Memory

Lecture on Memory by Ms. Raheela Tariq at FAST-NUCES

1. MEMORY MEMORY
AND AND
FORGETTINGFORGETTING

2. MEMORYMEMORY

3. In In psychologypsychology, , memorymemory is an organism's is an organism's mentalmental
ability to store, retain and recall information. ability to store, retain and recall information.
(Wikipedia)(Wikipedia)
Memory is the retention of, and ability to recall, Memory is the retention of, and ability to recall,
information, personal experiences, and procedures information, personal experiences, and procedures
(skills and habits). (skills and habits).
(Skeptic’ Dictionary)(Skeptic’ Dictionary)
‘‘Memory’ is a label for a diverse set of cognitive Memory’ is a label for a diverse set of cognitive
capacities by which humans and perhaps other capacities by which humans and perhaps other
animals retain information and reconstruct past animals retain information and reconstruct past
experiences, usually for present purposes. experiences, usually for present purposes.
(Stanford Encyclopedia)(Stanford Encyclopedia)

5. Brain Areas Included in MemoryBrain Areas Included in Memory
The The hippocampushippocampus, a primitive structure deep in the , a primitive structure deep in the
brain, plays the single largest role in processing brain, plays the single largest role in processing
information as memory.information as memory.
The The amygdala,amygdala, an almond-shaped area near the an almond-shaped area near the
hippocampus, processes emotion and helps imprint hippocampus, processes emotion and helps imprint
memories that involve emotion.memories that involve emotion.
The The cerebral cortexcerebral cortex, the outer layer of the brain, , the outer layer of the brain,
stores most long-term memory in different zones, stores most long-term memory in different zones,
depending on what kind of processing the depending on what kind of processing the
information involves: language, sensory input, information involves: language, sensory input,
problem-solving, and so forth.problem-solving, and so forth.
In addition, memory involves communication among In addition, memory involves communication among
the brain’sthe brain’s network ofnetwork of neurons neurons, millions of cells , millions of cells
activated by activated by brain chemicals called brain chemicals called
neurotransmitters.neurotransmitters.

7. Types Of MemoryTypes Of Memory

8. Short term MemoryShort term Memory
Short-term memory—closely related to Short-term memory—closely related to
“working” memory—is the very short time “working” memory—is the very short time
that you keep something in mind before that you keep something in mind before
either dismissing it or transferring it to either dismissing it or transferring it to
long-term memory. Short-term memory is long-term memory. Short-term memory is
shorter than you might think, lasting less shorter than you might think, lasting less
than a minute. It’s what allows you to than a minute. It’s what allows you to
remember the first half of a sentence you remember the first half of a sentence you
hear or read long enough to make sense hear or read long enough to make sense
of the end of the sentence. But in order to of the end of the sentence. But in order to
store that sentence (or thought, fact, idea, store that sentence (or thought, fact, idea,
word, impression, sight, or whatever else) word, impression, sight, or whatever else)
for longer than a minute or so, it has to be for longer than a minute or so, it has to be
transferred to long-term memory. transferred to long-term memory.

9. Long term MemoryLong term Memory
long-term memory is anything you long-term memory is anything you
remember that happened more than remember that happened more than
a few minutes ago. Long-term a few minutes ago. Long-term
memories aren’t all of equal memories aren’t all of equal
strength. Stronger memories enable strength. Stronger memories enable
you to recall an event, procedure, or you to recall an event, procedure, or
fact on demand—for example, that fact on demand—for example, that
Paris is the capital of France. Weaker Paris is the capital of France. Weaker
memories often come to mind only memories often come to mind only
through prompting or reminding. through prompting or reminding.

10. Sensory MemorySensory Memory
Sensory Sensory memorymemory is the ability to retain is the ability to retain
impressions of sensory information after impressions of sensory information after
the original stimulus has ceased. It refers the original stimulus has ceased. It refers
to items detected by the sensory receptors to items detected by the sensory receptors
which are retained temporarily in the which are retained temporarily in the
sensory registers and which have a large sensory registers and which have a large
capacity for unprocessed information but capacity for unprocessed information but
are only able to hold accurate images of are only able to hold accurate images of
sensory information momentarily. The two sensory information momentarily. The two
types of sensory memory that have been types of sensory memory that have been
most explored are most explored are iconic memoryiconic memory and and
echoic memoryechoic memory. .

11. Declarative MemoryDeclarative Memory
Declarative memoryDeclarative memory is the aspect is the aspect
of human of human memorymemory that stores that stores factsfacts. .
It is so called because it refers to It is so called because it refers to
memories that can be consciously memories that can be consciously
discussed, or discussed, or declared.declared. It applies to It applies to
standard standard textbooktextbook learninglearning and and
knowledgeknowledge, as well as memories that , as well as memories that
can be 'travelled back to' in one's 'can be 'travelled back to' in one's '
mind's eyemind's eye'. '.

12. Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory
Procedural memoryProcedural memory is the long- is the long-
term term memorymemory of of skillsskills and and
procedures, or "how to" knowledge (procedures, or "how to" knowledge (
procedural knowledgeprocedural knowledge).).
It is considered a form of It is considered a form of
implicit memoryimplicit memory..

13. Models of MemoryModels of Memory

15. The The Atkinson-Shiffrin modelAtkinson-Shiffrin model (also (also
known as the known as the Multi-store modelMulti-store model, , Multi-Multi-
memory modelmemory model and the and the Modal modelModal model) is ) is
a a psychologicalpsychological modelmodel proposed in 1968 proposed in 1968
by by Richard AtkinsonRichard Atkinson and and Richard Richard ShiffrinShiffrin
as a proposal for the structure of memory. as a proposal for the structure of memory.
It proposed that human It proposed that human memorymemory involves involves
a sequence of three stages:a sequence of three stages:
Sensory memorySensory memory (SM) (SM)
Short-term memoryShort-term memory (STM) (STM)
Long-term memoryLong-term memory (LTM) (LTM)

16. Memory SpanMemory Span
Memory span:Memory span: The number of items, The number of items,
usually words or numbers, that a person usually words or numbers, that a person
can retain and recall. Memory span is a can retain and recall. Memory span is a
test of working memory (short-term test of working memory (short-term
memory). In a typical test of memory memory). In a typical test of memory
span, an examiner reads a list of random span, an examiner reads a list of random
numbers aloud at about the rate of one numbers aloud at about the rate of one
number per second. At the end of a number per second. At the end of a
sequence, the person being tested is sequence, the person being tested is
asked to recall the items in order. The asked to recall the items in order. The
average span for normal adults is seven to average span for normal adults is seven to
nine. nine.

17. Memory ProcessMemory Process
Human memory, like memory in a Human memory, like memory in a
computer, allows us to store computer, allows us to store
information for later use. In order information for later use. In order
to do this, however, both the to do this, however, both the
computer and we need to master computer and we need to master
three processes involved in three processes involved in
memory. memory.
2.2.EncodingEncoding
3.3.StorageStorage
4.4.RetrievalRetrieval

19. Encoding:Encoding:
The process we use to transform The process we use to transform
information so that it can be stores. information so that it can be stores.
Storage:Storage:
It simply means holding onto the It simply means holding onto the
information. information.
Retrieval:Retrieval:
It is bringing the memory out of It is bringing the memory out of
storage and reversing the process of storage and reversing the process of
encoding. In other words, return the encoding. In other words, return the
information to a form similar to what information to a form similar to what
we stored. we stored.

20. Methods of Improving MemoryMethods of Improving Memory

21. RECALL:RECALL:
This involves digging into the memory and bringing back This involves digging into the memory and bringing back
information on a stimulus/response basis, e.g., "What is the information on a stimulus/response basis, e.g., "What is the
capital of New Zealand?" Answer: "Wellington". Recall capital of New Zealand?" Answer: "Wellington". Recall
often needs prompting with cues to help us retrieve what we often needs prompting with cues to help us retrieve what we
are looking for. It is not a reliable form of memory and are looking for. It is not a reliable form of memory and
many of us experience the feeling that we know the answer many of us experience the feeling that we know the answer
but simply can't dig the information out. This is the but simply can't dig the information out. This is the
technique we use to remember people's names, hence we technique we use to remember people's names, hence we
often forget them. There are three types of recall: often forget them. There are three types of recall:
•Free recallFree recall: when no cues are given to assist retrieval : when no cues are given to assist retrieval
•Serial recallSerial recall: when items are recalled in a particular : when items are recalled in a particular
order order
•Cued recallCued recall: when some cues are given to assist retrieval : when some cues are given to assist retrieval

22. RecognitionRecognition (re+cognition) (re+cognition) is a is a
process that occurs in thinking when process that occurs in thinking when
some event, process, pattern, or some event, process, pattern, or
object recurs. Coming from the base object recurs. Coming from the base
cognition; cognition has various uses cognition; cognition has various uses
in different fields of study and has in different fields of study and has
generally accepted to be used for the generally accepted to be used for the
process of awareness or thought. process of awareness or thought.

23. RELEARNINGRELEARNING ::
Another means of remembering is Another means of remembering is
through relearning. Relearned through relearning. Relearned
information may return quickly, even information may return quickly, even
if it hasn't been used for many years. if it hasn't been used for many years.

24. Tips for memory improvementsTips for memory improvements
Brain exercisesBrain exercises
Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use Memory, like muscular strength, is a “use
it or lose it” proposition. The more you it or lose it” proposition. The more you
work out your brain, the better you’ll be work out your brain, the better you’ll be
able to process and remember able to process and remember
information.information.
Aerobics:Aerobics:
The best way to improve our memories The best way to improve our memories
seems to be to increase the supply of seems to be to increase the supply of
oxygen to the brain, which we can do by oxygen to the brain, which we can do by
aerobic exercising. Walking for three aerobic exercising. Walking for three
hours each week suffices, as does hours each week suffices, as does
swimming or bicycle riding. swimming or bicycle riding.

25. General guidelines to improve memoryGeneral guidelines to improve memory
Pay attention:Pay attention:
You can’t remember something if You can’t remember something if
you never learned it, and you can’t you never learned it, and you can’t
learn something — that is, encode it learn something — that is, encode it
into your brain — if you don’t pay into your brain — if you don’t pay
enough attention to it. enough attention to it.
Involve as many senses as Involve as many senses as
possible.possible.
Relate information to what you Relate information to what you
already know.already know.
Organize information.Organize information.

26. Understand and be able to Understand and be able to
interpret complex material.interpret complex material.
 Rehearse information frequently Rehearse information frequently
and “over-learn”.and “over-learn”.
Be motivated and keep a positive Be motivated and keep a positive
attitude.attitude.

27. Healthy habits to improve memoryHealthy habits to improve memory
Regular exerciseRegular exercise
3.3. Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes Reduces the risk for disorders that lead to memory loss, such as diabetes
and cardiovascular disease. and cardiovascular disease.
4.4. Increases oxygen to your brain. Increases oxygen to your brain.
3. May enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells. 3. May enhance the effects of helpful brain chemicals and protect brain cells.
Managing stressManaging stress
8.8.Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the stress is Cortisol, the stress hormone, can damage the hippocampus if the stress is
unrelieved. unrelieved.
9.9.Stress makes it difficult to concentrate. Stress makes it difficult to concentrate.
Good sleep habitsGood sleep habits
12.12.Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation. Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation.
13.13.Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea leave you tired and unable to Sleep disorders like insomnia and sleep apnea leave you tired and unable to
concentrate during the day. concentrate during the day.
Not smokingNot smoking
16.16.Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause stroke and Smoking heightens the risk of vascular disorders that can cause stroke and
constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain. constrict arteries that deliver oxygen to the brain.

28. Memory and aging Memory and aging
Several factors cause aging brains to experience Several factors cause aging brains to experience
changes in the ability to retain and retrieve changes in the ability to retain and retrieve
memories:memories:
The hippocampusThe hippocampus is especially vulnerable to is especially vulnerable to
age-related deteriorationage-related deterioration, and that can affect , and that can affect
how well you retain information. how well you retain information.
There’s a relative loss of neurons with ageThere’s a relative loss of neurons with age , ,
which can affect the activity of brain chemicals which can affect the activity of brain chemicals
called neurotransmitters and their receptors. called neurotransmitters and their receptors.
An older person often experiences An older person often experiences
decreased blood flow to the braindecreased blood flow to the brain and and
processes nutrients that enhance brain activity processes nutrients that enhance brain activity
less efficiently than a younger person. less efficiently than a younger person.

29. FORGETTINGFORGETTING

30. ForgettingForgetting (retention loss) refers to (retention loss) refers to
apparent loss of information already apparent loss of information already
encoded and stored in an individual's encoded and stored in an individual's
long term memory. It is a long term memory. It is a
spontaneous or gradual process in spontaneous or gradual process in
which old which old memoriesmemories are unable to be are unable to be
recalled from memory storage. recalled from memory storage.

31. AMNESIAAMNESIA
““Amnesia is loss of ability to Amnesia is loss of ability to
memorize information or to recall memorize information or to recall
information stored in memory.”information stored in memory.”


32. WHAT CAUSES WHAT CAUSES
AMNESIA?AMNESIA?
Amnesia is most commonly Amnesia is most commonly
associated with either brain damage associated with either brain damage
through injury or degeneration of through injury or degeneration of
brain cells in dementia. brain cells in dementia.

33. FORMS OF AMNESIAFORMS OF AMNESIA
"
ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA:
In Anterograde amnesia patient cannot In Anterograde amnesia patient cannot
retain any new memory.retain any new memory.
"
RETROGRADE AMNESIARETROGRADE AMNESIA ::
In Retrograde amnesia the patitent In Retrograde amnesia the patitent
cannot recall the past events.cannot recall the past events.

34. FORMS OF AMNESIAFORMS OF AMNESIA
(cont.)(cont.)

35. Repression:Repression:
Refers to the inability to recall information, Refers to the inability to recall information,
usually about stressful or traumatic events in usually about stressful or traumatic events in
persons' lives, such as a violent attack or rape. persons' lives, such as a violent attack or rape.
The memory is stored in long term memory, but The memory is stored in long term memory, but
access to it is impaired because of psychological access to it is impaired because of psychological
defense mechanisms. Persons retain the capacity defense mechanisms. Persons retain the capacity
to learn new information and there may be some to learn new information and there may be some
later partial or complete recovery of memory. later partial or complete recovery of memory.
This contrasts with e.g. anterograde amnesia This contrasts with e.g. anterograde amnesia
caused by amnestics such as benzodiazepines or caused by amnestics such as benzodiazepines or
alcohol, where an experience was prevented from alcohol, where an experience was prevented from
being transferred from temporary to permanent being transferred from temporary to permanent
memory storage: it will never be recovered, memory storage: it will never be recovered,
because it was never stored in the first place. because it was never stored in the first place.
Formerly known as "Psychogenic Amnesia" Formerly known as "Psychogenic Amnesia"

36. Interference theoryInterference theory
Interference theoryInterference theory (also known (also known
as as retrieval interferenceretrieval interference (Roediger (Roediger
& Karpicke, 2006)) refers to the idea & Karpicke, 2006)) refers to the idea
that forgetting occurs because the that forgetting occurs because the
recall of certain items interferes with recall of certain items interferes with
the recall of other items. In nature, the recall of other items. In nature,
the interfering items are said to the interfering items are said to
originate from an over stimulating originate from an over stimulating
environment. environment.

37. TYPES OF INTERFERENCE TYPES OF INTERFERENCE

38. Proactive interferenceProactive interference
Underwood (1957) provided early Underwood (1957) provided early
evidence that things you've learned before evidence that things you've learned before
encoding a target item can worsen recall encoding a target item can worsen recall
of that target item. In a meta-analysis of of that target item. In a meta-analysis of
multiple experiments, he showed that the multiple experiments, he showed that the
more lists one had already learned, the more lists one had already learned, the
more trouble one had in recalling the most more trouble one had in recalling the most
recent one. This is recent one. This is proactive interferenceproactive interference, ,
where the prior existence of old memories where the prior existence of old memories
makes it harder to recall newer memories.makes it harder to recall newer memories.

39. Retroactive interferenceRetroactive interference
Retroactive interference occurs when Retroactive interference occurs when
later learning interferes with later learning interferes with
previous learning; i.e., learning new previous learning; i.e., learning new
things somehow overwrites or things somehow overwrites or
obscures existing knowledge.obscures existing knowledge.

41. Output interferenceOutput interference
Output interference occurs when the Output interference occurs when the
act of retrieving interferes with the act of retrieving interferes with the
retrieval of the actual information retrieval of the actual information
needed in the first place. Primarily, needed in the first place. Primarily,
this is caused by the limited capacity this is caused by the limited capacity
of the short-term memory.of the short-term memory.

42. Cue-dependent forgetting:Cue-dependent forgetting:
It is the failure to recall a It is the failure to recall a memorymemory due to missing due to missing stimulistimuli or or
cues that were present at the time the memory was cues that were present at the time the memory was encodedencoded. .
It is one of five It is one of five cognitive psychologycognitive psychology theories of theories of forgettingforgetting. .
It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily forgotten
purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can
bring it to mind. A good bring it to mind. A good metaphormetaphor for this is searching for a for this is searching for a
book in a library without the book in a library without the reference numberreference number, title, author , title, author
or even subject. The information still exists, but without or even subject. The information still exists, but without
these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good
retrievalretrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding cue must be consistent with the original encoding
of the information. If the sound of the word is of the information. If the sound of the word is emphasizedemphasized
during the encoding process, the cue that should be used during the encoding process, the cue that should be used
should also put emphasis on the should also put emphasis on the phoneticphonetic quality of the quality of the
word word