Manufacturing engineering and technology - Schmid and Kalpakjian

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-1
CHAPTER 1
The Structure of Metals

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-2
Chapter 1 Outline
Figure 1.1 An outline of the topics described in Chapter 1

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-3
Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single
crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1,
John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-4
Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single
crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1,
John Wiley & Sons, 1976.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-5
Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure
Figure 1.4 The hexagonal close-
packed (hcp) crystal structure:
(a) unit cell; and (b) single
crystal with many unit cells.
Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The
Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley &
Sons, 1976.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Slip and Twinning
Figure 1.5 Permanent deformation (also
called plastic deformation) of a single
crystal subjected to a shear stress: (a)
structure before deformation; and (b)
permanent deformation by slip. The size
of the b/a ratio influences the magnitude
of the shear stress required to cause slip.
Figure 1.6 (a) Permanent deformation of a single
crystal under a tensile load. Note that the slip planes
tend to align themselves in the direction of the pulling
force. This behavior can be simulated using a deck of
cards with a rubber band around them. (b) Twinning
in a single crystal in tension.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Slip Lines and Slip Bands
Figure 1.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines
and slip bands in a single crystal (grain)
subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists
of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the
center of the upper illustration is an individual
grain surrounded by other grains.

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Edge and Screw Dislocations
Figure 1.8 Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation.
Source: (a) After Guy and Hren, Elements of Physical Metallurgy, 1974. (b) L. Van Vlack, Materials for
Engineering, 4th ed., 1980.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-9
Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice
Figure 1.9 Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice: self-
interstitial, vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Movement of an Edge Dislocation
Figure 1.10 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress.
Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals in much lower than that predicted by
theory.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-11
Solidification
Figure 1.11 Schematic
illustration of the stages
during solidification of
molten metal; each small
square represents a unit cell.
(a) Nucleation of crystals at
random sites in the molten
metal; note that the
crystallographic orientation
of each site is different. (b)
and (c) Growth of crystals as
solidification continues. (d)
Solidified metal, showing
individual grains and grain
boundaries; note the different
angles at which neighboring
grains meet each other.
Source: W. Rosenhain.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-12
Grain Sizes
TABLE 1.1
ASTM No. Grains/mm
2
Grains/mm
3
–3
–2
–1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
1,024
2,048
4,096
8,200
16,400
32,800
0.7
2
5.6
16
45
128
360
1,020
2,900
8,200
23,000
65,000
185,000
520,000
1,500,000
4,200,000

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-13
Preferred Orientation
Figure 1.12 Plastic deformation of
idealized (equiaxed) grains in a
specimen subjected to compression
(such as occurs in the rolling or forging
of metals): (a) before deformation; and
(b) after deformation. Note hte
alignment of grain boundaries along a
horizontal direction; this effect is
known as preferred orientation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-14
Anisotropy
Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been subjected to bulging
(caused by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet). Note the orientation of the crack with
respect to the rolling direction of the sheet; this sheet is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack
(vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test; the rolling direction of the sheet was vertical.
Source: J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology.
(b)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-15
Annealing
Figure 1.14 Schematic illustration of the
effects of recovery, recrystallization, and
grain growth on mechanical properties
and on the shape and size of grains. Note
the formation of small new grains during
recrystallization. Source: G. Sachs.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-16
Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various
Processes
TABLE 1.2
Process T/T
m
Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
< 0.3
0.3 to 0.5
> 0.6

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-1
CHAPTER 2
Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and
Manufacturing Properties of Materials

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-2
Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at
Room Temperature
TABLE 2.1
Strength Hardness Toughness Stiffness Strength/Density
Glass fibers
Graphite fibers
Kevlar fibers
Carbides
Molybdenum
Steels
Tantalum
Titanium
Copper
Reinforced
Reinforced
Thermoplastics
Lead
Diamond
Cubic boron nitride
Carbides
Hardened steels
Titanium
Cast irons
Copper
Thermosets
Magnesium
thermosets
thermoplastics
Lead
Rubbers
Ductile metals
Reinforced plastics
Thermoplastics
Wood
Thermosets
Ceramics
Glass
Ceramics
Reinforced
Thermoplastics
Tin
Thermoplastics
Diamond
Carbides
Tungsten
Steel
Copper
Titanium
Aluminum
Tantalum
plastics
Wood
Thermosets
Reinforced plastics
Titanium
Steel
Aluminum
Magnesium
Beryllium
Copper

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-3
Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine
(b)
Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final
gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-4
Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 2.2 A typical stress-
strain curve obtained from a
tension test, showing various
features.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-5
Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at
Room Temperature
TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room TemperatureMetals (Wrought) E (GPa) Y (MPa) UTS (MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
Aluminum and its alloys
Copper and its alloys
Lead and its alloys
Magnesium and its alloys
Molybdenum and its alloys
Nickel and its alloys
Steels
Titanium and its alloys
Tungsten and its alloys
69–79
105–150
14
41–45
330–360
180–214
190–200
80–130
350–400
35–550
76–1100
14
130–305
80–2070
105–1200
205–1725
344–1380
550–690
90–600
140–1310
20–55
240–380
90–2340
345–1450
415–1750
415–1450
620–760
45–4
65–3
50–9
21–5
40–30
60–5
65–2
25–7
0
Nonmetallic materialsCeramics Diamond Glass and porcelain Rubbers Thermoplastics Thermoplastics, reinforced Thermosets
Boron fibers
Carbon fibers
Glass fibers
Kevlar fibers
70–1000
820–1050
70-80
0.01–0.1
1.4–3.4
2–50
3.5–17
380
275–415
73–85
62–117
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
140–2600
—
140
—
7–80
20–120
35–170
3500
2000–3000
3500–4600
2800
0
—
—
—
1000–5
10–1
0
0
0
0
0
Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals.
Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. (psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-6
Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test
Specimen
Figure 2.3 Schematic illustration of the
loading and the unloading of a tensile- test
specimen. Note that, during unloading,
the curve follows a path parallel to the
original elastic slope.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-7
Elongation versus % Area Reduction
Figure 2.4
Approximate
relationship
between elongation
and tensile
reduction of area
for various groups
of metals.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-8
Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve
Figure 2.5 (a) Load-elongation
curve in tension testing of a
stainless steel specimen. (b)
Engineering stress-engineering
strain curve, drawn from the data
in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress-true
strain curve, drawn from the data
in Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve
has a positive slope, indicating
that the material is becoming
stronger as it is strained. (d) True
stress-true strain curve plotted on
log-log paper and based on the
corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c. The
correction is due to the triaxial
state of stress that exists in the
necked region of a specimen.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-9
Typical Values for K and n at Room
TemperatureTABLE 2.3
K (MPa) n
Aluminum
1100–O
2024–T4
6061–O
6061–T6
7075–O
Brass
70–30, annealed
85–15, cold-rolled
Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated
Copper, annealed
Steel
Low-C annealed
4135 annealed
4135 cold-rolled
4340 annealed
304 stainless, annealed
410 stainless, annealed
180
690
205
410
400
900
580
2070
315
530
1015
1100
640
1275
960
0.20
0.16
0.20
0.05
0.17
0.49
0.34
0.50
0.54
0.26
0.17
0.14
0.15
0.45
0.10

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-10
True Stress-True Strain Curves
Figure 2.6 True stress-true
strain curves in tension at
room temperature for
various metals. The curves
start at a finite level of
stress: The elastic regions
have too steep a slope to be
shown in this figure, and so
each curve starts at the
yield stress, Y, of the
material.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-11
Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves
Figure 2.7 Typical effects of temperature
on stress-strain curves. Note that
temperature affects the modulus of
elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate
tensile strength, and the toughness (area
under the curve) of materials.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-12
Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in
Manufacturing Processes
TABLE 2.4Process True strain
Deformation rate
(m/s)
Cold working
Forging, rolling
Wire and tube drawing
Explosive forming
Hot working and warm working
Forging, rolling
Extrusion
Machining
Sheet-metal forming
Superplastic forming
0.1–0.5
0.05–0.5
0.05–0.2
0.1–0.5
2–5
1–10
0.1–0.5
0.2–3
0.1–100
0.1–100
10–100
0.1–30
0.1–1
0.1–100
0.05–2
10
-4
-10
-2

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-13
Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Tensile
Strength
Figure 2.8 The effect of strain
rate on the ultimate tensile
strength for aluminum. Note
that, as the temperature
increases, the slopes of the
curves increase; thus, strength
becomes more and more
sensitive to strain rate as
temperature increases. Source:
J. H. Hollomon.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-14
Disk and Torsion-Test Specimens
Figure 2.9 Disk test on a brittle
material, showing the direction
of loading and the fracture path.
Figure 2.10 Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and
twisted. Note the shear deformation of
an element in the reduced section of
the specimen.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-15
Bending
Figure 2.11 Two bend-test
methods for brittle materials: (a)
three-point bending; (b) four-
point bending. The areas on the
beams represent the bending-
moment diagrams, described in
texts on mechanics of solids.
Note the region of constant
maximum bending moment in
(b); by contrast, the maximum
bending moment occurs only at
the center of the specimen in
(a).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Hardness Tests
Figure 2.12 General
characteristics of
hardness-testing
methods and formulas
for calculating
hardness. The quantity
P is the load applied.
Source: H. W. Hayden,
et al., The Structure
and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III
(John Wiley & Sons,
1965).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-17
Brinell Testing
(c)
Figure 2.13 Indentation geometry in
Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal; (b)
work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of
mild steel under a spherical indenter.
Note that the depth of the permanently
deformed zone is about one order of
magnitude larger than the depth of
indentation. For a hardness test to be
valid, this zone should be fully
developed in the material. Source: M. C.
Shaw and C. T. Yang.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-18
Hardness
Conversion
Chart
Figure 2.14 Chart
for converting
various hardness
scales. Note the
limited range of
most scales.
Because of the
many factors
involved, these
conversions are
approximate.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-19
S-N Curves
Figure 2.15 Typical S-N
curves for two metals. Note
that, unlike steel, aluminum
does not have an endurance
limit.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-20
Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength versus
Tensile Strength
Figure 2.16 Ratio of endurance limit to
tensile strength for various metals, as a
function of tensile strength. Because
aluminum does not have an endurance limit,
the correlation for aluminum are based on a
specific number of cycles, as is seen in Fig.
2.15.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-21
Creep Curve
Figure 2.17 Schematic
illustration of a typical creep
curve. The linear segment of
the curve (secondary) is used
in designing components for a
specific creep life.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-22
Impact Test Specimens
Figure 2.18 Impact test
specimens: (a) Charpy;
(b) Izod.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-23
Failures of Materials and Fractures in
Tension
Figure 2.19 Schematic illustration
of types of failures in materials: (a)
necking and fracture of ductile
materials; (b) Buckling of ductile
materials under a compressive load;
(c) fracture of brittle materials in
compression; (d) cracking on the
barreled surface of ductile materials
in compression.
Figure 2.20 Schematic illustration of the types of
fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline
metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals--see
also Fig. 1.6a; (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in
polycrystalline metals; (d) complete ductile fracture in
polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-24
Ductile Fracture
Figure 2.21 Surface of ductile
fracture in low-carbon steel,
showing dimples. Fracture is
usually initiated at impurities,
inclusions, or preexisting voids
(microporosity) in the metal.
Source: K.-H. Habig and D.
Klaffke. Photo by BAM
Berlin/Germany.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-25
Fracture of a Tensile-Test Specimen
Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of
necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an
internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final
fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-26
Deformation of Soft and Hard Inclusions
Figure 2.23 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and of their effect on void
formation in plastic deformation. Note that, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of the
ductile matrix, hard inclusions can cause internal voids.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-27
Transition Temperature
Figure 2.24 Schematic
illustration of transition
temperature in metals.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-28
Brittle Fracture Surface
Figure 2.25 Fracture
surface of steel that has
failed in a brittle manner.
The fracture path is
transgranular (through the
grains). Magnification:
200X. Source: Courtesy
of B. J. Schulze and S. L.
Meiley and Packer
Engineering Associates,
Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-29
Intergranular Fracture
Figure 2.26 Intergranular
fracture, at two different
magnifications. Grains
and grain boundaries are
clearly visible in this
micrograph. Te fracture
path is along the grain
boundaries.
Magnification: left, 100X;
right, 500X. Source:
Courtesy of B. J. Schulze
and S. L. Meiley and
Packer Engineering
Associates, Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-30
Fatigue-Fracture Surface
Figure 2.27 Typical
fatigue-fracture surface on
metals, showing beach
marks. Magnification:
left, 500X; right, 1000X.
Source: Courtesy of B. J.
Schulze and S. L. Meiley
and Packer Engineering
Associates, Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-31
Reduction in Fatigue Strength
Figure 2.28 Reductions in the
fatigue strength of cast steels
subjected to various surface-
finishing operations. Note that the
reduction becomes greater as the
surface roughness and the strength
of the steel increase. Source: M.
R. Mitchell.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-32
Residual Stresses
Figure 2.29 Residual stresses developed in bending a beam having a rectangular cross-section. Note that the
horizontal forces and moments caused by residual stresses in the beam must be balanced internally. Because of
nonuniform deformation during metalworking operations, most parts develop residual stresses.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 2-33
Distortion of Parts with Residual Stresses
Figure 2.30 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat
sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing or pipe.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 3-1
CHAPTER 3
Physical Properties of Materials

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 3-2
Physical Properties of Selected Materials at
Room Temperature
TABLE 3.1 Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room TemperatureMetal Density
(kg/m
3)
Melting Point
(°C)
Specific heat
(J/kg K)
Thermal conductivity
(W/m K)
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys
Beryllium
Columbium (niobium)
Copper
Copper alloys
Iron
Steels
Lead
Lead alloys
Magnesium
Magnesium alloys
Molybdenum alloys
Nickel
Nickel alloys
Tantalum alloys
Titanium
Titanium alloys
Tungsten
Zinc
Zinc alloys
2700
2630–2820
1854
8580
8970
7470–8940
7860
6920–9130
11,350
8850–11,350
1745
1770–1780
10,210
8910
7750–8850
16,600
4510
4430–4700
19,290
7140
6640–7200
660
476–654
1278
2468
1082
885–1260
1537
1371–1532
327
182–326
650
610–621
2610
1453
1110–1454
2996
1668
1549–1649
3410
419
386–525
900
880–920
1884
272
385
377–435
460
448–502
130
126–188
1025
1046
276
440
381–544
142
519
502–544
138
385
402
222
121–239
146
52
393
29–234
74
15–52
35
24–46
154
75–138
142
92
12–63
54
17
8–12
166
113
105–113
NonmetallicCeramics
Glasses
Graphite
Plastics
Wood
2300–5500
2400–2700
1900–2200
900–2000
400–700
—
580–1540
—
110–330
—
750–950
500–850
840
1000–2000
2400–2800
10–17
0.6–1.7
5–10
0.1–0.4
0.1–0.4

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 3-3
Physical Properties of Material
TABLE 3.2 Physical Properties of Materials, in Descending OrderDensity Melting point Specific heat Thermal
conductivity
Thermal
expansion
Electrical
conductivity
Platinum
Gold
Tungsten
Tantalum
Lead
Silver
Molybdenum
Copper
Steel
Titanium
Aluminum
Beryllium
Glass
Magnesium
Plastics
Tungsten
Tantalum
Molybdenum
Columbium
Titanium
Iron
Beryllium
Copper
Gold
Silver
Aluminum
Magnesium
Lead
Tin
Plastics
Wood
Beryllium
Porcelain
Aluminum
Graphite
Glass
Titanium
Iron
Copper
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Lead
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium
Graphite
Tungsten
Beryllium
Zinc
Steel
Tantalum
Ceramics
Titanium
Glass
Plastics
Plastics
Lead
Tin
Magnesium
Aluminum
Copper
Steel
Gold
Ceramics
Glass
Tungsten
Silver
Copper
Gold
Aluminum
Magnesium
Tungsten
Beryllium
Steel
Tin
Graphite
Ceramics
Glass
Plastics
Quartz

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 3-4
Specific
Strength and
Specific
Stiffness
Figure 3.1 Specific
strength (tensile
strength/density) and
specific stiffness (elastic
modulus/density) for
various materials at
room temperature. (See
also Chapter 9.) Source:
M.J. Salkind.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 3-5
Specific Strength versus Temperature
Figure 3.2 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) for a variety of materials as a
function of temperature. Note the useful temperature range for these materials and the
high values for composite materials.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-1
CHAPTER 4
Metal Alloys: Their Structure and
Strengthening by Heat Treatment

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-2
Induction-Hardened Surface
Figure 4.1 Cross-section of
gear teeth showing
induction-hardened
surfaces. Source: TOCCO
Div., Park-Ohio Industries,
Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-3
Chapter 4 Outline
Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-4
Two-Phase System
Figure 4.3 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout
the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid
solution in copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a two-
phase system consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have
separate compositions and properties.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-5
Cooling Curve
Figure 4.4 Cooling curve for
the solidification of pure
metals. Note that freezing takes
place at a constant temperature;
during freezing the latent heat
of solidification is given off.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-6
Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram
Figure 4.5 Phase
diagram for nickel-
copper alloy system
obtained at a slow
rate of solidification.
Note that pure nickel
and pure copper each
has one freezing or
melting temperature.
The top circle on the
right depicts the
nucleation of
crystals. The second
circle shows the
formation of
dendrites (see
Section 10.2). The
bottom circle shows
the solidified alloy,
with grain
boundaries.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-7
Mechanical Properties of Copper-Nickel and
Copper-Zinc AlloysFigure 4.6 Mechanical properties of copper-nickel
and copper-zinc alloys as a
function of their
composition. The curves
for zinc are short, because
zinc has a maximum solid
solubility of 40% in copper.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack;
Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-8
Lead-Tin Phase Diagram
Figure 4.7 The
lead-tin phase
diagram. Note that
the composition of
the eutectic point for
this alloy is 61.9%
Sn-38.1% Pb. A
composition either
lower or higher than
this ratio will have a
higher liquidus
temperature.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-9
Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram
Figure 4.8 The iron-iron
carbide phase diagram.
Because of the
importance of steel as an
engineering material, this
diagram is one of the
most important of all
phase diagrams.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-10
Austenite, Ferrite, and Martensite
Figure 4.9 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of
carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position
of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 1.9). Note, also, the increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content;
this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-11
Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below Eutectoid
Temperature
Figure 4.10 Schematic illustration
of the microstructures for an iron-
carbon alloy of eutectoid
composition (0.77% carbon), above
and below the eutectoid temperature
of 727 °C (1341 °F).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-12
Pearlite Microstructure
Figure 4.11 Microstructure of
pearlite in 1080 steel, formed
from austenite of eutectoid
composition. In this lamellar
structure, the lighter regions are
ferrite, and the darker regions are
carbide. Magnification: 2500X.
Source: Courtesy of USX
Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-13
Extended Iron-Carbon Phase DiagramFigure 4.12 Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead
of cementite) as the stable phase. Note that this figure is an extended version
of Fig. 4.8.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-14
Microstructures for Cast Irons
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 4.13 Microstructure for cast irons. Magnification: 100X. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b)
Ferritic Ductile iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron; this cast iron
solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon.
Source: ASM International.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-15
Austenite to
Pearlite
Transformation
Figure 4.14 (a) Austenite-
to-pearlite transformation
of iron-carbon alloy as a
functionof time and
temperature. (b)
Isothermal transformation
diagram obtained from (a)
for a transformation
temperature of 675 °C
(1247 °F). (continued)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-16
Austenite to Pearlite Transformation (cont.)
Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures
obtained for a eutectoid iron-carbon
alloy as a function of cooling rate.
Source: ASM International.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-17
Hardness and Toughness of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon steels, as a function of carbide
shape. Carbides in the pearlite are lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate. The
spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles. Note htat the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease
after 0.77% carbon. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-18
Mechanical Properties of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and microstructure. Note
(in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with
increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-19
Eutectoid Steel Microstructure
Figure 4.17 Microstructure
of eutectoid steel.
Spheroidite is formed by
tempering the steel at 700 °C
(1292 °F). Magnification:
1000X. Source: Courtesy of
USX Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-20
Martensite
(b)
Figure 4.18 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite
containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same composition as the
original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-21
Hardness of Tempered Martensite
Figure 4.19 Hardness
of tempered
martensite, as a
function of tempering
time, for 1080 steel
quenched to 65 HRC.
Hardness decreases
because the carbide
particles coalesce and
grow in size, thereby
increasing the
interparticle distance
of the softer ferrite.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-22
End-Quench
Hardenability
Test
Figure 4.20 (a)
End-quench test
and cooling rate.
(b) Hardenability
curves for five
different steels, as
obtained from the
end-quench test.
Small variations in
composition can
change the shape of
these curves. Each
curve is actually a
band, and its exact
determination is
important in the
heat treatment of
metals, for better
control of
properties. Source:
L. H. Van Vlack;
Materials for
Engineering.
Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co.,
Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-23
Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram
Figure 4.21 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various micro-
structures obtained during the age-hardening process. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for
Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-24
Age Hardening
Figure 4.22 The effect of aging
time and temperature on the yield
stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy.
Note that, for each temperature,
there is an optimal aging time for
maximum strength.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-25
Outline of Heat Treatment Processes for
Surface Hardening
TABLE 4.1Process Metals hardened Element added to
surface
Procedure General Characteristics Typical applications
Carburizing Low-carbon steel
(0.2% C), alloy
steels (0.08–0.2%
C)
C Heat steel at 870–950 °C (1600–1750
°F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous
gases (gas carburizing) or carbon-
containing solids
(pack carburizing). Then quench.
A hard, high-carbon surface is
produced. Hardness 55 to 65
HRC. Case depth < 0.5–1.5 mm
( < 0.020 to 0.060 in.). Some
distortion of part during heat
treatment.
Gears, cams, shafts,
bearings, piston pins,
sprockets, clutch plates
Carbonitriding Low-carbon steel C and N Heat steel at 700–800 °C (1300–1600
°F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous
gas and ammonia. Then quench in oil.
Surface hardness 55 to 62 HRC.
Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm
(0.003 to 0.020 in.). Less
distortion than in
carburizing.
Bolts, nuts, gears
Cyaniding Low-carbon steel
(0.2% C), alloy
steels (0.08–0.2%
C)
C and N Heat steel at 760–845 °C (1400–1550
°F) in a molten bath of solutions of
cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and
other salts.
Surface hardness up to 65 HRC.
Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm
(0.001 to 0.010 in.). Some
distortion.
Bolts, nuts, screws, small
gears
Nitriding Steels (1% Al,
1.5% Cr, 0.3%
Mo), alloy steels
(Cr, Mo), stainless
steels, high-speed
tool steels
N Heat steel at 500–600 °C (925–1100 °F)
in an atmosphere of ammonia gas or
mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No
further treatment.
Surface hardness up to 1100
HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm
(0.005 to 0.030 in.) and 0.02 to
0.07 mm (0.001
to 0.003 in.) for high speed
steel.
Gears, shafts, sprockets,
valves, cutters, boring
bars, fuel-injection pump
parts
Boronizing Steels B Part is heated using boron-containing
gas or solid in contact with part.
Extremely hard and wear
resistant surface. Case depth
0.025– 0.075 mm (0.001–
0.003 in.).
Tool and die steels
Flame hardening Medium-carbon
steels, cast irons
None Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene
torch, then quenched with water spray or
other quenching methods.
Surface hardness 50 to 60 HRC.
Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm (0.030
to 0.25 in.). Little distortion.
Gear and sprocket teeth,
axles, crankshafts, piston
rods, lathe beds and
centers
Induction hardening
Same as above None Metal part is placed in copper induction
coils and is heated by high frequency
current, then quenched.
Same as above Same as above

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-26
Heat Treatment Processes
Figure 4.23 Heat-treating temperature ranges for
plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the iron-iron
carbide phase diagram. Source: ASM
International.
Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and
normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-27
Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel
Figure 4.25 Mechanical properties of
oil-quenched 4340 steel, as a function
of tempering temperature. Source:
Courtesy of LTV Steel Company

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 4-28
Induction Heating
Figure 4.26 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-1
CHAPTER 5
Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production,
General Properties, and Applications

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-2
Blast Furnace
Figure 5.1
Schematic
illustration of a
blast furnace.
Source: Courtesy
of American Iron
and Steel Institute.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-3
Electric Furnaces
Figure 5.2 Schematic illustration of types of electric furnaces: (a) direct arc, (b) indirect arc, and (c) induction.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-4
Basic-Oxygen Process
Figure 5.3 Schematic
illustrations showing
(a) charging, (b)
melting, and (c)
pouring of molten iron
in a basic-oxygen
process. Source:
Inland Steel Company

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-5
Continuous
Casting
Figure 5.4 The
continuous-casting
process for steel.
Typically, the solidified
metal descends at a speed
of 25 mm/s (1 in./s).
Note that the platform is
about 20 m (65 ft) above
ground level. Source:
Metalcaster's Reference
and Guide, American
Foundrymen's Society.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-6
Typical Selection of Carbon and Alloy Steels for
Various Applications
TABLE 5.1
Product Steel Product Steel
Aircraft forgings,
tubing, fittings
Automobile bodies
Axles
Ball bearings and races
Bolts
Camshafts
Chains (transmission)
Coil springs
Connecting rods
Crankshafts (forged)
4140, 8740
1010
1040, 4140
52100
1035, 4042, 4815
1020, 1040
3135, 3140
4063
1040, 3141, 4340
1045, 1145, 3135, 3140
Differential gears
Gears (car and truck)
Landing gear
Lock washers
Nuts
Railroad rails and wheels
Springs (coil)
Springs (leaf)
Tubing
Wire
Wire (music)
4023
4027, 4032
4140, 4340, 8740
1060
3130
1080
1095, 4063, 6150
1085, 4063, 9260, 6150
1040
1045, 1055
1085

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-7
Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and
Alloy Steels in Various Conditions
TABLE 5.2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in the Hot-Rolled,
Normalized, and Annealed ConditionAISI Condition Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
Strength
(MPa)
Elongation in
50 mm (%)
Reduction of
area (%)
Hardness
(HB)
1020
1080
3140
4340
8620
As-rolled
Normalized
Annealed
As-rolled
Normalized
Annealed
Normalized
Annealed
Normalized
Annealed
Normalized
Annealed
448
441
393
1010
965
615
891
689
1279
744
632
536
346
330
294
586
524
375
599
422
861
472
385
357
36
35
36
12
11
24
19
24
12
22
26
31
59
67
66
17
20
45
57
50
36
49
59
62
143
131
111
293
293
174
262
197
363
217
183
149

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-8
AISI Designation for High-Strength Sheet
Steel
TABLE 5.3
Yield Strength Chemical
Composition
Deoxidation
Practice
psi x 10
3
MPa
35 40 45 50 60
70
80
100
120
140
240
275
310
350
415
485
550
690
830
970
S = structural alloy
X = low alloy
W = weathering
D = dual phase
F = killed plus sulfide inclusion control
K = killed
O = nonkilled

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-9
Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and
Applications of Annealed Stainless Steels
TABLE 5.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Annealed
Stainless Steels
AISI
(UNS)
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Characteristics and typical applications
303
(S30300)
550–620 240–260 53–50 Screw machine products, shafts, valves, bolts,
bushings, and nuts; aircraft fittings; bolts; nuts;
rivets; screws; studs.
304
(S30400)
565–620 240–290 60–55 Chemical and food processing equipment,
brewing equipment, cryogenic vessels, gutters,
downspouts, and flashings.
316
(S31600)
550–590 210–290 60–55 High corrosion resistance and high creep strength.
Chemical and pulp handling equipment,
photographic equipment, brandy vats, fertilizer
parts, ketchup cooking kettles, and yeast tubs.
410
(S41000)
480–520 240–310 35–25 Machine parts, pump shafts, bolts, bushings, coal
chutes, cutlery, tackle, hardware, jet engine parts,
mining machinery, rifle barrels, screws, and
valves.
416
(S41600)
480–520 275 30–20 Aircraft fittings, bolts, nuts, fire extinguisher
inserts, rivets, and screws.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-10
Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels
TABLE 5.5
Type AISI
High speed
Hot work
Cold work
Shock resisting
Mold steels
Special purpose
Water hardening
M (molybdenum base)
T (tungsten base)
H1 to H19 (chromium base)
H20 to H39 (tungsten base)
H40 to H59 (molybdenum base)
D (high carbon, high chromium)
A (medium alloy, air hardening)
O (oil hardening)
S
P1 to P19 (low carbon)
P20 to P39 (others)
L (low alloy)
F (carbon-tungsten)
W

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 5-11
Processing and Service Characteristics of
Common Tool and Die Steels
TABLE 5.6 Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die SteelsAISI
designation
Resistance to
decarburization
Resistance to
cracking
Approximate
hardness
(HRC) Machinability Toughness
Resistance to
softening
Resistance to
wear
M2 Medium Medium 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very highT1 High High 60–65 Medium Low Very high Very high T5 Low Medium 60–65 Medium Low Highest Very high H11, 12, 13 Medium Highest 38–55 Medium to high Very high High Medium A2 Medium Highest 57–62 Medium Medium High High
A9 Medium Highest 35–56 Medium High High Medium to
high
D2 Medium Highest 54–61 Low Low High High to very
high
D3 Medium High 54–61 Low Low High Very high
H21 Medium High 36–54 Medium High High Medium to
high
H26 Medium High 43–58 Medium Medium Very high High
P20 High High 28–37 Medium to high High Low Low to
medium
P21 High Highest 30–40 Medium Medium Medium Medium
W1, W2 Highest Medium 50–64 Highest High Low Low to
medium
Source: Adapted from Tool Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1978.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-1
CHAPTER 6
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys:
Production, General Properties, and
Applications

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-2
Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought
Metals and Plastics Relative to Carbon Steel
TABLE 6.1 Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to
Cost of Carbon SteelGold
Silver
Molybdenum alloys
Nickel
Titanium alloys
Copper alloys
Zinc alloys
Stainless steels
60,000
600
200–250
35
20–40
5–6
1.5–3.5
2–9
Magnesium alloys
Aluminum alloys
High-strength low-alloy steels
Gray cast iron
Carbon steel
Nylons, acetals, and silicon rubber
*
Other plastics and elastomers
*
2–4
2–3
1.4
1.2
1
1.1–2
0.2–1
*As molding compounds.
Note: Costs vary significantly with quantity of purchase, supply and demand, size and shape, and various other factors.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-3
General Characteristics of Nonferrous Metals
and Alloys
TABLE 6.2Material Characteristics
Nonferrous alloys More expensive than steels and plastics; wide range of mechanical, physical, and
electrical properties; good corrosion resistance; high-temperature applications.
Aluminum High strength-to-weight ratio; high thermal and electrical conductivity; good
corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties.
Magnesium Lightest metal; good strength-to-weight ratio.
Copper High electrical and thermal conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good
manufacturing properties.
Superalloys Good strength and resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures; can be iron-,
cobalt-, and nickel-base.
Titanium Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all metals; good strength and corrosion
resistance at high temperatures.
Refractory metals Molybdenum, niobium (columbium), tungsten, and tantalum; high strength at
elevated temperatures.
Precious metals Gold, silver, and platinum; generally good corrosion resistance.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-4
Example of Alloy Usage
Figure 6.1 Cross-
section of a jet
engine (PW2037)
showing various
components and the
alloys used in
manufacturing
them. Source:
Courtesy of United
Aircraft Pratt &
Whitney.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-5
Properties of Selected Aluminum Alloys at
Room Temperature
TABLE 6.3Alloy (UNS) Temper
Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa)
Yield strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%)
1100 (A91100)
1100
2024 (A92024)
2024
3003 (A93003)
3003
5052 (A95052)
5052
6061 (A96061)
60617075 (A97075)
7075
O
H14
O
T4
O
H14
O
H34
O
T6O
T6
90
125
190
470
110
150
190
260
125
310230
570
35
120
75
325
40
145
90
215
55
275105
500
35–45
9–20
20–22
19–20
30–40
8–16
25–30
10–14
25–30
12–1716–17
11

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-6
Manufacturing Properties and Applications of
Selected Wrought Aluminum Alloys
TABLE 6.4
Characteristics*
Alloy
Corrosion
resistance Machinability Weldability Typical applications1100 A C–D A Sheet metal work, spun hollow ware, tin
stock
2024 C B–C B–C Truck wheels, screw machine products,
aircraft structures
3003 A C–D A Cooking utensils, chemical equipment,
pressure vessels, sheet metal work,
builders’ hardware, storage tanks
5052 A C–D A Sheet metal work, hydraulic tubes, and
appliances; bus, truck and marine uses
6061 B C–D A Heavy-duty structures where corrosion
resistance is needed, truck and marine
structures, railroad cars, furniture,
pipelines, bridge rail-ings, hydraulic
tubing
7075 C B–D D Aircraft and other structures, keys,
hydraulic fittings
* A, excellent; D, poor.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-7
All-Aluminum Automobile
Figure 6.2 (a) The Audi A8
automobile which has an all-
aluminum body structure. (b) The
aluminum body structure, showing
various components made by
extrusion, sheet forming, and casting
processes. Source: Courtesy of
ALCOA, Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-8
Properties and Typical Forms of Selected
Wrought Magnesium Alloys
TABLE 6.5
Composition (%)
Ultimate
tensile Yield Elongation
Alloy Al ZnMn Zr Condition
strength
(MPa)
strength
(MPa)
in 50 mm
(%) Typical formsAZ31 B 3.0 1.0 0.2 F 260 200 15 Extrusions
H24 290 220 15 Sheet and plates
AZ80A 8.5 0.5 0.2 T5 380 275 7 Extrusions and
forgings
HK31A 3Th 0.7 H24 255 200 8 Sheet and plates
ZK60A 5.7 0.55 T5 365 300 11 Extrusions and
forgings

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-9
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected
Wrought Copper and BrassesTABLE 6.6Type and UNS
number
Nominal
composition (%)
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Typical applications
Electrolytic tough pitch
copper (C11000)
99.90 Cu, 0.04 O 220–450 70–365 55–4 Downspouts, gutters, roofing,
gaskets, auto radiators, busbars,
nails, printing rolls, rivetsRed brass, 85%
(C23000)
85.0 Cu, 15.0 Zn 270–725 70–435 55–3 Weather-stripping, conduits,
sockets, fas-teners, fire
extinguishers, condenser and heat
exchanger tubing
Cartridge brass, 70%
(C26000)
70.0 Cu, 30.0 Zn 300–900 75–450 66–3 Radiator cores and tanks , flashlight
shells, lamp fixtures, fasteners,
locks, hinges, ammunition
components, plumbing accessories
Free-cutting brass
(C36000)
61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb,
35.5 Zn
340–470 125–310 53–18 Gears, pinions, automatic high-
speed screw machine parts
Naval brass
(C46400 to C46700)
60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn,
0.75 Sn
380–610 170–455 50–17 Aircraft turnbuckle barrels, balls,
bolts, marine hardware, propeller
shafts, rivets, valve stems,
condenser plates

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-10
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected
Wrought Bronzes
TABLE 6.7Type and UNS number
Nominal
composition (%)
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Typical applications
Architectural bronze (C38500)
57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb,
40.0 Zn
415 (As
extruded)
140 30 Architectural extrusions, store
fronts, thresholds, trim, butts,
hinges
Phosphor bronze, 5% A
(C51000)
95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn,
trace P
325–960 130–550 64–2 Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins,
diaphragms, fasteners, wire
brushes, chemical hardware, textile
machinery
Free-cutting phosphor
bronze (C54400)
88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb,
4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn
300–520 130–435 50–15 Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions,
shafts, thrust washers, valve parts
Low silicon bronze, B
(C65100)
98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si 275–655 100–475 55–11 Hydraulic press ure lines, bolts,
marine hardware, electrical
conduits, heat exchanger tubing
Nickel silver, 65–10
(C74500)
65.0 Cu, 25.0 Zn,
10.0 Ni
340–900 125–525 50–1 Rivets, screws, slide fasteners,
hollow ware, nameplates

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-11
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected
Nickel Alloys
TABLE 6.8 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys (All are Trade Names)Type and UNS number
Nominal
composition (%)
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Typical applications
Nickel 200 (annealed) None 380–550 100–275 60–40 Chemical and food processing
industry, aerospace equipment,
electronic parts
Duranickel 301 4.4 Al, 0.6 Ti 1300 900 28 Springs, plastics extrusion equipment,
(age hardened) molds for glass,
diaphragms
Monel R-405 (hot
rolled)
30 Cu 525 230 35 Screw-machine products, water meter
parts
Monel K-500 29 Cu, 3 Al 1050 750 30 Pump shafts, valve stems, springs (age
hardened)
Inconel 600 (annealed) 15 Cr, 8 Fe 640 210 48 Gas turbine parts, heat-treating
equipment, electronic parts, nuclear
reactors
Hastelloy C-4 (solution-
treated and quenched)
16 Cr, 15 Mo 785 400 54 High temperature stability, resistance
to stress-corrosion cracking

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-12
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected
Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 °C
TABLE 6.9 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 °C
(1600 °F) (All are Trade Names)Alloy Condition
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Typical applications
Astroloy Wrought 770 690 25 Forgings for high temperatureHastelloy X Wrought 255 180 50 Jet engine sheet parts
IN-100 Cast 885 695 6 Jet engine blades and wheels
IN-102 Wrought 215 200 110 Superheater and jet engine parts
Inconel 625 Wrought 285 275 125 Aircraft engines and structures,
chemical processing equipment
lnconel 718 Wrought 340 330 88 Jet engine and rocket parts
MAR-M 200 Cast 840 760 4 Jet engine blades
MAR-M 432 Cast 730 605 8 Integrally cast turbine wheels
René 41 Wrought 620 550 19 Jet engine parts
Udimet 700 Wrought 690 635 27 Jet engine parts
Waspaloy Wrought 525 515 35 Jet engine parts

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 6-13
Properties and Typical Applications of Selected
Wrought Titanium Alloys
TABLE 6.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys at Various
TemperaturesNominal
compos-
ition
(%) UNS Condition
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elonga-
tion (%)
Reduc-
tion of
area (%)
Temp.
(°C)
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elonga-
tion in
50 mm
(%)
Reduc-
tion of
area Typical Applications
99.5 Ti R50250 Annealed 330 240 30 55 300 150 95 32 80 Airframes; chemi cal,
desalination, and
marine parts; plate
type heat exchangers
5 Al, 2.5 Sn
R54520 Annealed 860 810 16 40 300 565 450 18 45 Aircraft engine
compressor blades and
ducting; steam turbine
blades
6 Al,
4V
R56400 Annealed 1000 925 14 30 300 725 650 14 35 Rocket motor cases;
blades and disks for
aircraft turbines and
compressors;
structural forgings and
fasteners; orthopedic
implants
425 670 570 18 40
550 530 430 35 50
Solution +
age
1175 1100 10 20 300 980 900 10 28
12 35
22 45
13 V,
11 Cr,
3 Al
R58010 Solution +
age
1275 1210 8 — 425 1100 830 12 — High strength
fasteners; aerospace
components;
honeycomb panels

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-1
CHAPTER 7
Polymers: Structure, General Properties
and Applications

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-2
Range of Mechanical Properties for Various
Engineering Plastics
TABLE 7.1
Material UTS (MPa) E (GPa)
Elongation
(%)
Poisson’s
ratio (
ν
)
ABS
ABS, reinforced
Acetal
Acetal, reinforced
Acrylic
Cellulosic
Epoxy
Epoxy, reinforced
Fluorocarbon
Nylon
Nylon, reinforced
Phenolic
Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate, reinforced
Polyester
Polyester, reinforced
Polyethylene
Polypropylene
Polypropylene, reinforced
Polystyrene
Polyvinyl chloride
28–55
100
55–70
135
40–75
10–48
35–140
70–1400
7–48
55–83
70–210
28–70
55–70
110
55
110–160
7–40
20–35
40–100
14–83
7–55
1.4–2.8
7.5
1.4–3.5
10
1.4–3.5
0.4–1.4
3.5–17
21–52
0.7–2
1.4–2.8
2–10
2.8–21
2.5–3
6
2
8.3–12
0.1–1.4
0.7–1.2
3.5–6
1.4–4
0.014–4
75–5
—
75–25
—
50–5
100–5
10–1
4–2
300–100
200–60
10–1
2–0
125–10
6–4
300–5
3–1
1000–15
500–10
4–2
60–1
450–40
—
0.35
—
0.35–0.40
—
—
—
—
0.46–0.48
0.32–0.40
—
—
0.38
—
0.38
—
0.46
—
—
0.35
—

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-3
Chapter 7 Outline
Figure 7.1 Outline of the topics described in Chapter 7

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-4
Structure of
Polymer
Molecules
Figure 7.2 Basic structure of polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b)
polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene molecules; © molecular structure
of various polymers. These are examples of the basic building blocks for
plastics

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-5
Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization
Figure 7.3 Effect of molecular weight
and degree of polymerization on the
strength and viscosity of polymers.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-6
Polymer Chains
Figure 7.4 Schematic
illustration of polymer chains.
(a) Linear structure--
thermoplastics such as
acrylics, nylons, polyethylene,
and polyvinyl chloride have
linear structures. (b) Branched
structure, such as in
polyethylene. (c) Cross-linked
structure--many rubbers or
elastomers have this structure,
and the vulcanization of rubber
produces this structure. (d)
Network structure, which is
basically highly cross-linked--
examples are thermosetting
plastics, such as epoxies and
phenolics.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-7
Polymer Behavior
Figure 7.5 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b)
cross-linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-8
Crystallinity
Figure 7.6 Amorphous
and crystalline regions in
a polymer. The crystalline
region (crystallite) has an
orderly arrangement of
molecules. The higher the
crystallinity, the harder,
stiffer, and less ductile the
polymer.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-9
Specific Volume as a Function of Temperature
Figure 7.7 Specific volume of polymers
as a function of temperature. Amorphous
polymers, such as acrylic and
polycarbonate, have a glass-transition
temperature, T
g
, but do not have a specific
melting point, T
m
. Partly crystalline
polymers, such as polyethylene and
nylons, contract sharply while passing
through their melting temperatures during
cooling.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-10
Glass-Transition and Melting Temperatures of
Some Polymers
TABLE 7.2
Material T
g
(°C) T
m
(°C)
Nylon 6,6
Polycarbonate
Polyester
Polyethylene
High density
Low density
Polymethylmethacrylate
Polypropylene
Polystyrene
Polytetrafluoroethylene
Polyvinyl chloride
Rubber
57
150
73
–90
–110
105
–14
100
–90
87
–73
265
265
265
137
115
—
176
239
327
212
—

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-11
Behavior of Plastics
Figure 7.8 General terminology describing
the behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE
(polytetrafluoroethylene) has Teflon as its
trade name. Source: R. L. E. Brown.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-12
Temperature Effects
Figure 7.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-strain
curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic. Note the
large drop in strength and the large increase in
ductility with a relatively small increase in
temperature. Source: After T. S. Carswell and H. K.
Nason.
Figure 7.10 Effect of temperature on the impact
strength of various plastics. Small changes in
temperature can have a significant effect on impact
strength. Source: P. C. Powell.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-13
Elongation
(a)
(b) Figure 7.11 (a) Load-
elongation curve for
polycarbonate, a
thermoplastic. Source: R. P.
Kambour and R. E.
Robertson. (b) High-density
polyethylene tensile-test
specimen, showing uniform
elongation (the long, narrow
region in the specimen).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-14
General Recommendations for Plastic ProductsTABLE 7.3
Design requirement Applications Plastics
Mechanical strength Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan
blades, impellers, pistons
Acetal, nylon, phenolic,
polycarbonate
Functional and decorative Handles, knobs, camera and
battery cases, trim moldings, pipe
fittings
ABS, acrylic, cellulosic,
phenolic, polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene,
polyvinyl chloride
Housings and hollow shapes Power tools, pumps, housings,
sport helmets, telephone cases
ABS, cellulosic, phenolic,
polycarbonate, polyethylene,
polypropylene, polystyrene
Functional and transparent Lenses, goggles, safety glazing,
signs, food-processing
equipment, laboratory hardware
Acrylic, polycarbonate,
polystyrene, polysulfone
Wear resistance Gears, wear strips and liners,
bearings, bushings, roller-skate
wheels
Acetal, nylon, phenolic,
polyimide, polyurethane,
ultrahigh molecular weight
polyethylene

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-15
Load-Elongation Curve for Rubber
Figure 7.12 Typical load-elongation
curve for rubbers. The clockwise lop,
indicating the loading and the
unloading paths, displays the hysteresis
loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the
capacity to dissipate energy, damp
vibraion, and absorb shock loading, as
is necessary in automobile tires and in
vibration dampers placed under
machinery.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-1
CHAPTER 8
Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamond:
Structure, General Properties, and
Applications

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-2
Examples of Ceramics
(a)
(b)
Figure 8.1 A variety of ceramic components. (a) High-strength alumina for high-temperature
applications. (b) Gas-turbine rotors made of silicon nitride. Source: Wesgo Div., GTE.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-3
Types and
General
Characteristics
of Ceramics
TABLE 8.1
Type General Characteristics
Oxide ceramics
Alumina High hardness, moderate strength; most widely used ceramic;
cutting tools, abrasives, electrical and thermal insulation.
Zirconia High strength and toughness; thermal expansion close to cast iron;
suitable for heat engine components.
Carbides
Tungsten carbide Hardness, strength, and wear resistance depend on cobalt binder
content; commonly used for dies and cutting tools.
Titanium carbide Not as tough as tungsten carbide; has nickel and molybdenum as
the binder; used as cutting tools.
Silicon carbide High-temperature strength and wear resistance; used for heat
engines and as abrasives.
Nitrides
Cubic boron nitride Second-hardest substance known, after diamond; used as abrasives
and cutting tools.
Titanium nitride Gold in color; used as coatings because of low frictional
characteristics.
Silicon nitride High resistance to creep and thermal shock; used in heat engines.
Sialon Consists of silicon nitrides and other oxides and carbides; used as
cutting tools.
Cermets Consist of oxides, carbides, and nitrides; used in high-temperature
applications.
Silica High temperature resistance; quartz exhibits piezoelectric effect;
silicates containing various oxides are used in high-temperature
nonstructural applications.
Glasses Contain at least 50 percent silica; amorphous structures; several
types available with a range of mechanical and physical properties.
Glass ceramics Have a high crystalline component to their structure; good thermal-
shock resistance and strong.
Graphite Crystalline form of carbon; high electrical and thermal
conductivity; good thermal shock resistance.
Diamond Hardest substance known; available as single c rystal or
polycrystalline form; used as cutting tools and abrasives and as dies
for fine wire drawing.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-4
Properties of Various Ceramics at Room
Temperature
TABLE 8.2Material Symbol
Transverse
rupture
strength
(MPa)
Compressive
strength
(MPa)
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Hardness
(HK)
Poisson’s
ratio (
ν
)
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Aluminum
oxide
Al
2
O
3
140–240 1000–2900 310–410 2000–3000 0.26 4000–4500
Cubic boron
nitride
CBN 725 7000 850 4000–5000 — 3480
Diamond — 1400 7000 830–1000 7000–8000 — 3500
Silica, fused SiO
2
— 1300 70 550 0.25 —
Silicon
carbide
SiC 100–750 700–3500 240–480 2100–3000 0.14 3100
Silicon
nitride
Si
3
N
4
480–600 — 300–310 2000–2500 0.24 3300
Titanium
carbide
TiC 1400–1900 3100–3850 310–410 1800–3200 — 5500–5800
Tungsten
carbide
WC 1030–2600 4100–5900 520–700 1800–2400 — 10,000–15,000
Partially
stabilized
zirconia
PSZ 620 — 200 1100 0.30 5800
Note: These properties vary widely depending on the condition of the material.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-5
Properties of Various Glasses
TABLE 8.3
Soda-lime
glass
Lead glass Borosilicate
glass
96 Percent
silica
Fused
silica
Density High Highest Medium Low LowestStrength Low Low Moderate High Highest
Resistance to thermal
shock
Low Low Good Better Best
Electrical resistivity Moderate Best Good Good Good
Hot workability Good Best Fair Poor Poorest
Heat treatability Good Good Poor None None
Chemical resistance Poor Fair Good Better Best
Impact-abrasion
resistance
Fair Poor Good Good Best
Ultraviolet-light
transmission
Poor Poor Fair Good Good
Relative cost Lowest Low Medium High Highest

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 8-6
Graphite Components
Figure 8.2 Various
engineering
components made of
graphite. Source: Poco
Graphite, Inc., a Unocal
Co.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-1
CHAPTER 9
Composite Materials: Structure, General
Properties, and Applications

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-2
Application of Advanced Composite Materials
Figure 9.1
Application of
advanced
composite
materials in
Boeing 757-200
commercial
aircraft. Source:
Boeing
Commercial
Airplane
Company.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-3
Methods of Reinforcing Plastics
Figure 9.2 Schematic
illustration of methods
of reinforcing plastics
(matrix) with (a)
particles, and (b) short
or long fibers or
flakes. The four layers
of continuous fibers in
illustration (c) are
assembled into a
laminate structure.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-4
Types and General Characteristics of
Composite Materials
TABLE 9.1
Material Characteristics
Fibers Glass High strength, low stiffness, high density; lowest cost; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and S
(magnesia-aluminosilicate) types commonly used.
Graphite Available as high-modulus or high-strength; low cost; less dense than glass.
Boron High strength and stiffness; highest density; highest cost; has tungsten filament at its center.
Aramids (Kevlar) Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost.
Other fibers Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron nitride, tantalum
carbide, steel, tungsten, molybdenum.
Matrix materials
Thermosets Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are phenolics,
fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides.
Thermoplastics Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets but lower resistance to temperature.
Metals Aluminum, aluminum-lithium, magnesium, and titanium; fibers are graphite, aluminum oxide,
silicon carbide, and boron.
Ceramics Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers are various ceramics.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-5
Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced PlasticsFigure 9.3 Specific tensile strength (tensile strength-to-density ratio) and specific tensile modulus
(modulus of elasticity-to-density ratio) for various fibers used in reinforced plastics. Note the wide
range of specific strengths and stiffnesses available.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-6
Typical Properties of Reinforcing Fibers
TABLE 9.2
Type
Tensile
strength
(MPa)
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Density
( kg/m
3
) Relative cost
Boron 3500 380 2600 HighestCarbon
High strength 3000 275 1900 Low
High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low
Glass
E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest
S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest
Kevlar
29 2800 62 1440 High
49 2800 117 1440 High
Note: These properties vary significantly depending on the material and method of preparation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-7
Fiber Reinforcing
Figure 9.4 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers. Source:
J. Dvorak, Mercury Marine Corporation, and F. Garrett, Wilson Sporting Goods Co. (b) Cross-section of boron
fiber-reinforced composite material.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-8
Effect of Fiber Type on Fiber-Reinforced Nylon
Figure 9.5 The effect
of type of fiber on
various properties of
fiber-reinforced nylon
(6,6). Source: NASA.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-9
Fracture Surfaces of Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy
Composites
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.6 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are
10 µm (400 µin.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) Fracture surface of a
graphite-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers, 9 µm-11 µm in diameter, are in
bundles and are all aligned in the same direction. Source: L. J. Broutman.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-10
Tensile Strength of Glass-Reinforced Polyester
Figure 9.7 The tensile strength
of glass-reinforced polyester as a
function of fiber content and
fiber direction in the matrix.
Source: R. M. Ogorkiewicz, The
Engineering Properties of
Plastics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1977.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-11
Example of Advanced Materials Construction
Figure 9.8 Cross-section of a
composite sailboard, an example
of advanced materials
construction. Source: K.
Easterling, Tomorrow’s Materials
(2d ed.), p. 133. Institute of
Metals, 1990.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 7-12
Metal-Matrix Composite Materials and
Applications
TABLE 9.3
Fiber Matrix Applications
Graphite Aluminum
Magnesium
Lead
Copper
Satellite, missile, and helicopter structures
Space and satellite structures
Storage-battery plates
Electrical contacts and bearings
Boron Aluminum
Magnesium
Titanium
Compressor blades and structural supports
Antenna structures
Jet-engine fan blades
Alumina Aluminum
Lead
Magnesium
Superconductor restraints in fission power reactors
Storage-battery plates
Helicopter transmission structures
Silicon carbide Aluminum, titanium
Superalloy (cobalt-base)
High-temperature structures
High-temperature engine components
Molybdenum, tungsten Superalloy High-temperature engine components

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-1
CHAPTER 10
Fundamentals of Metal-Casting

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-2
Cast Structures of Metals
Figure 10.1 Schematic illustration of
three cast structures of metals
solidified in a square mold: (a) pure
metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and
(c) structure obtained by using
nucleating agents. Source: G. W.
Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L. Walker, and
A. Cibula.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-3
Preferred Texture Development
Figure 10.2 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mold wall. Note that only
favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mold.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-4
Alloy Solidification
Figure 10.3 Schematic
illustration of alloy
solidification and
temperature
distribution in the
solidifying metal.
Note the formation of
dendrites in the mushy
zone.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-5
Solidification Patterns
Figure 10.4 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that
after 11 min. of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes
about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and
chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases.
Source: H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Page 10-6
Cast Structures
Figure 10.5
Schematic
illustration of three
basic types of cast
structures: (a)
columnar dendritic;
(b) equiaxed
dendritic; and (c)
equiaxed
nondendritic.
Source: D. Apelian.
Figure 10.6 Schematic illustration of cast structures
in (a) plane front, single phase, and (b) plane front,
two phase. Source: D. Apelian.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-7
Riser-Gated Casting
Figure 10.7 Schematic illustration
of a typical riser-gated casting.
Risers serve as reservoirs,
supplying molten metal to the
casting as it shrinks during
solidification. See also Fig. 11.4
Source: American Foundrymen’s
Society.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-8
Fluidity Test
Figure 10.8 A test method for fluidity using
a spiral mold. The fluidity index is the length
of the solidified metal in the spiral passage.
The greater the length of the solidified metal,
the greater is its fluidity.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Page 10-9
Temperature Distribution
Figure 10.9 Temperature
distribution at the interface of the
mold wall and the liquid metal
during solidification of metals in
casting.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-10
Solidification Time
Figure 10.10 Solidified skin on a
steel casting. The remaining
molten metal is poured out at the
times indicated in the figure.
Hollow ornamental and decorative
objects are made by a process
called slush casting, which is based
on this principle. Source: H. F.
Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C.
Flemings.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-11
Solidification Contraction for Various Cast
Metals
TABLE 10.1
Metal or alloy
Volumetric
solidification
contraction (%) Metal or alloy
Volumetric
solidification
contraction (%)
Aluminum 6.6 70%Cu–30%Zn 4.5Al–4.5%Cu 6.3 90%Cu–10%Al 4 Al–12%Si 3.8 Gray iron Expansion to 2.5
Carbon steel 2.5–3 Magnesium 4.2
1% carbon steel 4 White iron 4–5.5
Copper 4.9 Zinc 6.5
Source: After R. A. Flinn.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Page 10-12
Hot Tears
Figure 10.11 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because
the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in
various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat-producing)
compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical
sections to avoid hot tearing.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Casting Defects
Figure 10.12 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by
proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-14
Internal and External Chills
Figure 10.13
Various types of
(a) internal and
(b) external chills
(dark areas at
corners), used in
castings to
eliminate porosity
caused by
shrinkage. Chills
are placed in
regions where
there is a larger
volume of metals,
as shown in (c).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-15
Solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminum
Figure 10.14 Solubility of hydrogen in
aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in
solubility as the molten metal begins to
solidify.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-1
CHAPTER 11
Metal-Casting Processes

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-2
Summary of
Casting
Processes
TABLE 11.1
Process Advantages LimitationsS and Al m os t any m etal c as t; no l im it
to s i ze , s hape or we i ght; l ow
tooling cost.
S ome f inis hing r equi re d;
s omewhat coars e finis h; wide
tole rances .
S hel l mold Good dimens ional accuracy and
s ur fac e f inis h; hi gh pr oduc ti on
rate.
Part size limited; expensive
patt er ns and e qui pment
required.
Expendable pattern Most metals cas t with no limit
to s i ze ; c ompl ex s hape s
P atter ns have l ow s t re ngth and
can be cos tly for low quantities
Plaster mold Intricate shapes; good
dimensional accu- racy and
finish; low poros ity.
Limited to nonferrous metals;
limited size and volume of
production; mold mak ing time
relatively long.
Ceramic mold Intri cate s hapes ; c lose
tol erance parts ; good s urfac e
finish.
Limited s i ze.
Inves tment Intri cate s hapes ; excel lent
s urface finis h and accuracy;
almost any metal cast.
Part size limited; expensive
patt er ns , molds , and l abo r.
Permanent mold Good s urface finis h and
dimensional accuracy; low
poros ity; high production rate .
Hi g h m o l d c o s t ; l i m i t e d s ha pe
and i ntr i cac y; not s ui tabl e for
high-melting-point metals .
Die Exce ll ent dimensional ac curacy
and s urface finis h; high
production rate .
Die cost is high; part size
limited; usually limited to
nonferrous metals ; long lead
time.
Centrifugal Large cylindr ical parts with
good qual ity; high production
rate.
Equipment is expens ive; part
shape limited.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-3
Die-Casting Examples
(a)
(b)
Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity
magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting
process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-4
General Characteristics of Casting Processes
TABLE 11.2
Typical Weig ht (kg)
Typ ical
surface Section thic kness (mm)
Process
mat erials
cast Minimum Maximum
finis h
(µm, R
a
)Porosity*
Shape
complexity*
Dimensional
accuracy* Minimum Maximum
Sa n d A ll 0 .0 5 No limit 5 -2 5 4 1 -2 3 3 No limit
Shell A ll 0.05 100+ 1-3 4 2-3 2 2 --
Expe nda ble
mo ld
p a t t e r n A ll 0 .0 5 No limit 5 -2 0 4 1 2 2 No limit
Plas t er
mo ld
Nonf errous
(A l, M g, Z n ,
Cu) 0.05 50+ 1-2 3 1-2 2 1 --
Investment
A ll
(High melting
p t.) 0 .005 100+ 1-3 3 1 1 1 75
Pe rma n en t
mo ld A ll 0 .5 300 2-3 2 -3 3-4 1 2 5 0
Die
Nonf errous
(A l, M g, Z n ,
Cu) <0.05 50 1-2 1-2 3-4 1 0.5 12
Centrifuga l A ll -- 5000+ 2-10 1-2 3-4 3 2 100
*Relative rating: 1 bes t, 5 wors t .
Note: These ratings are only general; significant variations can occur, depending on the methods used.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-5
Casting Examples
Figure 11.2 Typical gray-
iron castings used in
automobiles, including
transmission valve body
(left) and hub rotor with
disk-brake cylinder (front).
Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of General
Motors Corporation.
Figure 11.3 A cast transmission housing.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-6
Sand Mold Features
Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-7
Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.
Steps in Sand Casting

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-8
Pattern Material Characteristics
TABLE 11.3
Rating
a
CharacteristicWood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast ironMachinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source: D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Page 11-9
Patterns for Sand Casting
Figure 11.6 A typical metal
match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.
Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for
ease of removal from the sand mold.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-10
Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets
Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-11
Squeeze Heads
Figure 11.9 Various designs
of squeeze heads for mold
making: (a) conventional
flat head; (b) profile head;
(c) equalizing squeeze
pistons; and (d) flexible
diaphragm. Source: ©
Institute of British
Foundrymen. Used with
permission.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-12
Vertical Flaskless Molding
Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern. (b)
Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting
Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel
Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the
pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns
have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed
to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will
be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by
securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and
risers. (continued)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is
produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned
with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the
appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the
cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies,
the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is
cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting (cont.)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-15
Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes
Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and
26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-16
Dump-Box Technique
Figure 11.13 A common
method of making shell
molds. Called dump-box
technique, the limitations are
the formation of voids in the
shell and peelback (when
sections of the shell fall off
as the pattern is raised).
Source: ASM International.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-17
Composite Molds
Figure 11.14 (a) Schematic illustration of a semipermanent composite mold. Source: Steel
Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. (b) A composite
mold used in casting an aluminum-alloy torque converter. This part was previously cast in
an all-plaster mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-18
Expendable Pattern Casting
Figure 11.15
Schematic
illustration of the
expendable
pattern casting
process, also
known as lost
foam or
evaporative
casting.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-19
Ceramic Molds
Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in
making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic
mold (Shaw process) for casting
steel dies used in hot forging.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol.
5, 8th ed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-20
Figure 11.18
Schematic
illustration of
investment
casting, (lost-
wax process).
Castings by this
method can be
made with very
fine detail and
from a variety of
metals. Source:
Steel Founders'
Society of
America.
Investment
Casting

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-21
Investment Casting of a Rotor
Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly.
(b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum,
with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source: Howmet
Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-22
Investment and Conventionally Cast Rotors
Figure 11.20 Cross-
section and
microstructure of two
rotors: (top)
investment-cast;
(bottom) conventionally
cast. Source: Advanced
Materials and
Processes, October
1990, p. 25 ASM
International

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-23
Vacuum-Casting Process
Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source:
From R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes,
February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-24
Pressure Casting
Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of
steel railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b)
Gravity-pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.
Railroad wheels can also be manufactured by forging.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-25
Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting
Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and
Technology.
(a)
(b)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-26
Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine
(a)
Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine.
These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are
required to keep the two halves of the dies closed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-27
Figure 11.24 (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made
in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world
and costs about $1.25 million.
(b)
Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-28
Die-Casting Die Cavities
Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of
American Die Casting Institute.
Figure 11.26 Examples of
cast-in- place inserts in die
casting. (a) Knurled
bushings. (b) Grooved
threaded rod.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-29
Properties and Typical Applications of
Common Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE 11.4
Alloy
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) ApplicationsAlum inum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 S i ) 320 160 2.5 Appl i anc es , automot ive c omponents ,
electrical motor frames and housings
13 (12 S i ) 300 150 2.5 Compl ex s hapes wi th thin wal l s , pa rts
requiring strength at elevated
temperatures
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbing fiztures , lock hardware,
bushings, ornamental cas tings
Magnes ium AZ91 B (9 Al -0 .7 Zn) 230 160 3 P owe r too ls , automoti ve par ts , s por ti ng
goods
Z inc No. 3 (4 Al ) 280 -- 10 Automoti ve pa rts , off ic e e quipm ent ,
hous ehold utens i ls , building hardware ,
toys
5 (4 Al -1 Cu) 320 -- 7 Appl i anc es , automot ive par ts , bui l ding
hardware , bus ines s equipment
Sourc e: Data from American Die Cas ting Institute

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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-30
Centrifugal Casting Process
Figure 11.27 Schematic
illustration of the centrifugal
casting process. Pipes,
cylinder liners, and similarly
shaped parts can be cast with
this process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Page 11-31
Semicentrifugal Casting
Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can
be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at
the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-32
Squeeze-Casting
Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Single Crystal Casting of Turbine Blades
(c)
Figure 11.30 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce
a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached.
Source: (a) and (b) B. H. Kear, Scientific American, October 1986; (c) Advanced Materials and
Processes, October 1990, p. 29, ASM International.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Single Crystal Casting
Figure 11.31 Two methods of
crystal growing: (a) crystal
pulling (Czochralski process)
and (b) the floating-zone
method. Crystal growing is
especially important in the
semiconductor industry.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack,
Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Inc., 1982.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 11-35
Melt Spinning
Figure 11.32 Schematic
illustration of melt-spinning to
produce thin strips of
amorphous metal.

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Types of Melting Furnaces
Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-1
CHAPTER 12
Metal Casting: Design, Materials, and
Economics

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Page 12-2
Casting Design Modifications
Figure 12.1 Suggested design
modifications to avoid defects
in castings. Note that sharp
corners are avoided to reduce
stress concentrations.

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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-3
Casting Cross-Sections
Figure 12.2 Examples of designs showing the importance of maintaining uniform cross- sections in
castings to avoid hot spots and shrinkage cavities.

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Page 12-4
Avoiding Shrinkage Cavities
Figure 12.3 Examples of
design modifications to avoid
shrinkage cavities in castings.
Source: Steel Castings
Handbook, 5th ed. Steel
Founders' Society of America,
1980. Used with permission.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-5
Chills
Figure 12.4 The use of
metal padding (chills) to
increase the rate of cooling
in thick regions in a casting
to avoid shrinkage cavities.
Source: Steel Castings
Handbook, 5th ed. Steel
Founders' Society of
America, 1980. Used with
permission.

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Normal Shrinkage Allowance for Some Metals
Cast in Sand Molds
TABLE 12.1
Metal Percent
Gray cast iron
White cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Aluminum alloys
Magnesium alloys
Yellow brass
Phosphor bronze
Aluminum bronze
High-manganese steel
0.83–1.3
2.1
0.78–1.0
1.3
1.3
1.3–1.6
1.0–1.6
2.1
2.6

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Parting Line
Figure 12.5 Redesign of a
casting by making the parting
line straight to avoid defects.
Source: Steel Casting
Handbook, 5th ed. Steel
Founders' Society of America,
1980. Used with permission.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Casting Design
Modifications
Figure 12.6
Examples of
casting design
modifications.
Source: Steel
Casting
Handbook, 5th
ed. Steel
Founders'
Society of
America, 1980.
Used with
permission.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Page 12-9
Desirable and Undesirable Die-Casting
Practices
Figure 12.7 Examples of
undesirable and desirable design
practices for die-cast parts. Note
that section-thickness uniformity is
maintained throughout the part.
Source: American Die Casting
Institute.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-10
Mechanical Properties for Various Groups of
Cast Alloys
Figure 12.8 Mechanical properties for various groups of cast alloys. Note that gray iron has very little
ductility and toughness, compared with most other cast alloys, some of which undergo considerable
elongation and reduction of area in tension. Note also that even within the same group, the properties of
cast alloys vary over a wide range, particularly for cast steels. Source: Steel Founders' Society of
America.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Mechanical Properties for Various Groups of
Cast Alloys (cont.)
Figure 12.8 Mechanical properties for various groups of cast alloys. Note that gray iron has very little
ductility and toughness, compared with most other cast alloys, some of which undergo considerable
elongation and reduction of area in tension. Note also that even within the same group, the properties of
cast alloys vary over a wide range, particularly for cast steels. Source: Steel Founders' Society of
America.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
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Typical Applications for Casting and Casting
Characteristics
TABLE 12.2
Type of alloy Application Castability* Weldability* Machinability*
Aluminum Pistons, clutch housings, intake
manifolds
EFG–ECopper Pumps, valves, gear blanks,
marine propellers
F–G F F–G
Ductile iron Crankshafts, heavy-duty gears G D G
Gray iron Engine blocks, gears, brake disks
and drums, machine bases
ED G
Magnesium Crankcase, transmission housings G–E G E
Malleable iron Farm and construction machinery,
heavy-duty bearings, railroad
rolling stock
GD G
Nickel Gas turbine blades, pump and
valve components for chemical
plants
FF F
Steel (carbon and
low alloy)
Die blocks, heavy-duty gear
blanks, aircraft undercarriage
members, rail-road wheels
FE F
Steel (high alloy) Gas turbine housings, pump and
valve components, rock crusher
jaws
FE F
White iron Mill liners, shot blasting nozzles,
railroad brake shoes, crushers and
pulverizers
GVP VP
Zinc Door handles, radiator grills, E D E
*E, excellent; G, good; F, fair; VP, very poor; D, difficult.

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Properties and Typical Applications of Cast Irons
TABLE 12.3
Cast iron Type
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Typical applications
Gray Ferritic
Pearlitic
Martensitic
170
275
550
140
240
550
0.4
0.4
0
Pipe, sanitary ware
Engine blocks, machine tools
Wearing surfaces
Ductile
(Nodular)
Ferritic
Pearlitic
Tempered
martensite
415
550
825
275
380
620
18
6
2
Pipe, general service
Crankshafts, highly stressed parts
High-strength machine parts,wear-resistant
parts
Malleable Ferritic
Pearlitic
Tempered
martensite
365
450
700
240
310
550
18
10
2
Hardware, pipe fittings, general engineering
service
Railroad equipment, couplings
Railroad equipment, gears, connecting rods
White Pearlitic 275 275 0 Wear-resistant parts, mill rolls

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-14
Mechanical Properties of Gray Cast Irons
TABLE 12.4
ASTM
class
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Compressive
strength
(MPa)
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Hardness
(HB)
20 152 572 66 to 97 15625 179 669 79 to 102 174 30 214 752 90 to 113 210
35 252 855 100 to 119 212
40 293 965 110 to 138 235
50 362 1130 130 to 157 262
60 431 1293 141 to 162 302

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-15
Properties and Typical Applications of Cast
Nonferrous Alloys
TABLE 12.5
Alloys (UNS) Condition
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
in 50 mm
(%) Typical applications
Aluminum alloys 195 (AO1950)
319 (AO3190)
356 (AO3560)
Heat treated
Heat treated
Heat treated
220–280
185–250
260
110–220
125–180
185
8.5–2
2–1.5
5
Sand castings
Sand castings
Permanent mold castings
Copper alloys
Red brass (C83600)
Yellow brass (C86400)
Annealed
Annealed
235
275
115
95
25
25
Pipe fittings, gears
Hardware, ornamental
Manganese bronze
(C86100)
Annealed 480 195 30 Propeller hubs, blades
Leaded tin bronze
(C92500)
Annealed 260 105 35 Gears, bearings, valves
Gun metal (C90500) Annealed 275 105 30 Pump parts, fittings
Nickel silver (C97600) Annealed 275 175 15 Marine parts, valves
Magnesium alloys
AZ91A
AZ63A
AZ91C
EZ33A
HK31A
QE22A
F
T4
T6
T5
T6
T6
230
275
275
160
210
275
150
95
130
110
105
205
3
12
5
3
8
4
Die castings
Sand and permanent mold
castings
High strength
Elevated temperature
Elevated temperature
Highest strength

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 12-16
General Cost Characteristics of Casting
Processes
TABLE 12.6
Cost*
Process Die Equi pment Labor
Production
rate (Pc/hr)Sand L L L–M <20Shell-mold L–M M-H L–M <50 Plaster L–M M M–H <10
Investment M–H L-M H < 1000
Permanent mold M M L–M <60
Die H H L–M <200
Centrifugal M H L–M <50
* L, low; M, medium; H, high.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-1
CHAPTER 13
Rolling of Metals

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-2
Flat- and Shape-Rolling Processes
Figure 13.1 Schematic
outline of various flat- and
shape-rolling processes.
Source: American Iron and
Steel Institute.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-3
Flat-Rolling
Figure 13.2 (a) Schematic illustration of the flat-rolling process. (b) Friction forces acting on strip surfaces.
(c) The roll force, F, and the torque acting on the rolls. The width w of the strip usually increases during
rolling, as is shown in Fig. 13.5.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-4
Four-High Rolling Mill
Figure 13.3 Schematic
illustration of a four-high
rolling-mill stand, showing its
various features. The
stiffnesses of the housing, the
rolls, and the roll bearings are
all important in controlling
and maintaining the thickness
of the rolled strip.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-5
Roll Bending
Figure 13.4 (a) Bending of
straight cylindrical rolls, caused
by the roll force. (b) Bending
of rolls ground with camber,
producing a strip with uniform
thickness.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-6
Spreading of a Strip
Figure 13.5 Increase in the width
(spreading) of a strip in flat rolling
(see also Fig. 13.2a). Similarly,
spreading can be observed when
dough is rolled with a rolling pin.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-7
Grain Structure During Hot Rolling
Figure 13.6 Changes in the grain structure of cast or of large-grain wrought metals during hot rolling. Hot
rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals, for improved strength and ductility. Cast structures
of ingots or continuous casting are converted to a wrought structure by hot working.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-8
Roller Leveling and Defects in Flat RollingFigure 13.8 Schematic
illustration of typical defects in
flat rolling: (a) wavy edges; (b)
zipper cracks in the center of the
strip; (c) edge cracks; and (d)
alligatoring.
Figure 13.7 A method of roller leveling to
flatten rolled sheets. See also Fig 15.22.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-9
Residual Stresses in Rolling
Figure 13.9 (a) Residual stresses developed in rolling with small rolls or at small
reductions in thickness per pass. (b) Residual stresses developed in rolling with
large rolls or at high reductions per pass. Note the reversal of the residual stress
patterns.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-10
Rolling Mill
Figure 13.10 A general
view of a rolling mill.
Source: Inland Steel.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-11
Backing Roll Arrangements
Figure 13.11 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) two-high; (b) three- high; (c) four-
high; (d) cluster (Sendzimir) mill.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-12
Tandem Rolling
Figure 13.12 A tandem rolling operation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-13
Shape Rolling
Figure 13.13 Stages in the
shape rolling of an H-section
part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and
I-beams, are also rolled by this
kind of process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-14
Ring-Rolling
Figure 13.14 (a) Schematic illustration of a
ring-rolling operation. Thickness reduction
results in an increase in the part diameter. (b)
Examples of cross-sections that can be formed
by ring rolling.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-15
Thread-
Rolling
Figure 13.16 (a) Features of a
machined or rolled thread. (b)
Grain flow in machined and
rolled threads. Unlike
machining, which cuts through
the grains of the metal, the
rolling of threads causes
improved strength, because of
cold working and favorable grain
flow.
Figure 13.15
Thread-rolling
processes: (a)
and (c)
reciprocating flat
dies; (b) two-
roller dies.
Threaded
fasteners, such as
bolts, are made
economically by
these processes,
at high rates of
production.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-16
Mannesmann Process
Figure 13.17 Cavity formation in a solid round bar and its utilization in the rotary tube piercing process
for making seamless pipe and tubing. (The Mannesmann mill was developed in the 1880s.)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-17
Tube-Rolling
Figure 13.18
Schematic illustration
of various tube-rolling
processes: (a) with
fixed mandrel; (b)
with moving mandrel;
(c) without mandrel;
and (d) pilger rolling
over a mandrel and a
pair of shaped rolls.
Tube diameters and
thicknesses can also
be changed by other
processes, such as
drawing, extrusion,
and spinning.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 13-18
Spray Casting (Osprey Process)
Figure 13.19 Spray casting
(Osprey process), in which
molten metal is sprayed over
a rotating mandrel to produce
seamless tubing and pipe.
Source: J. Szekely, Scientific
American, July 1987.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-1
CHAPTER 14
Forging of Metals

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-2
Forging
(a)
(b)Figure 14.1 (a) Schematic illustration of the steps
involved in forging a bevel gear with a shaft. Source:
Forging Industry Association. (b) Landing-gear
components for the C5A and C5B transport aircraft,
made by forging. Source: Wyman-Gordon Company.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-3
Figure 14.1 (c) general view of a 445 MN (50,000
ton) hydraulic press. Source: Wyman-Gordon
Company.
(c)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-4
Outline of Forging and Related Operations
Figure 14.2

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-5
Grain Flow Comparison
Figure 14.3 A part made by three different processes, showing grain flow. (a) casting, (b) machining,
(c) forging. Source: Forging Industry Association.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-6
Characteristics of Forging Processes
TABLE 14.1
Process Advantages Limitations
Open die Simple, inexpensive dies; useful for small
quantities; wide range of sizes available;
good strength characteristics
Limited to simple shapes; difficult to hold close
tolerances; machining to final shape necessary;
low production rate; relatively poor utilization of
material; high degree of skill required
Closed die Relatively good utilization of material;
generally better properties than open-die
forgings; good dimensional accuracy; high
production rates; good reproducibility
High die cost for small quantities; machining
often necessary
Blocker type Low die costs; high production rates Machining to final shape necessary; thick webs
and large fillets necessary
Conventional type Requires much less machining than blocker
type; high production rates; good utilization
of material
Somewhat higher die cost than blocker type
Precision type Close tolerances; machining often
unnecessary; very good material utilization;
very thin webs and flanges possible
Requires high forces, intricate dies, and provision
for removing forging from dies

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-7
Upsetting
Figure 14.4 (a) Solid cylindrical billet upset between two flat dies. (b) Uniform deformation of the billet
without friction. (c) Deformation with friction. Note barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at
the billet-die interfaces.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-8
Cogging
Figure 14.5 Two
views of a cogging
operation on a
rectangular bar.
Blacksmiths use this
process to reduce the
thickness of bars by
hammering the part
on an anvil. Note the
barreling of the
workpiece.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-9
Impression-Die Forging
Figure 14.6 Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet. Note the formation of flash,
which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed off (see Fig. 14.8).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-10
Forging a Connecting Rod
Figure 14.7 (a) Stages in
forging a connecting rod for an
internal combustion engine.
Note the amount of flash
required to ensure proper filling
of the die cavities. (b)
Fullering, and (c) edging
operations to distribute the
material when preshaping the
blank for forging.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-11
Trimming Flash from a Forged Part
Figure 14.8 Trimming flash from a
forged part. Note that the thin
material at the center is removed
by punching.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-12
Comparison of Forging With and Without Flash
Figure 14.9 Comparison of
closed-die forging to precision
or flashless forging of a
cylindrical billet. Source: H.
Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B.
Painter, and T. Altan.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-13
Coining
Figure 14.10 (a) Schematic illustration of the coining process. the earliest coins were made by open-die
forging and lacked sharp details. (b) An example of a coining operation to produce an impression of the
letter E on a block of metal.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-14
Range of k Values for Equation F=kY
fA
TABLE 14.2
Simple shapes, without flash 3–5
Simple shapes, with flash 5–8
Complex shapes, with flash 8–12

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-15
Heading/Upset Forging
Figure 14.11 (a) Heading operation, to form heads on fasteners such as nails and rivets. (b) Sequence of
operations to produce a bolt head by heading.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-16
Grain Flow Pattern of Pierced Round Billet
Figure 14.12 A pierced round billet,
showing grain flow pattern. Source:
Courtesy of Ladish Co., Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-17
Roll-Forging
Figure 14.13 Two examples of the roll-forging operation, also known as cross-rolling. Tapered leaf
springs and knives can be made by this process. Source: (a) J. Holub; (b) reprinted with permission of
General Motors Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-18
Production of Bearing Blanks
Figure 14.14 (a) Production of steel balls by the skew-rolling process. (b) Production of steel balls by
upsetting a cylindrical blank. Note the formation of flash. The balls made by these processes are
subsequently ground and polished for use in ball bearings (see Sections 25.6 and 25.10).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-19
Orbital Forging
Figure 14.15 (a) Various movements of the upper die in orbital forging (also called
rotary, swing, or rocking-die forging); the process is similar to the action of a
mortar and pestle. (b) An example of orbital forging. Bevel gears, wheels, and
rings for bearings can be made by this process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-20
Swaging
Figure 14.16 (a)
Schematic
illustration of the
rotary-swaging
process. (b)
Forming internal
profiles on a
tubular workpiece
by swaging. (c) A
die-closing type
swaging machine,
showing forming
of a stepped shaft.
(d) Typical parts
made by swaging.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-21
Swaging of Tubes With and Without a MandrelFigure 14.17 (a) Swaging of tubes without a mandrel; not the increase in wall thickness in the die gap.
(b) Swaging with a mandrel; note that the final wall thickness of the tube depends on the mandrel
diameter. (c) Examples of cross-sections of tubes produced by swaging on shaped mandrels. Rifling
(spiral grooves) in small gun barrels can be made by this process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-22
Impression-Forging Die and Die Inserts
Figure 14.19 Die inserts used in dies for forging an
automotive axle housing. (See Tables 5.5 to 5.7 for die
materials.) Source: Metals Handbook, Desk Edition.
ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 1985. Used with
permission.
Figure 14.18 Standard terminology for various
features of a typical impression-forging die.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-23
Classification of Metals in Decreasing Order of
Forgeablilty
TABLE 14.3
Metal or alloy Approximate range of hot
forging temperature (°C)
Aluminum alloys
Magnesium alloys
Copper alloys
Carbon and low–alloy steels
Martensitic stainless steels
Austenitic stainless steels
Titanium alloys
Iron-base superalloys
Cobalt-base superalloys
Tantalum alloys
Molybdenum alloys
Nickel-base superalloys
Tungsten alloys
400–550
250–350
600–900
850–1150
1100–1250
1100–1250
700–950
1050–1180
1180–1250
1050–1350
1150–1350
1050–1200
1200–1300

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-24
Defects in Forged Parts
Figure 14.20 Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Labs formed by web buckling during
forging; web thickness should be increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused
by oversized billet; die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center flows past
the filled regions as the dies close.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-25
Speed Range of Forging Equipment
TABLE 14.4
Equipment m/s
Hydraulic press
Mechanical press
Screw press
Gravity drop hammer
Power drop hammer
Counterblow hammer
0.06–0.30
0.06–1.5
0.6–1.2
3.6–4.8
3.0–9.0
4.5–9.0

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-26
Principles of Various Forging Machines
Figure 14.21 Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging machines. (a)
Hydraulic press. (b) Mechanical press with an eccentric drive; the eccentric shaft can
be replaced by a crankshaft to give the up-and-down motion to the ram. (continued)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-27
Figure 14.21 (continued) Schematic illustration of the principles of various forging
machines. (c) Knuckle-joint press. (d) Screw press. (e) Gravity drop hammer.
Principles of Various Forging Machines (cont.)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-28
Unit Cost in Forging
Figure 14.22 Typical unit
cost (cost per piece) in
forging; note how the
setup and the tooling costs
per piece decrease as the
number of pieces forged
increases, if all pieces use
the same die.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 14-29
Relative Unit Costs of a Small Connecting RodFigure 14.23 Relative unit costs
of a small connecting rod made by
various forging and casting
processes. Note that, for large
quantities, forging is more
economical. Sand casting is the
more economical process for
fewer than about 20,000 pieces.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-1
CHAPTER 15
Extrusion and Drawing of Metals

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-2
Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.1 Schematic illustration of the direct extrusion process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-3
Extrusions
Figure 15.2 Extrusions, and examples of
products made by sectioning off
extrusions. Source: Kaiser Aluminum.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-4
Types of Extrusion
Figure 15.3 Types of extrusion: (a) indirect; (b) hydrostatic; (c) lateral.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-5
Process Variables in Direct Extrusion
Figure 15.4 Process
variables in direct extrusion.
The die angle, reduction in
cross-section, extrusion
speed, billet temperature, and
lubrication all affect the
extrusion pressure.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-6
Circumscribing-Circle Diameter
Figure 15.5 Method of determining the circumscribing-circle diameter
(CCD) of an extruded cross-section.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-7
Extrusion Constant k for Various Metals
Figure 15.6 Extrusion constant
k for various metals at different
temperatures. Source: P.
Loewenstein.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-8
Types of Metal Flow in Extruding With Square
Dies
Figure 15.7 Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a) Flow pattern obtained at low
friction, or in indirect extrusion. (b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber interfaces.
(c) Pattern obtained at high friction, or with cooling of the outer regions of the billet in the chamber.
This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength increases rapidly with decreasing temperature,
leads to a defect known as pipe, or extrusion defect.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-9
Extrusion Temperature Ranges for Various
Metals
ϒ
C
Lead 200–250Aluminum and its alloys 375–475
Copper and its alloys 650–975
Steels 875–1300
Refractory alloys 975–2200

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-10
Extrusion-Die Configurations
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 15.8 Typical extrusion-die
configurations: (a) die for nonferrous metals; (b)
die for ferrous metals; (c) die for T-shaped
extrusion, made of hot-work die steel and used
with molten glass as a lubricant. Source for (c):
Courtesy of LTV Steel Company.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-11
Components for Extruding Hollow Shapes
Figure 15.9 (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders. This
part is 8 mm (5/16 in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion (see Fig. 15.2). (b)-(d) Components of
various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes. Source: for (b)-(d): K. Laue and H. Stenger,
Extrusion--Processes, Machinery, Tooling. American Society for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio, 1981.
Used with permission.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-12
Cross-Sections to be Extruded
Figure 15.10 Poor and good
examples of cross-sections to be
extruded. Note the importance of
eliminating sharp corners and of
keeping section thicknesses
uniform. Source: J. G. Bralla
(ed.); Handbook of Product
Design for Manufacturing. New
York: McGraw-Hill Publishing
Company, 1986. Used with
permission.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-13
Examples of Cold Extrusion
Figure 15.11 Two
examples of cold
extrusion. Thin arrows
indicate the direction of
metal flow during
extrusion.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-14
Cold Extruded Spark Plug
Figure 15.12 Production steps for a cold extruded
spark plug. Source: National Machinery Company.
Figure 15.13 A cross-section of the metal part
in Fig. 15.12, showing the grain flow pattern.
Source: National Machinery Company.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-15
Impact Extrusion
Figure 15.14 Schematic
illustration of the impact-
extrusion process. The
extruded parts are stripped
by the use of a stripper
plate, because they tend to
stick to the punch.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-16
Examples of Impact Extrusion
Figure 15.15 (a) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts may also be made by
casting, by forging, or by machining; the choice of process depends on the dimensions and the materials
involved and on the properties desired. Economic considerations are also important in final process
selection. (b) and (c) Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-17
Chevron Cracking
(a)
(b)
Figure 15.16 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are
inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected, and later cause failure of the part in service. This
defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and
plastic zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not
meet. Note that hte plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die angel or by increasing the
reduction in cross-section (or both). Source: B. Avitzur.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-18
Hydraulic-Extrusion Press
Figure 15.17 General
view of a 9-MN
(1000-ton) hydraulic-
extrusion press.
Source: Courtesy of
Jones & Laughlin
Steel Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-19
Process Variables in Wire Drawing
Figure 15.18 Process variables in wire drawing. The die angle, the reduction in cross-
sectional area per pass, the speed of drawing, the temperature, and the lubrication all
affect the drawing force, F.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-20
Examples of Tube-Drawing Operations
Figure 15.19
Examples of tube-
drawing operations,
with and without an
internal mandrel.
Note that a variety of
diameters and wall
thicknesses can be
produced from the
same initial tube stock
(which has been made
by other processes).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-21
Die for Round Drawing
Figure 15.20 Terminology
of a typical die used for
drawing round rod or wire.
Figure 15.21 Tungsten- carbide die insert in a steel casing. Diamond
dies, used in drawing thin wire, are
encased in a similar manner.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-22
Roll Straightening
Figure 15.22 Schematic illustration of roll straightening of a drawn round rod (see also Fig. 13.7).

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-23
Cold Drawing
Figure 15.23 Cold drawing of an extruded channel on a draw bench, to reduce its cross-section.
Individual lengths of straight rod or of cross-sections are drawn by this method. Source: Courtesy of The
Babcock and Wilcox Company, Tubular Products Division.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 15-24
Multistage Wire-Drawing
Figure 15.24 Two
views of a multistage
wire-drawing machine
that is typically used in
the making of copper
wire for electrical
wiring. Source: H.
Auerswald.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-1
CHAPTER 16
Sheet-Metal Forming Processes

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-2
Outline of Sheet-Metal Forming Processes
Figure 16.1

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-3
Characteristics of Sheet-Metal Forming
Processes
TABLE 16.1
Process Characteristics
Roll forming Long parts with constant complex cross-sections; good surface finish; high production rates ; high
tooling costs.
Stretch forming Large parts with shallow contours; suitable for low-quantity production; high labor costs; tooling
and equipment costs depend on part size.
Drawing Shallow or deep parts with relatively simple shapes; high production rates; high tooling and
equipment costs.
Stamping Includes a variety of operations, such as punching, blanking, embossing, bending, flanging, and
coining; simple or complex shapes formed at high production rates; tooling and equipment costs
can be high, but labor cost is low.
Rubber forming Drawing and embossing of simple or complex shapes; sheet surface protected by rubber
membranes; flexibility of operation; low tooling costs.
Spinning Small or large axisymmetric parts; good surface finish; low tooling costs, but labor costs can be
high unless operations are automated.
Superplastic
forming
Complex shapes, fine detail and close tolerances; forming times are long, hence production rates are
low; parts not suitable for high-temperature use.
Peen forming Shallow contours on large sheets; flexibility of operation; equipment costs can be high; process is
also used for straightening parts.
Explosive
forming
Very large sheets with relatively complex shapes, although usually axisymmetric; low tooling costs,
but high labor cost; suitable for low-quantity production; long cycle times.
Magnetic-pulse
forming
Shallow forming, bulging, and embossing operations on relatively low-strength sheets; most
suitable for tubular shapes; high production rates; requires special tooling.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-4
Shearing
Figure 16.2 (a) Schematic
illustration of shearing with a
punch and die, indicating some
of the process variables.
Characteristic features of (b) a
punched hole and (c) the slug.
Note that the scales of the two
figures are different.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-5
Clearance
Figure 16.3 (a) Effect of the clearance, c, between punch and die on the deformation zone in shearing. As
the clearance increases, the material tends to be pulled into the die rather than be sheared. In practice,
clearances usually range between 2% and 10% of the thickness of the sheet. (b) Microhardness (HV)
contours for a 6.4-mm (0.25-in) thick AISI 1020 hot-rolled steel in the sheared region. Source: H. P. Weaver
and K. J. Weinmann.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-6
Shearing Operations
Figure 16.4 (a) Punching (piercing) and blanking. (b) Examples of various shearing operations on sheet
metal.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-7
Fine Blanking
(a)
(b)
Figure 16.5 (a) Comparison of sheared edges produced by conventional (left) and by fine-blanking (right)
techniques. (b) Schematic illustration of one setup for fine blanking. Source: Feintool U.S. Operations.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-8
Slitting
Figure 16.6 Slitting with rotary knives.
This process is similar to opening cans.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-9
Laser Welding
Figure 16.7 Production of an outer side panel of a car body, by laser butt-welding and stamping.
Source: After M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-10
Examples of Laser Welded Parts
Figure 16.8 Examples of laser butt-welded and stamped automotive body components. Source: After
M. Geiger and T. Nakagawa.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-11
Shaving and Shear Angles
Figure 16.9 Schematic illustrations
of the shaving of a sheared edge.
(a) Shaving a sheared edge. (b)
Shearing and shaving, combined in
one stroke.
Figure 16.10
Examples of the
use of shear angles
on punches and
dies.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-12
Compound and Progressive Die
Figure 16.11 Schematic illustrations: (a)
before and (b) after blanking a common
washer in a compound die. Note the
separate movements of the die (for
blanking) and the punch (for punching the
hole in the washer). (c) Schematic
illustration of making a washer in a
progressive die. (d) Forming of the top
piece of an aerosol spray can in a
progressive die. Note that the part is
attached to the strip until the last operation
is completed.
(a) (b)
(c)
(d)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-13
Characteristics of Metals Important in Sheet
Forming
TABLE 16.2
Characteristic Importance
Elongation Determines the capability of the sheet metal to stretch without necking and failure; high
strain-hardening exponent (n)and strain-rate sensitivity exponent (m)desirable.
Yield-point elongation Observed with mild-steel sheets; also called Lueder’s bands and stretcher strains; causes
flamelike depressions on the sheet surfaces; can be eliminated by temper rolling, but
sheet must be formed within a certain time after rolling.
Anisotropy (planar) Exhibits different behavior in different planar directions; present in cold-rolled sheets
because of preferred orientation or mechanical fibering; causes earing in drawing; can be
reduced or eliminated by annealing but at lowered strength.
Anisotropy (normal) Determines thinning behavior of sheet metals during stretching; important in deep-
drawing operations.
Grain size Determines surface roughness on stretched sheet metal; the coarser the grain, the rougher
the appearance (orange peel); also affects material strength.
Residual stresses Caused by nonuniform deformation during forming; causes part distortion when sectioned
and can lead to stress-corrosion cracking; reduced or eliminated by stress relieving.
Springback Caused by elastic recovery of the plastically deformed sheet after unloading; causes
distortion of part and loss of dimensional accuracy; can be controlled by techniques such
as overbending and bottoming of the punch.
Wrinkling Caused by compressive str esses in the plane of the sheet; can be objectionable or can be
useful in imparting stiffness to parts; can be controlled by proper tool and die design.
Quality of sheared edges Depends on process used; edges can be rough, not square, and contain cracks, residual
stresses, and a work-hardened layer, which are all detrimental to the formability of the
sheet; quality can be improved by control of clearance, tool and die design, fine blanking,
shaving, and lubrication.
Surface condition of sheet Depends on rolling practice; important in sheet forming as it can cause tearing and poor
surface quality; see also Section 13.3.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-14
Yield-Point Elongation
Figure 16.12 (a) Yield-point elongation in a sheet-metal specimen. (b) Lueder's bands in a low-carbon steel sheet.
Source: Courtesy of Caterpillar Inc. (c) Stretcher strains at the bottom of a steel can for household products.
(a)
(b)
(c)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-15
Erichsen and Bulge-Tests
Figure 16.13 (a) A cupping test (the Erichsen test) to
determine the formability of sheet metals. (b) Bulge-test
results on steel sheets of various widths. The specimen
farthest left is subjected to, basically, simple tension. The
specimen farthest right is subjected to equal biaxial
stretching. Source: Inland Steel Company.
(a)
(b)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-16
Major and Minor Strain
Figure 16.14 (a) Strains in deformed circular grid
patterns. (b) Forming-limit diagrams (FLD) for
various sheet metals. Although the major strain is
always positive (stretching), the minor strain may
be either positive or negative. In the lower left of
the diagram, R is the normal anisotropy of the
sheet, as described in Section 16.9.2. Source: S. S.
Hecker and A. K. Ghosh.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-17
Tearing and Bending
Figure 16.15 The deformation of the grid pattern and the
tearing of sheet metal during forming. The major and
minor axes of the circles are used to determine the
coordinates on the forming-limit diagram in Fig. 16.14b.
Source: S. P. Keeler.
Figure 16.16 Bending terminology. Note that the
bend radius is measured to the inner surface of the
bent part.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-18
Bending
Figure 16.17 (a) and (b) The effect of elongated
inclusions (stringers) on cracking, as a function of the
direction of bending with respect to the original rolling
direction of the sheet. (c) Cracks on the outer surface of
an aluminum strip bent to an angle of 90o. Note the
narrowing of the tope surface due to the Poisson effect.
(a) (b)(c)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-19
Minimum Bend Radius for Various Materials at
Room Temperature
TABLE 16.3
Condition
Material Soft Hard
Aluminum alloys
Beryllium copper
Brass, low-leaded
Magnesium
Steels
Austenitic stainless
Low-carbon, low-alloy, and HSLA
Titanium
Titanium alloys
0
0
0
5T
0.5T
0.5T
0.7T
2.6T
6T
4T
2T
13T
6T
4T
3T
4T

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-20
R/T Ratio versus % Area Reduction
Figure 16.18 Relationship between R/T
ratio and tensile reduction of area for
sheet metals. Note that sheet metal with
a 50% tensile reduction of area can be
bent over itself, in a process like the
folding of a piece of paper, without
cracking. Source: After J. Datsko and C.
T. Yang.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-21
Springback
Figure 16.19 Springback in bending.
The part tends to recover elastically
after ending, and its bend radius
becomes larger. Under certain
conditions, it is possible for the final
bend angle to be smaller than the
original angle (negative springback).
Figure 16.20 Methods
of reducing or
eliminating springback
in bending operations.
Source: V. Cupka, T.
Nakagawa, and H.
Tyamoto.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-22
Bending Operations
Figure 16.21 Common die-bending
operations, showing the die-opening
dimension, W, used in calculating
bending forces.
Figure 16.22 Examples of various bending operations.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-23
Bending in a Press Brake
Figure 16.23 (a) through (e) Schematic illustrations of various bending operations in
a press brake. (f) Schematic illustration of a press brake. Source: Verson Allsteel
Company.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-24
Bead Forming
Figure 16.24 (a) Bead forming with a single die. (b) Bead forming with two dies, in a press brake.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-25
Flanging
Figure 16.25 Various flanging
operations. (a) Flanges on a
flat sheet. (b) Dimpling. (c)
The piercing of sheet metal to
form a flange. In this
operation, a hole does not have
to be prepunched before the
bunch descends. Note,
however, the rough edges
along the circumference of the
flange. (d) The flanging of a
tube; note the thinning of the
edges of the flange.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-26
Roll Forming
Figure 16.26 Schematic
illustration of the roll-forming
process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-27
Tube Bending
Figure 16.27 Methods of bending tubes. Internal mandrels, or the filling of tubes with particulate
materials such as sand, are often necessary to prevent collapse of the tubes during bending. Solid
rods and structural shapes can also be bent by these techniques.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-28
Bulging
Figure 16.28 (a) The bulging of a tubular part with a flexible plug. Water pitchers can be
made by this method. (b) Production of fittings for plumbing, by expanding tubular blanks
under internal pressure. The bottomof the piece is then punched out to produce a "T."
Source: J. A. Schey, Introduction to Manufacturing Processes (2d ed.) New York: McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company, 1987.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-29
Manufacturing of Bellows
Figure 16.29 Steps in manufacturing a bellows.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-30
Stretch Forming
Figure 16.30 Schematic illustration of a stretch-forming process. Aluminum skins for
aircraft can be made by this method. Source: Cyril Bath Co.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-31
Steps in
Manufacturing
an Aluminum
Can
Figure 16.31 The metal-
forming
processes
involved in
manufacturing
a two-piece
aluminum
beverage can

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-32
Deep Drawing
Figure 16.32 (a) Schematic illustration of the deep-drawing process on a circular sheet-metal blank. The
stripper ring facilitates the removal of the formed cup from the punch. (b) Process variables in deep drawing.
Except for the punch force, F, all the parameters indicated in the figure are independent variables.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-33
Anisotropy
Figure 16.33 Strains on a tensile-test specimen
removed from a piece of sheet metal. These
strains are used in determining the normal and
planar anisotropy of the sheet metal.
Figure 16.34 The relationship between
average normal anisotropy and the
limiting drawing ratio for various sheet
metals. Source: M. Atkinson.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-34
Typical Range of Average Normal Anisotropy,
R, for Various Sheet Metals
TABLE 16.4
Zinc alloys
Hot-rolled steel
Cold-rolled rimmed steel
Cold-rolled aluminum-killed steel
Aluminum alloys
Copper and brass
Titanium alloys (a)
Stainless steels
High-strength low-alloy steels
0.4–0.6
0.8–1.0
1.0–1.4
1.4–1.8
0.6–0.8
0.6–0.9
3.0–5.0
0.9–1.2
0.9–1.2

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-35
Earing
Figure 16.45 Earing in a drawn
steel cup, caused by the planar
anisotropy of the sheet metal.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-36
Drawbeads
Figure 16.36 (a) Schematic illustration of a draw bead. (b) Metal flow during the drawing of a box-
shaped part, while using beads to control the movement of the material. (c) Deformation of circular
grids in the flange in deep drawing.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-37
Embossing
Figure 16.37 An embossing
operation with two dies.
Letters, numbers, and
designs on sheet-metal parts
and thin ash trays can be
produced by this process.
Figure 16.38 Examples of the bending and the embossing of sheet metal with a
metal punch and with a flexible pad serving as the female die. Source: Polyurethane
Products Corporation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-38
Hydroform Process
Figure 16.39 The hydroform (or fluid forming) process. Note that, in contrast to the ordinary deep-drawing
process, the pressure in the dome forces the cup walls against the punch. The cup travels with the punch; in this
way, deep drawability is improved.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-39
Conventional Spinning
Figure 16.40 (a) Schematic illustration of the conventional spinning process. (b) Types of parts
conventionally spun. All parts are axisymmetric.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-40
Shear and
Tube Spinning
Figure 16.41 (a) Schematic
illustration of the shear
spinning process for
making conical parts. The
mandrel can be shaped so
that curvilinear parts can be
spun. (b) Schematic
illustration of the tube
spinning process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-41
Spinning of a Compressor Shaft
Figure 16.42 Steps in
tube and shear spinning of
a compressor shaft for the
Olympus jet engine of the
supersonic Concorde
aircraft.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-42
Diffusion Bonding and Superplastic Forming
Figure 16.43 Types of
structures made by
diffusion bonding and
superplastic forming of
sheet metal. Such
structures have a high
stiffness-to-weight ratio.
Source: Rockwell
International Corp.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-43
Explosive Forming
Figure 16.44 (a) Schematic illustration of the explosive forming process. (b) Illustration of the confined
method of explosive bulging of tubes.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-44
Magnetic-Pulse Forming
Figure 16.45 (a) Schematic illustration of the magnetic-pulse forming process used to form a
tube over a plug. (b) Aluminum tube collapsed over a hexagonal plug by the magnetic-pulse
forming process.
(a)
(b)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-45
Honeycomb Structures
Figure 16.46 Methods of manufacturing honeycomb
structures: (a) Expansion process; (b) Corrugation
process; (c) Assembling a honeycomb structure into
a laminate.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-46
Stamping
Press and
Press
Frames
Figure 16.47 (a)
and (b) Schematic
illustration of
types of press
frames for sheet-
forming
operations. Each
type has its own
characteristics of
stiffness, capacity,
and accessibility.
Source: Engineer's
Handbook, VEB
Fachbuchverlag,
1965. (c) A large
stamping press.
Source: Verson
Allsteel Company.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 16-47
Cost Comparison for Spinning and Deep
Drawing
Figure 16.48 Cost comparison
for manufacturing a round
sheet-metal container either by
conventional spinning or by
deep drawing. Note that for
small quantities, spinning is
more economical.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-1
CHAPTER 17
Processing of Powder Metals, Ceramics,
Glass, and Superconductors

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-2
Typical Applications for Metal Powders
TABLE 17.1
Application Metals Uses
Abrasives
Aerospace
Automotive
Electrical/electronic
Heat treating
Joining
Lubrication
Magnetic
Manufacturing
Medical/dental
Metallurgical
Nuclear
Office equipment
Fe, Sn, Zn
Al, Be, Nb
Cu, Fe, W
Ag, Au, Mo
Mo, Pt, W
Cu, Fe, Sn
Cu, Fe, Zn
Co, Fe, Ni
Cu, Mn, W
Ag, Au, W
Al, Ce, Si
Be, Ni, W
Al, Fe, Ti
Cleaning, abrasive wheels
Jet engines, heat shields
Valve inserts, bushings, gears
Contacts, diode heat sinks
Furnace elements, thermocouples
Solders, electrodes
Greases, abradable seals
Relays, magnets
Dies, tools, bearings
Implants, amalgams
Metal recovery, alloying
Shielding, filters, reflectors
Electrostatic copiers, camsSource: R. M. German.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-3
Powder-Metallurgy
Figure 17.1 (a) Examples of typical parts made by
powder-metallurgy processes. (b) Upper trip lever
for a commercial irrigation sprinkler, made by P/M.
This part is made of unleaded brass alloy; it
replaces a die-cast part, with a 60% savings.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Success
Stories on P/M Parts, 1998. Metal Powder
Industries Federation, Princeton, New Jersey, 1998.
(c) Main-bearing powder metal caps for 3.8 and 3.1
liter General Motors automotive engines. Source:
Courtesy of Zenith Sintered Products, Inc.,
Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
(a)(b)
(c)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-4
Making Powder-Metallurgy Parts
Figure 17.2 Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder-metallurgy parts.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-5
Particle Shapes in Metal Powders
Figure 17.3
Particle shapes in
metal powders, and
the processes by
which they are
produced. Iron
powders are
produced by many
of these processes.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-6
Powder Particles
Figure 17.4 (a) Scanning-electron-microscopy photograph of iron-powder particles made by atomization.
(b) Nickel-based superalloy (Udimet 700) powder particles made by the rotating electrode process; see Fig.
17.5b. Source: Courtesy of P. G. Nash, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago.
(a)
(b)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-7
Atomization and Mechanical Comminution
Figure 17.5 Methods of metal-
powder production by atomization;
(a) melt atomization; (b)
atomization with a rotating
consumable electrode.
Figure 17.6 Methods of mechanical
comminution, to obtain fine
particles: (a) roll crushing, (b) ball
mill, and (c) hammer milling.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-8
Geometries of Powders
Figure 17.7 Some common
equipment geometries for mixing
or blending powders: (a)
cylindrical, (b) rotating cube, (c)
double cone, and (d) twin shell.
Source: Reprinted with
permission from R. M. German,
Powder Metallurgy Science.
Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder
Industries Federation, 1984.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-9
Compaction
Figure 17.8 (a) Compaction of
metal powder to form a bushing.
The pressed powder part is called
green compact. (b) Typical tool
and die set for compacting a spur
gear. Source: Metal Powder
Industries Federation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-10
Density Effects
Figure 17.9 (a) Density of copper- and iron-powder compacts as a function of compacting pressure. Density
greatly influences the mechanical and physical properties of P/M parts. Source: F. V. Lenel, Powder Metallurgy:
Principles and Applications. Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1980. (b) Effects of density on
tensile strength, elongation, and electrical conductivity of copper powder. IACS means International Annealed
Copper Standard for electrical conductivity.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-11
Density Variations in Dies
Figure 17.10 Density variation in compacting metal powders in various dies: (a) and (c) single-action press;
(b) and (d) double-action press. Note in (d) the greater uniformity of density, from pressing with two
punches with separate movements, compared with (c). (e) Pressure contours in compacted copper powder in
a single-action press. Source: P. Duwez and L. Zwell.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-12
Compacting Pressures for Various Metal
Powders
TABLE 17.2
Metal
Pressure
(MPa)
Aluminum
Brass
Bronze
Iron
Tantalum
Tungsten
70–275
400–700
200–275
350–800
70–140
70–140
Other materialsAluminum oxide Carbon
Cemented carbides
Ferrites
110–140
140–165
140–400
110–165

Kalpakjian • Schmid
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Page 17-13
Mechanical Press
Figure 17.11 A 7.3 MN
(825 ton) mechanical
press for compacting
metal powder. Source:
Courtesy of Cincinnati
Incorporated.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-14
Hot and Cold Isostatic Pressing
Figure 17.12 Schematic diagram of cold isostatic pressing, as applied
to forming a tube. The powder is enclosed in a flexible container
around a solid core rod. Pressure is applied isostatically to the
assembly inside a high-pressure chamber. Source: Reprinted with
permission from R.M. German, Powder Metallurgy Science.
Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries Federation, 1984.
Figure 17.14 Schematic illustration of
hot isostatic pressing. The pressure and
temperature variation vs. time are
shown in the diagram. Source:
Preprinted with permission from R.M.
German, Powder Metallurgy Science.
Princeton, NJ; Metal Powder Industries
Federation, 1984.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-15
Capabilities Available from P/M Operations
Figure 17.13 Capabilities,
with respect to part size and
shape complexity, available
from various P/M
operations. P/F means
powder forging. Source:
Metal Powder Industries
Federation.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-16
Powder Rolling
Figure 17.15 An example of
powder rolling. Source:
Metals Handbook (9th ed.),
Vol. 7. American Society for
Metals.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-17
Sintering Temperature and Time for Various
Metals
TABLE 17.3
Material
Temperature
(° C)
Time
(Min)
Copper, brass, and bronze
Iron and iron-graphite
Nickel
Stainless steels
Alnico alloys
(for permanent magnets)
Ferrites
Tungsten carbide
Molybdenum
Tungsten
Tantalum
760–900
1000–1150
1000–1150
1100–1290
1200–1300
1200–1500
1430–1500
2050
2350
2400
10–45
8–45
30–45
30–60
120–150
10–600
20–30
120
480
480

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-18
Sintering
Figure 17.16 Schematic illustration of two mechanisms for sintering metal powders: (a) solid-state
material transport; (b) liquid-phase material transport. R = particle radius, r = neck radius, and
ρ = neck profile radius.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-19
Mechanical Properties of Selected P/M
Materials
TABLE 17.4
Designation
MPIF
type Condition
Ultimate
tensile
strength
(MPa)
Yield
Strength
(MPa) Hardness
Elongation
in 25 mm
(%)
Elastic
modulus
(GPa)
Ferrous FC-0208 N AS 225 205 45 HRB <0.5 70
HT 295 — 95 HRB <0.5 70
R AS 415 330 70 HRB 1 110
HT 550 — 35 HRC <0.5 110
S AS 550 395 80 HRB 1.5 130
HT 690 655 40 HRC <0.5 130
FN-0405 S AS 425 240 72 HRB 4.5 145
HT 1060 880 39 HRC 1 145
T AS 510 295 80 HRB 6 160
HT 1240 1060 44 HRC 1.5 160
Aluminum
601 AB, pressed bar AS 110 48 60 HRH 6 —
HT 252 241 75 HRH 2 —
Brass
CZP-0220 T — 165 76 55 HRH 13 —
U — 193 89 68 HRH 19 —
W — 221 103 75 HRH 23 —
Titanium
Ti-6AI-4V HIP 917 827 — 13 —
Superalloys
Stellite 19 — 1035 — 49 HRC <1 —
MPIF: Metal Powder Industries Federation. AS: as sintered, HT: heat treated, HIP: hot isostatically pressed.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-20
Mechanical Property Comparison for Ti-6Al-4V
TABLE 17.5
Process(*)
Density
(%)
Yield
strength
(MPa)
Ultimate
strength
(MPa)
Elongation
(%)
Reduction
of area
(%)
Cast Cast and forged
Blended elemental (P+S)
Blended elemental (HIP)
Prealloyed (HIP)
100
100
98
> 99
100
840
875
786
805
880
930
965
875
875
975
7
14 40
8
9
14
15
14
17
26
(*) P+S = pressed and sintered, HIP = hot isostatically pressed.
Source: R.M. German.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-21
Examples
of P/M
Parts
Figure 17.17 Examples of P/M parts, showing
poor designs and good
ones. Note that sharp
radii and reentry corners
should be avoided and
that threads and
transverse holes have to
be produced separately
by additional machining
operations.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-22
Forged and P/M Titanium Parts and Potential
Cost Saving
TABLE 17.6
Weight (kg)
Potential
cost
Part
Forged
billet P/M
Final
part
saving
(%)F-14 Fuselage brace F-18 Engine mount support
F-18 Arrestor hook support fitting
F-14 Nacelle frame
2.8
7.7
79.4
143
1.1
2.5
25.0
82
0.8
0.5
12.9
24.2
50
20
25
50

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-23
Characteristics of Ceramics Processing
TABLE 17.7
Process Advantages Limitations
Slip casting Large parts, complex shapes; low
equipment cost.
Low production rate; limited dimensional
accuracy.
Extrusion Hollow shapes and small diameters;
high production rate.
Parts have constant cross section; limited
thickness.
Dry pressing Close tolerances; high production rate
with automation.
Density variation in parts with high length-to-
diameter ratios; dies require high abrasive-wear
resistance; equipment can be costly.
Wet pressing Complex shapes; high production rate.Part size limited; limited dimensional accuracy;
tooling costs can be high.
Hot pressing Strong, high-density parts.Protective atmospheres required; die life can be
short.
Isostatic pressing Uniform density distribution.Equipment can be costly.
Jiggering High production rate with automation;
low tooling cost.
Limited to axisymmetric parts; limited
dimensional accuracy.
Injection molding Complex shapes; high production rate.Tooling can be costly.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-24
Steps in Making Ceramic Parts
Figure 17.18 Processing steps involved in making ceramic parts.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-25
Slip-Casting
Figure 17.19 Sequence of operations in slip-casting a ceramic part. After the slip
has been poured, the part is dried and fired in an oven to give it strength and
hardness. Source: F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-Wesley
Publishing Company, Inc. 1974.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-26
Extruding and Jiggering
Figure 17.20 (a) Extruding and (b) jiggering operations. Source: R. F. Stoops.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-27
Shrinkage
Figure 17.21 Shrinkage of wet clay caused by removal of water during drying. Shrinkage
may be as much as 20% by volume. Source: F. H. Norton, Elements of Ceramics. Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company, Inc. 1974.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-28
Sheet Glass Formation
Figure 17.22 (a)
Continuous process for
drawing sheet glass
from a molten bath.
Source: W. D. Kingery,
Introduction to
Ceramics. Wiley,
1976. (b) Rolling glass
to produce flat sheet.
Figure 17.23 The float method
of forming sheet glass. Source:
Corning Glass Works.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-29
Glass Tubing
Figure 17.24 Manufacturing
process for glass tubing. Air is
blown through the mandrel to
keep the tube from collapsing.
Source: Corning Glass Works.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-30
Steps in
Manufacturing
a Glass Bottle
Figure 17.25
Stages in
manufacturing an
ordinary glass
bottle. Source:
F.H. Norton,
Elements of
Ceramics.
Addison-Wesley
Publishing
Company, Inc.
1974.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-31
Glass Molding
Figure 17.26
Manufacturing a
glass item by
pressing glass in a
mold. Source:
Corning Glass
Works.
Figure 17.27 Pressing
glass in a split mold.
Source: E.B. Shand,
Glass Engineering
Handbook. McGraw-
Hill, 1958.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-32
Centrifugal Glass Casting
Figure 17.28 Centrifugal casting of glass.
Television-tube funnels are made by this
process. Source: Corning Glass Works.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 17-33
Residual Stresses
Figure 17.29 Residual stresses in tempered glass plate, and stages involved in inducing
compressive surface residual stresses for improved strength.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-1
CHAPTER 18
Forming and Shaping Plastics and
Composite Materials

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-2
Characteristics of Forming and Shaping
Processes for Plastics and Composite Materials
TABLE 18.1
Process Characteristics
Extrusion Long, uniform, solid or hollow complex cross-sections; high production rates;
low tooling costs; wide tolerances.
Injection molding Complex shapes of various sizes, eliminating assembly; high production rates;
costly tooling; good dimensional accuracy.
Structural foam molding Large parts with high stiffness-to-weight ratio; less expensive tooling than in
injection molding; low production rates.
Blow molding Hollow thin-walled parts of various sizes; high production rates and low cost for
making containers.
Rotational molding Large hollow shapes of relatively simple shape; low tooling cost; low production
rates.
Thermoforming Shallow or relatively deep cavities; low tooling costs; medium production rates.
Compression molding Parts similar to impression-die forging; relatively inexpensive tooling; medium
production rates.
Transfer molding More complex parts than compression molding and higher production rates; some
scrap loss; medium tooling cost.
Casting Simple or intricate shapes made with flexible molds; low production rates.
Processing of composite materials Long cycle times; tolerances and tooling cost depend on process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-3
Forming
and
Shaping
Processes
Figure 18.1 Outline of forming and shaping processes for plastics, elastomers, and
composite materials. (TP, Thermoplastic; TS, Thermoset; E, Elastomer.)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-4
Extruder
Figure 18.2 Schematic illustration of a typical extruder. Source: Encyclopedia of Polymer Science
and Engineering (2nd ed.). Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-5
Sheet and Film Extrusion
Figure 18.3 Die geometry (coat-hanger die) for extruding sheet.
Source: Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering (2d ed.).
Copyright © 1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Figure 18.4 Schematic illustration of the production of thin film and
plastic bags from tube first produced by an extruder and then blown by
air. Source: D.C. Miles and J.H. Briston, Polymer Technology, 1979.
Reproduced by permission of Chemical Publishing Co., Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-6
Injection Molding
(c)
Figure 18.5 Injection molding with (a) plunger, (b) reciprocating rotating screw, (c) a typical part made from an
injection molding machine cavity, showing a number of parts made from one shot; note also mold features such as
sprues, runners, and gates.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-7
Examples of Injection Molding
Figure 18.6 Typical products made by
injection molding, including examples
of insert molding. Source: Plainfield
Molding Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-8
Injection-Molding Machine
Figure 18.7 A 2.2-MN (250-ton) injection-molding machine. The tonnage is the force
applied to keep the dies closed during injection of molten plastic into the mold cavities.
Source: Courtesy of Cincinnati Milacron, Plastics Machinery Division.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-9
Reaction-Injection Molding
Figure 18.8 Schematic
illustration of the
reaction-injection
molding process.
Source: Modern Plastics
Encyclopedia.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-10
Blow
Molding
Figure 18.9 Schematic illustrations of (a) the blow-molding process for making
plastic beverage bottles, and (b) a three-station injection blow-molding machine.
Source: Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering (2d ed.). Copyright
©1985. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-11
Rotational Molding
Figure 18.10 The
rotational molding
(rotomolding or
rotocasting) process.
Trash cans, buckets, and
plastic footballs can be
made by this process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-12
Thermoforming Processes
Figure 18.11 Various thermoforming processes for thermoplastic sheet. These processes are
commonly used in making advertising signs, cookie and candy trays, panels for shower stalls, and
packaging.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-13
Compression Molding
Figure 18.12 Types of compression
molding, a process similar to forging: (a)
positive, (b) semipositive, and (c) flash.
The flash in part (c) has to be trimmed off.
(d) Die design for making a compression-
molded part with undercuts.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-14
Transfer Molding
Figure 18.13 Sequence of operations in transfer molding for thermosetting plastics. This process
is particularly suitable for intricate parts with varying wall thickness.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-15
Casting, Potting and Encapsulation
Figure 18.14 Schematic
illustration of (a) casting, (b)
potting, (c) encapsulation of
plastics.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-16
Calendering and Examples of Reinforced
Plastics
Figure 18.15 Schematic illustration
of calendering. Sheets produced by
this process are subsequently used
in thermoforming.
Figure 18.16 Reinforced- plastic components for a Honda motorcycle.
The parts shown are front and rear
forks, a rear swingarm, a wheel, and
brake disks.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-17
Prepegs
Figure 18.17 (a) Manufacturing process for polymer-matrix composite. Source: T.W. Chou, R.L.
McCullough, and R.B. Pipes. (b) Boron-epoxy prepreg tape. Source: Avco Specialty
Materials/Textron.
(b)
(a)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-18
Tape Laying
Figure 18.18 (a) Single-ply layup of
boron-epoxy tape for the horizontal
stabilizer for F-14 fighter aircraft. Source:
Grumman Aircraft Corporation. (b) A 10
axis computer-numerical-controlled tape-
laying system. This machine is capable of
laying up 75 mm and 150 mm (3 in. and 6
in.) wide tapes, on contours of up to ±30°
and at speeds of up to 0.5 m/s (1.7 ft/s).
Source: Courtesy of The Ingersoll Milling
Machine Company.
(a)(b)

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-19
Sheet Molding
Figure 18.19 The manufacturing
process for producing reinforced-
plastic sheets. The sheet is still
viscous at this stage; it can later be
shaped into various products. Source:
T. W. Chou, R. L. McCullough, and R.
B. Pipes.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-20
Examples of Molding Processes
Figure 18.20 (a) Vacuum-bag forming. (b) Pressure-bag forming. Source: T. H. Meister.
Figure 18.21 Manual
methods of processing
reinforced plastics: (a)
hand lay-up and (b)
spray-up. These
methods are also
called open-mold
processing.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-21
Filament Winding
(b)
(a)
Figure 18.22 (a) Schematic illustration of the filament-winding process. (b) Fiberglass
being wound over aluminum liners, for slide-raft inflation vessels for the Boeing 767
aircraft. Source: Brunswick Corporation, Defense Division.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-22
Pultrusion
Figure 18.23 Schematic
illustration of the pultrusion
process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-23
Design Modifications to Minimize Distortion
Figure 18.24 Examples of design
modifications to eliminate or
minimize distortion of plastic parts.
(a) Suggested design changes to
minimize distortion. Source: F.
Strasser. (b) Die design
(exaggerated) for extrusion of
square sections. Without this
design, product cross-sections
swell because of the recovery of
the material; this effect is known as
die swell. (c) Design change in a
rib, to minimize pull-in caused by
shrinkage during cooling. (d)
Stiffening the bottoms of thin
plastic containers by the bottoms of
thin plastic containers by doming-
this technique is similar to the
process used to make the bottoms
of aluminum beverage cans.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-24
Comparative Costs and Production Volumes
for Processing of Plastics
TABLE 18.2
Typical production volume, number of parts
Equipment
capital cost
Production
rate
Tooling
cost 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7
Machining Medium Medium LowCompression molding High Medium HighTransfer molding High Medium HighInjection molding High High HighExtrusion Medium High Low *
Rotational molding Low Low Low
Blow molding Medium Medium MediumThermoforming Low Low LowCasting Low Very low LowForging High Low MediumFoam molding High Medium MediumSource: After R.L.E. Brown, Design and Manufacture of Plastic Parts. Copyright (c) 1980 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
*Continuous process.

Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
© 2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 18-25
Economic Production Quantities for Various
Molding Methods
TABLE 18.3
Relative investment
required Relative Economic
Molding method Equipment Tooling
production
rate
production
quantityHand lay-up
Spray-up
Casting
Vacuum-bag molding
Compression-molded BMC
SIVIC and preform
Pressure-bag molding
Centrifugal casting
Filament winding
Pultrusion
Rotational molding
Injection molding
VL
L
M
M
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
VH
L
L
L
L
VH
VH
H
H
H
H
H
VH
L
L
L
VL
H
H
L
M
L
H
L
VH
VL
L
L
VL
H
H
L
M
L
H
M
VH