using the Global
Positioning Systems (GPS).
(iii) Monitoring crop health through the
crop season, and investigation on
ground for advance intimation of yield
losses.
(iv) Investigating satellite derived crop areas
and those from crop cutting experiments, to
check adequacy and reliability of data.
(v) Developing satellite based crop
productivity models for cereals and other
crops.
(vi) Developing a Geographic Information
System (GIS) of defined area of insurance
unit for user-friendly viewing, querying and
analysis of the agricultural situation.
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34. Cost Aspects of RST use
•Satellite data sets – low priced/ free
•Mobile technology – low cost
•Softwares – open source
•Cost of technology use – Rs. 5-10/ ha*
*which is a small fraction of indemnity/ sum insured!
- Source: Niti Ayog, 2016
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35. RST in securing Re-Insurance
•RST lends greater credibility to an insurer’s efforts towards
securing re-insurance, since these technologies are being used in
developed countries.
•Unbiased, objective and independent data, enables the insurer to
crosscheck and supplement other field information inputs.
•Independent information sources, will help check inflated claims.
•Periodic independent ground investigations based on satellite and
Geographic Information System (GIS), will further limit such
claims.
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36. Insurance Delivery Strategies
“limited adoption of remote sensing in insurance results from a lack of mutual understanding and
calls for greater cooperation between the insurance industry and the remote sensing community”.
The Potential and Uptake of Remote Sensing in Insurance: A Review (Nov 2014)
- Jan De Leeuw, Anton Vrieling, Apurba Shee, Clement Atzberger, Kiros M. Hadgu, Chandrashekhar M.
Biradar, Humphrey Keah and Calum Turvey
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37. Traditional Insurance Marketing
•Insurance by nature is mistakenly believed to be sold, not bought.
•Its presently ‘partially true’ in India. Marketing Crop Insurance is
comparatively more difficult as it is aimed at farmers who are
mostly resource-poor, with limited access to information.
•Hence, it calls for very substantial awareness and dissemination
programs, particularly, as an urgent intermediary step to create a
climate which would facilitate the effectiveness of direct selling
personnel, cost effectively.
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•Traditionally insurance is sold and serviced through “insurance intermediaries” consisting of insurance
agents and insurance brokers.
•Insurance agents could be both ‘individual’ and ‘corporate’, but can work for only one life insurer or
one non-life insurer, or both (composite agent).

38. Insurance
Distribution
Channels in India*
•Distribution is a key
determinant of success of all
insurance companies.
•It is a combination of
different decisions regarding
various channels of
distribution.
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*https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Insurance-Distribution-Channels-existing-in-India_tbl1_265166828

39. SWOT Analysis
of
Bancassurance
Bancassurance is a relationship
between a bank and an insurance
company that is aimed at offering
insurance products or insurance
benefits to the bank's customers.
In this partnership, bank staff and
tellers become the point of sale and
point of contact for the customer.
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https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Insurance-
Distribution-Channels-existing-in-India_tbl1_265166828

40. Traditional Insurance Marketing
•Area Yield Insurance: National Agricultural Insurance Scheme (NAIS), is credit
linked, and hence it is rightly serviced through Financial Institutions (FIs).
•The product (insurance): It is compulsory for borrowing farmers, and the FIs
extend insurance as and when a crop loan is disbursed.
•This concept has been conceived as cost effective insurance marketing, with
reasonable control over asymmetric information, particularly in case of borrowing
farmers.
•This model, however, has not been successful in servicing non-borrowing farmers,
who largely outnumber borrowing farmers.
•Non-borrowing farmers, for whom the scheme is optional, can avail insurance
from the nearest branch of the FIs, paying the premium.
The prime reason is lack of benefit awareness amongst this segment, servicing
shortfalls and moral hazards.
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41. Demand for Crop Insurance Bundled
with Micro-Credit
•Access to financial services is challenging for small farmers in developing
countries.
•The demand for micro-insurance when it is bundled with micro-credit in the
context of rain-fed agriculture, the conditions under which linking micro-
insurance with micro-credit have been shown to be beneficial for small
producers who cannot access agricultural credit due to lack of collateral.
•The results show that if crop insurance and agricultural loans are bundled,
the demand for crop insurance increases with the profitability of the
investment made through the agricultural credit, and it decreases with the
level of collateral required during the application for credit.
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Source: Mame Mor Anta Syll
1,2; 1
University Gaston Berger (UGB), Saint-Louis, Senegal.
2
Initiative Prospective Agricole et Rurale (IPAR, Think Tank), Dakar,
Senegal. DOI:10.4236/tel.[phone].

42. Micro-Insurance Regulations
•The IRDA has notified Micro-Insurance Regulations, 2005, to help insurers to adjust their
costs of serving marginal clients in remote areas, by collecting premiums and instalments,
and offering services at the door step.
•These Regulations, permits an insurer carrying on life insurance business, to offer life
micro-insurance products as also general micro-insurance products, to poor households.
•Similarly, an insurer carrying on general insurance business may also offer life micro-
insurance products.
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Micro insurance is specifically intended for the protection of low -income people, with affordable insurance
products to help them cope with and recover from financial losses.
The need of insurance for underprivileged section cannot be avoided as this section of society is more prone
to many risks which ultimately leads to incapacity to face such uncertain situations.
Hence, the role that micro insurance plays thus becomes inevitable
https://irdai.gov.in/about-microinsurance

43. Major challenges in microinsurance
distribution
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44. Salient features of the Micro-Insurance
Regulations, 2005
(i) Tie-up between life insurer and non-life
insurer:
•The Micro Insurance Regulations, provide a
framework under which customers can avail
both kinds of policy, from a single insurer.
•Under the Regulations, an insurer carrying
on life insurance business can offer any
general micro-insurance product, but shall
have to tie-up with an insurer carrying on
general insurance business and pass on the
premium attributable to the general micro
insurance product, either directly or
through any of the distributing entities, of
microinsurance products, to the general
insurance insurer.
•In the event of any claim in regard to
general micro-insurance products, the
insurer carrying on life insurance
business or the distributing entities of
micro-insurance products, shall
forward the claim to the insurer
carrying on the general insurance
business, and assist in the expeditious
disposal of the claim.
•Similarly, an insurer carrying on general
insurance business, could offer any life
micro-insurance products, by entering
into tie up with the Life Insurance
companies.
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45. Micro-insurance Regulations
•(ii) Appointment of Micro Insurance Agents:
•The Regulations provide for the
appointment of micro insurance agents, for
distribution of micro insurance products.
•For this purpose, the term “micro-insurance
agent” would mean
(i)a Non-Government Organization (NGO); or
(ii)a Self Help Group (SHG); or
(iii) a Micro-Finance Institution (MFI), who is
appointed by an insurer to act as a micro-
insurance agent for distribution of micro-
insurance products.
(iv) Micro-insurance agents shall not work for more
than one insurer, carrying out life/ general
insurance business.
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Major challenges in microinsurance
distribution
•Small ticket size coupled with high transaction
and service delivery costs.
•Absence of a business model that can attract
good intermediaries.
•Capacity building of intermediaries.
•Lack of basic awareness and knowledge on
how insurance works

46. Micro-insurance
Regulations
•General / Non-Life Micro
Insurance Products: The details
of micro insurance products as
per (IRDA) Regulations
•Micro insurance regulations,
(as can be seen from the table
on previous slide), also include
insurance of crops against all
perils, and, therefore, it’s a
golden opportunity for insurers
to strengthen their marketing
network and expand their
reach.
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47. Innovative Insurance Marketing
- Scope For Innovative Marketing & Distribution Channels
•Relevant promotional efforts will go a long way in facilitating
micro-insurance marketing.
•As the regulations also permit combining various insurance
covers, including life insurance cover, it provides an excellent
opportunity for insurers, to bundle insurance products as package
insurance.
•The Micro Insurance Regulations - 2005 would facilitate
convenient and flexible insurance products and their distribution.
•The Working Group examined the distribution issues, and
recommended the following approaches, in addition to the
existing distribution channels:
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48. Innovative Insurance Marketing
- Scope For Innovative Marketing & Distribution Channels
(a) Post Offices:
• The country has a network of nearly 1,40,000 post offices
in the rural areas, whose activities have been extended to
crop loan lending (the AIC working already with India
Posts).
•The local postman is very handy and well known in the
village, and can be a great source for crop insurance
marketing and servicing
(b) Deploying existing network of Agents of General & Life
Insurers
•Crop insurance marketing and distribution by nature
is a seasonal activity, and may not interest the
potential insurance agents to seek the agency of an
exclusive agriculture insurance insurer like AIC (as the
activity cannot provide round the year engagement and
livelihood).
•It would be a good idea to allow existing agents of other
insurance companies to distribute and service crop
insurance products of AIC, so long as there is no product
conflict.
•Public sector general insurers, who have a vast network of
rural agents, may be enlisted for crop insurance distribution
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49. I
(c)Using a network of Agri-Input Suppliers
•The country has a huge network of agricultural input
suppliers, who work closely with the farming
community, and, these therefore, should be
encouraged to distribute crop insurance products.
•Similarly Agri Commodity Traders, can also distribute
crop insurance products.
(d) Building Awareness
•To make the cost effective growth of insurance
products, in the rural economy, considering all the
challenges (detailed earlier), and the reluctance of
private insurers and distribution mechanisms, to
expand the base of insured farmers, it is essential to
initiate large scale awareness building campaigns
through the AIC.
•Krishi Bima Sansthans
•At present the implementing agency for crop
insurance (AIC) doesn’t have office network below
the state headquarters.
•The Group is strongly in favor of creating a district
level set-up in order to coordinate the crop
insurance activities with banks, district agencies and
to facilitate crop insurance marketing and delivery.
•The set up could also be involved in insurance
education and awareness.
•However, to minimize the administrative costs in the
initial stages, the set up could be out-sourced with
competent people.
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Innovative Insurance Marketing
- Scope For Innovative Marketing & Distribution Channels

50. Nationally Consistent Database
The need is for a nationally consistent database of all agricultural statistics,
meteorological data, which would go a long way in expediting claims processing in
crop insurance, and in appropriate design & rating of these products, not to mention
the macro level applications for the government policy making.
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51. Nationally Consistent Database
•The Government of India has been collecting,
collating and publishing data periodically on
various aspects of the economy.
•Government, researchers and others use these
databases to understand the past and current
situation and also prepare plans for the future.
•As we move to more a interdependent and
globalized world, the quality of data bases
become an important determinant in responding
to the challenges.
•For example, crop insurance is becoming
increasingly important, in helping to manage risk
at farm levels.
•To implement insurance schemes, accurate data on crop
yields and acreage at the individual and aggregated levels
is needed to decide actuarial premium and timely data to
decide the indemnity payments.
•It takes long time (3 - 5 months) to get CCE data from the
time of harvest of crops.
•Such long delays make insurance payment meaningless,
for farmers who have suffered huge losses and have no
other means to fall back on.
•In the context of extreme distress in agriculture, a good
insurance plan which can make immediate payment to
farmers, can help alleviate distress.
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52. Nationally Consistent Database
•Not having a proper system of collecting,
compiling and publishing data within
reasonable amounts of time, farmers
suffer, and insurance as an avenue for
mitigating distress is ineffective.
•This also impacts planning and
implementation of vital policies and
programmes as the inadequate data
generating / publishing processes can
severely handicap the activities.
•Government machinery needs to pay adequate
attention to use the currently available
technology to evolve a data capturing, collating,
storing and transmission system.
•Sufficient efforts need to be made to make it a
national priority to upgrade data base
management systems in order to help
government and other agencies to help plan and
implement various policies, programs and
schemes for the benefit of the farmers.
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53. The broad action plan can include:
Nationally Consistent Database
(i). Creation of centralized data
management system to accept
incoming data from all states
(ii). Developing of practical action
strategy to train personnel on data
formatting / management
procedures as well as new data
management system
(iii). Taking existing program data
and blend in historical data from all
states
(iv). Cleaning historical data
maintaining both the original values
and the ‘cleaned’ values
(v). Creating a web deployed data
visualization tool
(vi). Developing formal data
monitoring / auditing review
techniques to be implemented
annually
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54. End
[email protected]
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