LECTURE NOTES IN THERMODYNAMICS FINAL DMET 1 signed.pdf
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About This Presentation
thermo
Slide Content
Republic of the Philippines
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Poblacion, Alcantara, Romblon (5509)
[email protected]/09985731845
VISION
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MISSION
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resources for domestic and global demands
LEARNING MODULE FOR THERMODYNAMICS 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of energy and the related
properties of matter, especially of the laws of the transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice versa (Faires,
1978).
Thermodynamics is that branch of science that deals with energy, its conversion from one form to another and the
movement of energy from one location to another (Todd & Ellis, 1981).
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work, and properties of substances that bear a relation to heat
and work (Sonntag, 1998).
The word thermodynamics is derived from the Greek words therme, which means heat, and dynamis, which means
strength or motion.
There are four thermodynamics laws which are the basis of analysis, namely: the First Law of Thermodynamics, the
Second Law of Thermodynamics, the Third Law of Thermodynamics, and the Zeroth law.
Examples of related properties of matters are density, specific volume, pressure, temperature, and internal energy.
Examples of energy conversion systems are steam power plant, Diesel power plant, hydro power plant,
geothermal power plant, nuclear power plant, and solar power plant.
Working Substance is a fluid that receives, transports, and transfers energy; or it is a fluid in which energy can be stored
and from which energy can be removed.
Energy is the capacity of the system or substance to do an effect.
Work is the product of the component of a force in the direction of motion, and the distance through which the point of
application of the force moves during its action (Todd & Ellis, 1981).
Thermodynamic State refers to the thermodynamic condition and identified through the properties of a substance or
system
Thermodynamic Datum refers to the thermal reference of a substance or system.
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
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ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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LEARNING MODULE FOR THERMODYNAMICS 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
Thermodynamics is that branch of physical sciences that treats of various phenomena of energy and the related
properties of matter, especially of the laws of the transformation of heat into other forms of energy and vice versa (Faires,
1978).
Thermodynamics is that branch of science that deals with energy, its conversion from one form to another and the
movement of energy from one location to another (Todd & Ellis, 1981).
Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work, and properties of substances that bear a relation to heat
and work (Sonntag, 1998).
The word thermodynamics is derived from the Greek words therme, which means heat, and dynamis, which means
strength or motion.
There are four thermodynamics laws which are the basis of analysis, namely: the First Law of Thermodynamics, the
Second Law of Thermodynamics, the Third Law of Thermodynamics, and the Zeroth law.
Examples of related properties of matters are density, specific volume, pressure, temperature, and internal energy.
Examples of energy conversion systems are steam power plant, Diesel power plant, hydro power plant,
geothermal power plant, nuclear power plant, and solar power plant.
Working Substance is a fluid that receives, transports, and transfers energy; or it is a fluid in which energy can be stored
and from which energy can be removed.
Energy is the capacity of the system or substance to do an effect.
Work is the product of the component of a force in the direction of motion, and the distance through which the point of
application of the force moves during its action (Todd & Ellis, 1981).
Thermodynamic State refers to the thermodynamic condition and identified through the properties of a substance or
system
Thermodynamic Datum refers to the thermal reference of a substance or system.
Republic of the Philippines
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Poblacion, Alcantara, Romblon (5509)
[email protected]/09985731845
VISION
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Thermodynamics System Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat energy can be transferred from one body to the other or from one location in a body to the other. Study of the
techniques and the methods adopted to transfer heat energy is known as “HEAT TRANSFER”. To facilitate heat transfer
between two bodies must be a 2 different temperatures one higher than the other to allow heat to flow from one body to other.
This means that no heat transfers occurs between two bodies which are at the same temperature. At the same time it is very
important to note that heat only flows a body at higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Although this may look
obvious, this law is very important from the point of view of thermodynamics.
Heat transfer takes place in one of the three ways namely: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
A. Conduction
Conduction is the method of heat transfer of heat within a body or from one body to the other due to the transfer of
heat molecules vibrating at their mean positions. The bodies through which the heat transfer must be in contact with each
other. There is no actual movement of matter while transferring heat from one location to the other.
Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held together strongly by intermolecular
forces of attraction amongst them and so they only vibrate about their means positions as they receive heat energy and
thus pass it to the surrounding molecules by vibrations.
B. Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and gasses. In these methods, heat transfer
takes place with the actual motion of matter from one place within the body to the other. Often when we boil water we
have seen bubbles and currents develop in the water on careful observation.
C. Radiation
Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium and can be used for transfer of heat in a
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
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Thermodynamics System Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat energy can be transferred from one body to the other or from one location in a body to the other. Study of the
techniques and the methods adopted to transfer heat energy is known as “HEAT TRANSFER”. To facilitate heat transfer
between two bodies must be a 2 different temperatures one higher than the other to allow heat to flow from one body to other.
This means that no heat transfers occurs between two bodies which are at the same temperature. At the same time it is very
important to note that heat only flows a body at higher temperature to a body at a lower temperature. Although this may look
obvious, this law is very important from the point of view of thermodynamics.
Heat transfer takes place in one of the three ways namely: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
A. Conduction
Conduction is the method of heat transfer of heat within a body or from one body to the other due to the transfer of
heat molecules vibrating at their mean positions. The bodies through which the heat transfer must be in contact with each
other. There is no actual movement of matter while transferring heat from one location to the other.
Conduction occurs usually in solids where molecules in the structure are held together strongly by intermolecular
forces of attraction amongst them and so they only vibrate about their means positions as they receive heat energy and
thus pass it to the surrounding molecules by vibrations.
B. Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer which occurs mostly in liquids and gasses. In these methods, heat transfer
takes place with the actual motion of matter from one place within the body to the other. Often when we boil water we
have seen bubbles and currents develop in the water on careful observation.
C. Radiation
Radiation is another form of heat transfer. It does not require any medium and can be used for transfer of heat in a
Republic of the Philippines
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vacuum as well. This method uses electromagnetic waves which transfer heat from one place to the other. The heat and
light from the sun in our solar system reach our planet using radiation only.
In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when we sit near a fire we feel warm without
actually touching the burning wood. This is possible by radiation only.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
Thermodynamics system is anything, a certain quantity of matter, a certain volume in space, or a collection of matter
or space of fixed quantity that one has an interest for a particular study and analysis.
For purposes of analysis, thermodynamic systems are bounded by boundaries. The space outside the boundaries is
called as surroundings and the space inside is called as the system, a control mass, or a control volume.
Kinds of Thermodynamic Systems
1. Closed System is a system in which working substance does not cross its
boundaries but energy crosses its boundaries. A typical example of this system is a
piston and cylinder device as shown in Figure 1.1 below.
o Closed system is also called as Controlled Mass System. It has two types,
namely: then non-flow closed system, and the steady-flow closed system.
2. Open System is a thermodynamics system in which both the working substance and
energy are crossing its boundaries. An example of which is a pump or compressor being
cut from the suction point to the discharge side, as shown in figure 1.2 below.
o Open system is also called as Controlled Volume System. It has two types,
namely: the steady-flow open system, and the unsteady flow or transient flow
open system.
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vacuum as well. This method uses electromagnetic waves which transfer heat from one place to the other. The heat and
light from the sun in our solar system reach our planet using radiation only.
In fact, radiation is the most potent method of heat transfer. In winters when we sit near a fire we feel warm without
actually touching the burning wood. This is possible by radiation only.
THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS
Thermodynamics system is anything, a certain quantity of matter, a certain volume in space, or a collection of matter
or space of fixed quantity that one has an interest for a particular study and analysis.
For purposes of analysis, thermodynamic systems are bounded by boundaries. The space outside the boundaries is
called as surroundings and the space inside is called as the system, a control mass, or a control volume.
Kinds of Thermodynamic Systems
1. Closed System is a system in which working substance does not cross its
boundaries but energy crosses its boundaries. A typical example of this system is a
piston and cylinder device as shown in Figure 1.1 below.
o Closed system is also called as Controlled Mass System. It has two types,
namely: then non-flow closed system, and the steady-flow closed system.
2. Open System is a thermodynamics system in which both the working substance and
energy are crossing its boundaries. An example of which is a pump or compressor being
cut from the suction point to the discharge side, as shown in figure 1.2 below.
o Open system is also called as Controlled Volume System. It has two types,
namely: the steady-flow open system, and the unsteady flow or transient flow
open system.
Republic of the Philippines
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3. Isolated system is a thermodynamic system in which neither the mass (working substance) nor energy crosses its
boundaries, and completely not affected by the surrounding conditions.
o Example of which is a compartment in a spacecraft, where astronauts are located, which is not affected by the
conditions outside.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Thermodynamic Properties are descriptive characteristics of the system used to compute the changes of energy that
have occurred in a system or working substance. These are characteristics or attributes of matter which can be evaluated
quantitatively
A property is a characteristic quality of the entire system and depends not on how the system changes state but only on
the final system state (Burghardt & Harbach, 1993).
Types of Thermodynamic Properties
1. Intensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are independent of the mass of the substance in the system.
Example: temperature, pressure, density, and voltage.
2. Extensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the mass of the substance in the system.
These properties are total values. Example: total volume, total internal energy, or total enthalpy
3. Specific Properties are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are intensive by definition. Example: specific
volume, specific internal energy, or specific enthalpy
BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into another forms”.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of flow of heat energy, that is from the higher temperature
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3. Isolated system is a thermodynamic system in which neither the mass (working substance) nor energy crosses its
boundaries, and completely not affected by the surrounding conditions.
o Example of which is a compartment in a spacecraft, where astronauts are located, which is not affected by the
conditions outside.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
Thermodynamic Properties are descriptive characteristics of the system used to compute the changes of energy that
have occurred in a system or working substance. These are characteristics or attributes of matter which can be evaluated
quantitatively
A property is a characteristic quality of the entire system and depends not on how the system changes state but only on
the final system state (Burghardt & Harbach, 1993).
Types of Thermodynamic Properties
1. Intensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are independent of the mass of the substance in the system.
Example: temperature, pressure, density, and voltage.
2. Extensive Properties are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the mass of the substance in the system.
These properties are total values. Example: total volume, total internal energy, or total enthalpy
3. Specific Properties are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are intensive by definition. Example: specific
volume, specific internal energy, or specific enthalpy
BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1. First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The law of conservation of energy states that
“Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into another forms”.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of flow of heat energy, that is from the higher temperature
Republic of the Philippines
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body to lower temperature body, and the property known as “Entropy”.
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the temperature regime that excludes
absolute zero. The law states that, “At absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at 0
o
K or 0
o
R) in
some „perfect‟ crystalline form becomes zero”.
4. Zeroth Law is law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature measurement. The law states that
“When two bodies, isolated from other environment, are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The second law of motion of Newton states that, “The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to this mass”. Acceleration is also the derivative of velocity of a body
with respect to time.
where k is a proportionally constant
System of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system : 1 dyne of force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s
2
mks system : 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s
2
fps system : 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s
2
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body to lower temperature body, and the property known as “Entropy”.
3. Third Law of Thermodynamics deals with the restriction of all physical systems to the temperature regime that excludes
absolute zero. The law states that, “At absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at 0
o
K or 0
o
R) in
some „perfect‟ crystalline form becomes zero”.
4. Zeroth Law is law concerning thermal equilibrium and is the basis for temperature measurement. The law states that
“When two bodies, isolated from other environment, are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in thermal
equilibrium with each other”.
NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The second law of motion of Newton states that, “The acceleration of a particular body is directly proportional to the
resultant force acting on it and inversely proportional to this mass”. Acceleration is also the derivative of velocity of a body
with respect to time.
where k is a proportionally constant
System of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:
cgs system : 1 dyne of force accelerates 1 g mass at 1 cm/s
2
mks system : 1 newton force accelerates 1 kg mass at 1 m/s
2
fps system : 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at 1 ft/s
2
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Systems of units where k is not unity:
If the same word is used for both mass and force in given system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless.
1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s
2
1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s
2
1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s
2
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Systems of units where k is not unity:
If the same word is used for both mass and force in given system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless.
1 lb force accelerates a 1 lb mass at 32.174 ft/s
2
1 g force accelerates a 1 g mass at 980.66 cm/s
2
1 kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s
2
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Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)
Therefore:
1kgf = 9.8066N ≈ 9.81 N
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Relation between kilogram force (kgf) and Newton (N)
Therefore:
1kgf = 9.8066N ≈ 9.81 N
Republic of the Philippines
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Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug
1 slug = 32.174 lbm
ACCELERATION
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body if unit mass
1 poundal = (1lbm)(1ft/s
2
)
Where: F is force in poundals
m/k is a mass in pounds
a is acceleration in ft/s
2
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Relation between pound mass (lbm) and slug
1 slug = 32.174 lbm
ACCELERATION
A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a body if unit mass
1 poundal = (1lbm)(1ft/s
2
)
Where: F is force in poundals
m/k is a mass in pounds
a is acceleration in ft/s
2
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ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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1 pound = (1 slug) (1 ft/s
2
) ;
Where: F is force in pounds
m/k is mass in slugs
a is acceleration in ft/s
2
MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that does not change with the change of
gravity.
Weight is the force of gravity on the body and could be determined by a spring scale. This quantity changes with the
change of gravity.
o At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically equal.
where g = acceleration produced by force Fg ; acceleration of gravity
a = acceleration produced by another force F
k = proportionality constant
m = mass
Fg = gravitational force
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1 pound = (1 slug) (1 ft/s
2
) ;
Where: F is force in pounds
m/k is mass in slugs
a is acceleration in ft/s
2
MASS AND WEIGHT
Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that does not change with the change of
gravity.
Weight is the force of gravity on the body and could be determined by a spring scale. This quantity changes with the
change of gravity.
o At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically equal.
where g = acceleration produced by force Fg ; acceleration of gravity
a = acceleration produced by another force F
k = proportionality constant
m = mass
Fg = gravitational force
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DENSITY
Density is an intensive thermodynamic property that is usually used to determine the mass of the substance or system. It is the mass per unit
volume of a substance.
Where:
m = mass (kg, gm,lbm)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
ρ = density (kg/m
3
, g/cm
3
, lbm/ft
3
)
Note: Density of water is 1000 kg/m
3
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass substance; it is also defined as the reciprocal of density.
Where:
m = mass (kg, gm,lbm)
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DENSITY
Density is an intensive thermodynamic property that is usually used to determine the mass of the substance or system. It is the mass per unit
volume of a substance.
Where:
m = mass (kg, gm,lbm)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
ρ = density (kg/m
3
, g/cm
3
, lbm/ft
3
)
Note: Density of water is 1000 kg/m
3
SPECIFIC VOLUME
Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass substance; it is also defined as the reciprocal of density.
Where:
m = mass (kg, gm,lbm)
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V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
ρ = density (kg/m
3
, g/cm
3
, lbm/ft
3
)
= specific volume (m
3
/kg, cm
3
/kg, ft
3
/kg)
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Specific Weight is the force of gravity per unit volume of a substance.
Where:
W = weight (kN, gf, lbf)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
γ = specific weight (kN/m
3
, gf/cm
3
, lbf/ft
3
)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a certain substance to that of the specific weight of water at standard
condition. It is also defined as the ratio of the density of a certain substance to that of the density of water at standard
condition.
Note: S.G of fresh water is 1.0
S.G. of sea water is 1.03
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V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
ρ = density (kg/m
3
, g/cm
3
, lbm/ft
3
)
= specific volume (m
3
/kg, cm
3
/kg, ft
3
/kg)
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
Specific Weight is the force of gravity per unit volume of a substance.
Where:
W = weight (kN, gf, lbf)
V = volume (m
3
, cm
3
, ft
3
)
γ = specific weight (kN/m
3
, gf/cm
3
, lbf/ft
3
)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of a certain substance to that of the specific weight of water at standard
condition. It is also defined as the ratio of the density of a certain substance to that of the density of water at standard
condition.
Note: S.G of fresh water is 1.0
S.G. of sea water is 1.03
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MISSION
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PRESSURE
Pressure is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the force per unit area.
Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure gage or a pressure-measuring
instrument.
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the column atmospheric air per unit area; or it is the pressure of the
atmosphere at a certain location, say, at the surface of the earth near sea level.
Where:
P = Pressure (N/m
2
)
F = force (N)
A = Area (m
2
)
From P = Force/Area, we can derived another formula for pressure.
F = mg (F=force, m=mass, g=gravity)
V = Ah (V=volume, A=area, h=height)
So we can say that,
A = V/h
The Si unit of pressure is N/m
2
, which is called as a pascal
1 Pa = 1N/m
2
Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar
P
??????
??????
P
????????????
??????
ℎ
P
mgh
??????
; but we all know that m/V is density (ρ)
P ρgh
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
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PRESSURE
Pressure is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the force per unit area.
Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure gage or a pressure-measuring
instrument.
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the column atmospheric air per unit area; or it is the pressure of the
atmosphere at a certain location, say, at the surface of the earth near sea level.
Where:
P = Pressure (N/m
2
)
F = force (N)
A = Area (m
2
)
From P = Force/Area, we can derived another formula for pressure.
F = mg (F=force, m=mass, g=gravity)
V = Ah (V=volume, A=area, h=height)
So we can say that,
A = V/h
The Si unit of pressure is N/m
2
, which is called as a pascal
1 Pa = 1N/m
2
Note that stress is not a true pressure since it is not scalar
P
??????
??????
P
????????????
??????
ℎ
P
mgh
??????
; but we all know that m/V is density (ρ)
P ρgh
Republic of the Philippines
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
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The pressure unit, pascal is too small in practice. Therefore its multiple enlisted below are used in practice. They are related as:
1 kPa = 10
3
Pa
1 MPa = 10
6
Pa
1 bar = 100 kPa = 10
5
Pa
1 Torr = 133.32 Pa
Standard atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, near sea level
o 1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa
o 1 atmosphere = 14.7 psi
o 1 atmosphere = 29.92 inHg
o 1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg
o 1 atmosphere = 1.013 bar
o 1 atmosphere = 34 ft H
2O
o 1 atmospheric = 10.33 m H
2O
o 1 atmosphere = 760 Torr
o 1 atmosphere = 1.0332 kgf/cm
2
o 1 atmosphere = 1.0332 x 10
6
dyne/cm
2
Special Pressure Conversions:
o 1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa
o 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr
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The pressure unit, pascal is too small in practice. Therefore its multiple enlisted below are used in practice. They are related as:
1 kPa = 10
3
Pa
1 MPa = 10
6
Pa
1 bar = 100 kPa = 10
5
Pa
1 Torr = 133.32 Pa
Standard atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, near sea level
o 1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa
o 1 atmosphere = 14.7 psi
o 1 atmosphere = 29.92 inHg
o 1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg
o 1 atmosphere = 1.013 bar
o 1 atmosphere = 34 ft H
2O
o 1 atmospheric = 10.33 m H
2O
o 1 atmosphere = 760 Torr
o 1 atmosphere = 1.0332 kgf/cm
2
o 1 atmosphere = 1.0332 x 10
6
dyne/cm
2
Special Pressure Conversions:
o 1 bar = 100 kPa = 0.10 MPa
o 1 mm Hg = 1 Torr
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Dynamic Pressure
Pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it impacts
on a surface or an object due to its motion or flow
Static and Dynamic Pressure
Pressure is related to momentum, while temperature is related to kinetic energy
• In most thermodynamic investigations we are concerned with absolute pressure
• In thermodynamics, we are almost always concerned with the absolute pressure as opposed to the gauge pressure
• Most pressure and vacuum gauges read the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure
existing at the gauge. This is referred to as gauge pressure
• Pressure is a property of fluids, which, by definition cannot support a shear
• Stress comes in three forms:
o Tensile/compressive stresses are related to forces normal to a surface
o Shear stresses are in the plane of the surface
o The bulk modulus is related to hydrostatic forces (pressure)
Except for the fact that the bulk modulus is measured by applying hydrostatic pressure, stress relates to properties of solids
Static Pressure
Pressure of fluid or gases that are
stationary or not in motion
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Dynamic Pressure
Pressure exerted by a fluid or gas when it impacts
on a surface or an object due to its motion or flow
Static and Dynamic Pressure
Pressure is related to momentum, while temperature is related to kinetic energy
• In most thermodynamic investigations we are concerned with absolute pressure
• In thermodynamics, we are almost always concerned with the absolute pressure as opposed to the gauge pressure
• Most pressure and vacuum gauges read the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure
existing at the gauge. This is referred to as gauge pressure
• Pressure is a property of fluids, which, by definition cannot support a shear
• Stress comes in three forms:
o Tensile/compressive stresses are related to forces normal to a surface
o Shear stresses are in the plane of the surface
o The bulk modulus is related to hydrostatic forces (pressure)
Except for the fact that the bulk modulus is measured by applying hydrostatic pressure, stress relates to properties of solids
Static Pressure
Pressure of fluid or gases that are
stationary or not in motion
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ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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Republic of the Philippines
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Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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resources for domestic and global demands
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Poblacion, Alcantara, Romblon (5509)
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VISION
Skilling Romblon through quality TVET delivery for people’s prosperity
MISSION
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resources for domestic and global demands
Republic of the Philippines
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Poblacion, Alcantara, Romblon (5509)
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VISION
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MISSION
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Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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VISION
Skilling Romblon through quality TVET delivery for people’s prosperity
MISSION
Equipping the province with competent, flexible, economically stable and dignified human
resources for domestic and global demands
Republic of the Philippines
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Poblacion, Alcantara, Romblon (5509)
[email protected]/09985731845
VISION
Skilling Romblon through quality TVET delivery for people’s prosperity
MISSION
Equipping the province with competent, flexible, economically stable and dignified human
resources for domestic and global demands
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
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VISION
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MISSION
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resources for domestic and global demands
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Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
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Types of Manometer
U-tube Manometer Well-type Manometer Incline-tube Manometer
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Types of Manometer
U-tube Manometer Well-type Manometer Incline-tube Manometer
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Mercury Barometer
Mercury Barometer measures atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere is able to force mercury in
the tube of a height because the pressure
above the mercury is zero
Pressure due to weight of mercury equals
atmospheric pressure
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Mercury Barometer
Mercury Barometer measures atmospheric pressure
The atmosphere is able to force mercury in
the tube of a height because the pressure
above the mercury is zero
Pressure due to weight of mercury equals
atmospheric pressure
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Hydrostatic Pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure in a liquid
• Hydrostatic Pressure or Fluid Gage Pressure is the force exerted by a column of fluid per unit area.
• The pressure increases as the depth in a liquid increases, due to its weight
• In term of equation, P = ρgh
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the
base of a column of fluid
Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear
calibration. They have poor dynamic response
ρ = density in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
h = depth in liquid in m
P = pressure in Pa
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Hydrostatic Pressure
• Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure in a liquid
• Hydrostatic Pressure or Fluid Gage Pressure is the force exerted by a column of fluid per unit area.
• The pressure increases as the depth in a liquid increases, due to its weight
• In term of equation, P = ρgh
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the
base of a column of fluid
Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear
calibration. They have poor dynamic response
ρ = density in kg/m3
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2)
h = depth in liquid in m
P = pressure in Pa
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Piston Types Gauge
• Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a spring
• For example dead-weight testers used for calibration and Tire-pressure gauges
Mechanical Gauges – Bourdon type, Bellows type
Key concept: pressure difference across different areas of inner and outer surfaces causes crescent to flex
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Piston Types Gauge
• Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a spring
• For example dead-weight testers used for calibration and Tire-pressure gauges
Mechanical Gauges – Bourdon type, Bellows type
Key concept: pressure difference across different areas of inner and outer surfaces causes crescent to flex
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Absolute Pressure
o Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure.
o Absolute pressure is the true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.
o Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a “perfect vacuum” (it-the value-is equal to gauge pressure plus
atmospheric pressure)
Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure; it-the value-is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric
pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted; often expressed as “inches of vacuum” or some such
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points
Pabs = Pgage + Patm
Pabs = Patm – Pvac
Note: Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum.
The perfect vacuum is -101.325 kPa
Pressure Measuring Instruments
o Barometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure atmospheric pressure.
o Pressure Gauge is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure directly by its dial indicator. A
typical example of which is a Bourdon pressure gauge, as shown in the figure 1.6 below.
o Manometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure of the system using U-tube
wherein water or mercury is the working substance. Illustration of a manometer is shown in the figure 1.7 below.
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Absolute Pressure
o Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the barometric pressure or atmospheric pressure and the gauge pressure.
o Absolute pressure is the true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum.
o Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a “perfect vacuum” (it-the value-is equal to gauge pressure plus
atmospheric pressure)
Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure; it-the value-is equal to absolute pressure minus atmospheric
pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted; often expressed as “inches of vacuum” or some such
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points
Pabs = Pgage + Patm
Pabs = Patm – Pvac
Note: Pgage = negative (-) when the pressure is vacuum.
The perfect vacuum is -101.325 kPa
Pressure Measuring Instruments
o Barometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure atmospheric pressure.
o Pressure Gauge is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure directly by its dial indicator. A
typical example of which is a Bourdon pressure gauge, as shown in the figure 1.6 below.
o Manometer is a pressure-measuring instrument, used to measure gauge pressure of the system using U-tube
wherein water or mercury is the working substance. Illustration of a manometer is shown in the figure 1.7 below.
Republic of the Philippines
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TEMPERATURE
As defined by James Clerk Maxwell, “The temperature of a body is its thermal state considered with reference to its ability
to communicate heat to another bodies” (Faires, 1978).
Temperature is also defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body; it is an intensive thermodynamic
property used to indicate the amount of energy within the molecules of the substance.
Two arbitrary scales are commonly used for measuring temperature, namely: the Fahrenheit scale (after Gabriel
Fahrenheit, 1686-1736), and the Celsius scale (after Anders Celsius, 1701-1744).
Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0
o
F and the boiling point of water as 212
o
F at 1
standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used for English system of measurement.
Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0
o
C and the boiling point of water as 100
o
C at 1 standard
atmospheric pressure. This scale is used in the Metric and SI system of measurement.
Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body or system in reference to absolute zero. Degrees Rankine is the unit
used in the English system while Degreed Kelvin is used in the Metric or SI system of units.
Temperature Equations:
o Conversion of ºF to ºC →
o Conversion of ºC to ºF →
)
o Absolute temperature in ºK →
o Absolute temperature in ºR →
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TEMPERATURE
As defined by James Clerk Maxwell, “The temperature of a body is its thermal state considered with reference to its ability
to communicate heat to another bodies” (Faires, 1978).
Temperature is also defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body; it is an intensive thermodynamic
property used to indicate the amount of energy within the molecules of the substance.
Two arbitrary scales are commonly used for measuring temperature, namely: the Fahrenheit scale (after Gabriel
Fahrenheit, 1686-1736), and the Celsius scale (after Anders Celsius, 1701-1744).
Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0
o
F and the boiling point of water as 212
o
F at 1
standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used for English system of measurement.
Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0
o
C and the boiling point of water as 100
o
C at 1 standard
atmospheric pressure. This scale is used in the Metric and SI system of measurement.
Absolute temperature is the temperature of a body or system in reference to absolute zero. Degrees Rankine is the unit
used in the English system while Degreed Kelvin is used in the Metric or SI system of units.
Temperature Equations:
o Conversion of ºF to ºC →
o Conversion of ºC to ºF →
)
o Absolute temperature in ºK →
o Absolute temperature in ºR →
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The temperature Interval (Change)
The temperature interval is the difference between two temperature readings from the same scale, and the change in
temperature through which the body is heated.
Note: 1Cº = 9/5 Fº and degree must be written after the temperature scale for it to indicate that it is a change in temperature.
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The temperature Interval (Change)
The temperature interval is the difference between two temperature readings from the same scale, and the change in
temperature through which the body is heated.
Note: 1Cº = 9/5 Fº and degree must be written after the temperature scale for it to indicate that it is a change in temperature.
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CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law of conservation of mass states that “Mass can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into
components”.
The quantity if fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula
Mass(m1) entering the system is equal to the sum of the stored mass ( ) and the mass (m2) that leaves the systems
Where;
V = velocity
A = cross sectional area of the stream
= density
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CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law of conservation of mass states that “Mass can neither be created nor destroyed, it just transforms into
components”.
The quantity if fluid passing through a given section is given by the formula
Mass(m1) entering the system is equal to the sum of the stored mass ( ) and the mass (m2) that leaves the systems
Where;
V = velocity
A = cross sectional area of the stream
= density
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IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
A thermodynamic system that generally serves as a heat source or heat sink for another system is known as Heat
Reservoir.
A thermodynamic system that operates continuously with only heat and work are crossing its boundaries and its
boundaries are impervious to the flow of mass is called Heat Engine.
A thermodynamic system that is impervious to heat because of its perfect insulation on the surface is known as adiabatic
system.
A substance that is homogeneous and invariable in its chemical composition is called Pure Substance.
The common units of pressure are kgf/m
2
, kN/m
2
, Pa, kPa, MPa, bar in the metric or SI systems; and psi, lb/ft
2
in the
English systems.
Thermodynamic system is also defined as a collection of matter or space of fixed identity.
Thermodynamic state of the system or substance is its condition that describes how the substance exists.
Prepared by:
ENGR. SETH G. GREGORIO
Subject Instructor
Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
Region IV-B (MiMaRoPa)
ROMBLON NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Poblacion, Alcantara, Romblon (5509)
[email protected]/09985731845
VISION
Skilling Romblon through quality TVET delivery for people’s prosperity
MISSION
Equipping the province with competent, flexible, economically stable and dignified human
resources for domestic and global demands
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER
A thermodynamic system that generally serves as a heat source or heat sink for another system is known as Heat
Reservoir.
A thermodynamic system that operates continuously with only heat and work are crossing its boundaries and its
boundaries are impervious to the flow of mass is called Heat Engine.
A thermodynamic system that is impervious to heat because of its perfect insulation on the surface is known as adiabatic
system.
A substance that is homogeneous and invariable in its chemical composition is called Pure Substance.
The common units of pressure are kgf/m
2
, kN/m
2
, Pa, kPa, MPa, bar in the metric or SI systems; and psi, lb/ft
2
in the
English systems.
Thermodynamic system is also defined as a collection of matter or space of fixed identity.
Thermodynamic state of the system or substance is its condition that describes how the substance exists.
Prepared by:
ENGR. SETH G. GREGORIO
Subject Instructor
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