molecular basis of inheritance - supernotes.pdf

Law of inheritance

1. Molecular Basis of Inheritance
1. The DNA
2. The Search for Genetic Material
3. RNA World
4. Replication
5. Transcription
6. Genetic Code
7. Translation
8. Regulation of Gene Expression
9. Human Genome project
10. DNA Fingerprinting

2. 2 nucleic acids
Deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
most organisms.
messenger(mostly)
adapter
structural
catalytic molecule
living systems
Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
Genetic material
!

some viruses
!

Genetic material
Other
functions also÷
:
-

3. The DNA
long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides
bacteriophage ×174 5386 nucleotides
Bacteriophage lambda 48502 (bp)
Escherichia coli 4.6 x 10 bp
human DNA 3.3 x 10 bp (haploid)
human DNA
no. of nucleotides
Depends
6.6 x 10 bp (diploid)
v
a
=
,
::

4. Structure of Polynucleotide Chain
Purines (Ade!ne, Gua!ne)
Pyri"dines (Cytosine, Thy"ne,
Uracil,)
De#yribose
DNARNA
Ribose
RNA
DNA
RNA structure DNA structure
Nucleo$de
>
^
✓
sooooo
-3gal

5. OH of 1'C
N-glycosidic linkage
Eg.
adenosine deoxyadenosine,
guanosine deoxyguanosine,
cytidine. deoxycytidine
uridine. deoxythymidine
OH of 5'C
phosphoester linkage
Nucleo$deNucleoside
RNADNA
÷
✓
↓
,

6. Dinucleo$de
2 nucleotides linked
3'-5' phosphodiester linkage
gggggqg
→
"

7. More nucleotides
polynucleotide chain
polynucleotide chain formation
free phosphate moiety at 5'-end of sugar
free sugar OH of 3'C group
sugar + phosphates = backbone
nitrogenous bases
linked
✓
.:

8. In RNA
every nucleotide (additional -OH group) at 2'-position
uracil in place of thymine
(5-methyl uracil, another
chemical name for thymine).
DNARNA

9. Friedrich Meischer (1869)
DNA
acidic
Nucleus
'Nuclein'
Can’t isolate
DNA structure
unknown
James Watson & Francis Crick (1953)
X-ray diffraction data
Maurice Wilkins &
Rosalind Franklin
DNA structure
D%ble Hel& model
Based on
by
proposed
Hallmark
base pairing proposition b/w 2 strands of polynucleotide
↓
→
"¥
I

10. Erwin Chargaff
Adenine & Thymine Guanine & Cytosine
b/w
Ratios ( constant & equals)
base pairing sequence
base pairing sequence
1 strand
2nd strand
Known Predictable
complementary
Bcz
genetic implication became revolutionary
DNA bases proposition
No. Of purines = no. Of pyrimidine
V
v
↓ ↓ ↓
↓ ↓
↓
b

11. Parental DNA
"

As (template)
Daughter DNA
"

identical (parental DNA)
"
synthesis
v

12. Figure 6.2 Double stranded polynucleotide chain
A=T
G C
T=A
C G

13. 1) 2 polynucleotide chains,( sugar,phosphate, bases)
2) anti-parallel polarity .one 5'->3', other 3'->5'.
3) hydrogen bond b/w bases
4) Two chains coiled right handed
pitch of helix (3.4 nm)
each turn (10 bp)
distance b/w bp (0.34 nm)
5) Stability of helical
H-bonds
one base pair
stacks over other
DNA salient features
.

14. Figure 6.3 DNA double helix

15. Francis Crick
Central dogma
proposed
(genetic information flows)
some viruses
reverse transcription (RNA to DNA)
:

16. length of DNA 1.36 mm,
No.of bp 4.6 x 10
E. coli
Packaging of DNA prokaryotes
No defined nucleus
DNA
"
not scattered
DNA
"
[-]with some proteins (+) as 'nucleoid'
DNA
"
in nucleoid
large loops
by proteins
nucleoid
>
,
-6
Haqq
Mariana
Mok
Mama

17. packaging of DNA Eukaryotes
nucleus (10 m)
6.6 x 10 bp × 0.34 × 10 m/bp
total no. of bp
distance b/w 2 bp
DNA
"
2.2 metres
2oo bp DNA
"
[-] with histones octamer (+)
nucleosome
r
v
÷

18. basic proteins histones [+]
rich in basic amino acid residues
Figure 6.4b EM picture - 'Beads-on-String
lysine & arginine
✓a

19. Repeated nucleosomes in
chromatin
chromatin, thread- like stained
Mmmmm
BppE•

20. (metaphase stage)
chromosomes
Euchr!a"nHeterochr!a"n
loosely packed densely packed
transcriptionally
active
transcriptionally
inactive
chromatin packaging at higher level
(NHC) proteins
requires
oak

21. اﻟﺷﺧص اﻟﻣﺣﺑوب
The Search for Genetic Material
Meischer Mendel
discovery of
nuclein
principles of
inheritance
same !me
DNA
"
(genetic material) took long discovered & proven
By 1926 genetic inheritance reached molecular level
narrowed search
#

chromosomes in
nucleus
Gregor Mendel,
Walter Sutton,
Thomas Hunt Morgan
& other scientists
Previous discoveries
:

22. Transforming Principle
Frederick Gri!ith, 1928Streptococcus pneumonia

23. Oswald Avery, MacCleod, & McCarty
decided to find out
transforming principle
(something in S cells)
Can trans"rm
R cells into S cells
but WHAT IS IT?
(1933-44)
Thought
$
protein (genetic material)
proteins, DNA, RNA, from heat-killed S cells
transform live R cells into S cells.
To see
°

24. They concluded DNA is hereditary material, but not all biologists
%&
convinced.

25. The Genetic Material is DNA
Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase (1952)
Bacteriophages
whether it protein or DNA from viruses
!
entered bacteria ???………….
Experiment 1: Testing Proteins
Phage grown with
radioactive sulfur
Centrifuge
Radioactivity in
supernatant
No radioactivity
enters cells
Protein coats
radio labeled
C#clusi#: Proteins are not gene!c material
E.coli Bacteria
infected

26. Experiment 2: Testing DNA
Phage grown with
radioactive
phosphorus
CentrifugeRadioactivity in
Pellet
radioactivity
enters cells
Phage DNA
radio labeled
E.coli Bacteria
infected
C#clusi#: DNA
!
gene!c material
Finally Debate ended
proteins
"
DNA
Hershey-Chase experiment
'

:

27. Figure 6.5 The Hershey-Chase experiment

28. Properties of Genetic Material (DNA
"
RNA)
RNA genetic material
(Eg, Tobacco Mosaic viruses, QB bacteriophage, etc.)
Also
As messenger & adapter etc
DNA predominant genetic material
DNA more stable storage of
RNA better transmission of
Genetic information
j

29. RNA DNA
Genetic material
must fulfill
Replication
Yes
Yes
stable chemically &
structurally
structurally more stable
chemically less reactive
chemically More reactive
structurally less stable
2'-OH
thymine more stability
uracil less stability
slow mutation for
evolution
faster rateSlower rate
express in form of
'Mendelian Characters'
DNA RNA proteins
RNA proteins
easily expressDepend on RNA
>

30. RNA World
RNA first genetic material
Evolved around RNA
metabolism, translation, splicing, etc.
RNA as catalyst
E$en!al Life proce$es
DNA
"
evolved from RNA
chemical modifications (more stable)
double stranded (resists changes)
evolving process of repair
with
A-

31. Replication
Watson & Crick
double helical structure for DNA
immediately

DNA
"
replication
Figure 6.6 Watson-Crick model for semiconservative DNA replication
2 strands
separate
template
one parental &
2nd newly synthesised strand.
"It has not escaped our notice that the
specific pairing we have postulated
immediately suggests a possible copying
mechanism for the geneticmaterial"
(Watson and Crick, 1953).
Orginal Quote

32. The Experimental Proof
Matthew Meselson & Franklin Stahl (1958)
not radioac!ve isotope
Escherichia coli
as #ly %trogen s&rce "r many genera!#s
15N heavy
15NH4CL 14NH4Cl
\ Mahboob÷

33. Meselson & Stahl's Experiment

34. similar experiments (radioactive thymidine)
Vicia faba (faba beans)
Taylor & colleagues (1958)
DNA in chromosomes also replicate semiconservatively
Proved

35. DNA-dependent DNA polymerase
The Machinery & the Enzymes
use DNA template
2000 bp
per sec
4.6× 10 bp
E. coli
fast &accurate
E. coli replication
18 min
Any mistake (mutations)
DNA
replication
DNA
At origin of
replication
¥hf↓µ→
•

36. Deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates
( DNTP)
polymerisation reaction
energysubstrates
For
Gives
In eukaryotes
DNA replication cell division cycle
coordinated
If
failure
polyploidy
S-phase
A

37. Transcription
Replication
DNA
"
DNA
"
DNA
"

Transcription
Single strand
RNA
D&ble strands
Copied
Copied
codes for 2
diff proteins
dsRNA
Can’t translate
Why not double strand ?
ATGC AUGC
v

38. Transcription Unit in DNA
1) Promoter
2) Structural gene
3) Terminator
DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
DNA
!

3'-ATGCATGCATGCATGCATGCATGC-5' Template Strand
5'-TACGTACGTACGTACGTACGTACG-3' Coding Strand
3'-end (downstream)5'end (upstream)
Can you now write
✍
sequence of RNA transcribed from above DNA?
But no coding
.

39. Transcription Unit and the Gene
functional unit of inheritance
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
split
Unsplit
Segment of DNA
!

Gene
All cistron are proteins
Not all proteins are cistron
(Express RNA)
✓
i

40. Types of RNA and the process of Transcription
Provide template brings aminoacids &
reads genetic code
structural & catalytic role
during translation.
1 DNA-dependent RNA polymerase
transcription
Bacteria
¥

41. RNA polymerases
elongation
initiation. Factor
termination Factor
associates transiently
catalysing
Only
Initiates
Terminates
uses
substrate
nucleoside triphosphatesAs
v
f)
I
>
j

42. many times translation
b4 mRNA fully transcribed.
begin
transcription & translationSame place
Bacteria

43. In eukaryotes
RNApolymerase 2
3 RNA polymerases in nucleus (+ other organelles)
clear divisi# of lab&r
RNA polymerase 1
RNApolymerase 3
Transcribes
rRNAs (28S, 18S, 5.8S)
precursor of mRNA,
(hnRNA).
tRNA, 5srRNA, & snRNAs
1st difference from prokaryotes

44. 2nd difference from prokaryotes
primary transcripts
non-functional.
splicing
introns removed
exons joined
nucleotide (methyl guanosine
triphosphate) added 5'-end
adenylate residues
(200-300) added 3'-end
mRNA
hnRNA
capping tailing
fully processed hnNA
Called
Out of nucleus
Translation
I
↓i
-
↓
"
↓
§

45. Fiqure 6.11 Process of Transcription in Eukaryotes

46. Genetic Code
Replication
Transcription
nucleic acid nucleic acid
complementarity
Translation
amino acids
Not complementarity
change in
Genetic material
changes in proteins
Lead
to
DNA
RNA Proteins
genetic code required
physicists,
organic chemists,
biochemists,
geneticists.
:

47. George Gamow, physicist
nucleotides.
1 Nucleotide - 4 combinations
2 Nucleotides - 16 combinations
3 Nucleotides - 64 combinations (Most suited for 20 amino acids)
1 codon 3 nucleotides
organized into codons
should be 20 codons For 20 amino acids
codon is triplet.

48. Har Gobind Khorana
Marshall Nirenberg's
homopolymers & copolymers
cell-free protein synthesis
Severo Ochoa
enzyme(polynucleotide phosphorylase)
template free ( enzymatic RNA synthesis )

49. Table 6.1: The Codons for the Various Amino Acids

50. salient features of gene!c code
stop codons
degenerate 1 amino acids coded by many codon
no punctuations read in contiguous fashion
universal
bacteria to human UUU code for Phenylalanine
(phe).
Some exceptions
mitochondrial
some protozoans.
dual functions AUG codes for Methionine (met),
& also initiator codon.
UAA, UAG, UGA
stop terminator
codons.
do not code for any amino acids,
>
>
:
>

51. Mutations & Genetic Code
relationships b/w genes & DNA understood by mutation studiesPoint muta!"
Frame-shi# muta!"s
single base pair of DNA
base pairs of DNA
changes changes
Eg. sickle cell anemia
Deletions & insertionsDeletions & insertions

52. RAM HAS RED CAP
RAM HAS BRE DCA P
RAM HAS BIR EDC AP
RAM HAS BIG RED CAP
insert B
insert I
insert G
letter deletion
letter addtion
RAM HAS EDC AP
RAM HAS DCA P
RAM HAS CAP
Must be triplet word as codon
Delete D
Delete E
RAM HAS RED CAP
Delete R
:
:
:

53. tRNA- the Adapter Molecule
Mechanism read code & link to amino acids
tRNA
read code
bind to specific
amino acids
As (soluble RNA)
Later adapter molecule
Francis Crick
First
complementary
amino acid acceptor end
Actual inverted [ L ]
amino acid specific
initiator
no (stop codons)
tRNA
looks like clover-leaf
Bcz can’t read
^
>
A
V
¥

54. Translation
polymerisation of amino acids to polypeptide
mRNA bases
sequence
amino acids
sequence
peptide bond
polypeptide
requires energyActivation of
amino acids
aminoacylation
of tRNA
Ribosome
structural RNAs80 different
inactive proteins
> ↓ >
<
a

55. protein translation begins
1st site
2nd site
a$no acids binding
Pep!de %rma!"
In bacteria (23S rRNA
ribozyme)
ribosome as catalyst
Complementary
↓ ↓
T
L
←

56. start codon (AUG)
stop codon
codes for polypeptide
UTRs ( untranslated regions)
5'-end (before
start codon)
3'-end (after
stop codon)
UTR UTR
translational unit in mRNA
ADAM Go

57. ribosome binds mRNA
start codon (AUG)
Ppolypeptide chain elongates by
adding amino acids
stop codon
polypeptide Release
ribosome dissociates
InitiationElongation termination

58. Regulation of Gene Expression
metabolic,
physiological
environmental conditions
By
embryo
adult
!
organisms
genes
"
expression regulation
E. coli beta- galactosidase lactose
galactose
glucose
synthesis
If no lactoseNo need to synthesised
7

59. Regulation of Gene Expression in prokaryotes
Each operon
specific operator
specific repressor.

60. Regulation of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes

61. The Lac operon
Geneticist, Francois Jacob
Biochemist, Jacque Monod.
first transcriptionally
regulated system
lac operon
Examples
lac operon
trp operon
ara operon
hisoperon
val operon, etc.
common promoter & regulatory genes
polycistronic
structural gene
Bacteriaoperon
regulated
by
t

62. Lac operon ; off
Lac operon ; Onlactose
galactose
glucose
increases cell permeability
negative regulation
Lactose
v
↓
↓
.

63. Human Genome Project
launched 1990
mega project.
3 x 10 bp
$ 3 per bp
Total [ 9 billion US
#$
]
1 book
%
1000 letters 1000 pages ,
Cost
!

Storage
Total =3300 books
&
single human cell.
Time 13 years
9
>
>
:

64. data storage
retrieval,
analysis.
high speed
computational
devices
Bioinformatics
Goals of HGP
Identify all
20,000-25,000 genes
in human DNA
"

Determine sequences
of 3 billion chemical
base pairs Store information
in databases
Improve tools for data
analysis
!
Transfer technologies to
other sectors, eg.
industries
Address the ethical,
legal, social issues
(ELSI) may arise from
project.
¥ }
→
.
iii.
÷

65. by U.S. Department of Energy & National Institute of Health.
Welcome Trust (U.K.) major partner
additional contributions by
DNA variations effects
revolutionary new ways
diagnose
treat
someday prevent thousands of disorders
Human Genome Project
Japan,
France,
Germany,
China
others.
completed in 2003.
chromosome { 1 }
✅
in May
2006
Last
>
>

66. health care,
agriculture,
energy production,
environmental remediation
Many non-human model organisms,
bacteria,
yeast,
Caenorhabditis elegans
Drosophila
plants (rice & Arabidopsis)
DNA sequences solving challenges in
polymorphism of restriction endonuclease recognition sites,
microsatellites
genetic & physical maps on genome
By using
v

67. Methodologies
Expressed Sequence Tags
(ESTs).
Sequence Annotation
Only genes
"
expressed as RNA
blind approach
sequencing whole set of genome
hosts yeast,
bacteria
vectorsBAC
YAC
Frederick Sanger.
sequenced using
automated DNA
sequencers
÷
:
.

68. Salient Features of Human Genome
Total 3164.7 million bp.
Avg. gene of 3000
bases
total no, of genes at 30,000-
much lower than previous of
80,000 to 1,40,000 genes.
unknown functions 50
% discovered genes.
< 2 % genome codes for
proteins
Repeated sequences
make up large portion
Almost
#
(99.9 per
cent) nucleotide bases
same in all people.
dystrophin at
2.4 million bases.
Chromosome 1 most
genes (2968),
& Y fewest (231).
Repetitive sequences 100 to
1000 times.
(no direct coding function)
1.4 million locations
('snips')
^
÷
↓

69. Applications and Future Challenges
past, researchers studied one or a few genes at a time.
study all genes in genome,
how 10s of 1000s genes & proteins work together
tissue
organ
tumor,
all transcripts
F

70. DNA Fingerprinting
HGP
99.9%
Bulk DNA
!
Same in all
0.1% Satellite DNA
DNA fingerprinting very quick
Satellite DNA 0.1%
AT / GC
Length
Repeating unit
micro-satellites mini-satellites
On basis of
Alec Jeffreys
:
¥

72. Main band
Satellite DNA

73. hybridisation using
labelled VNTR probe
autoradiography.
digestion of DNA by restriction
endonucleases,
separation of DNA fragments by
electrophoresis,transferring (blotting) to
synthetic membranes,
(nitrocellulose or nylon)
The technique involved Southern blot hybridisation using radiolabelled VNTR as a
probe
L

74. usatellite DNA shows very high degree of polymorphism
inheritable mutation in population at high frequency
DNA polymorphism
It differs from individual to individual in population except monozygotic
(identical) twins.
useful tool in forensic applications.
paternity testing
Crime scene etc
from every tissue
blood, hair-follicle,
skin, bone,
saliva, sperm etc
DNA individual show same degree of polymorphism
genetic mapping of human genome
,
)→

75. Figure 6.16 Schematic representation of DNA fingerprinting: Few representative chromosomes have been shown to contain
different copy number of VNTR. For the sake of understanding different colour schemes have been used to trace the origin of
each band in the gel. The two alleles (paternal and maternal) of a chromosome also contain different copy numbers of VNTR.
It is clear that the banding pattern of DNA from crime scene matches with individual B, and not with A

76. pro
,փ^+
e
/¨
e= e
Primary
Transcript
cytoplasm
-
Nucleus
L
splicing
-
Mitochondria
-
Chloroplast
e e e
mRNA41¢
a
M
Proteins
n
92
Requirement
-
-
DNATemplate
-
RNApolymerase
-
Ribonucleotidetriphosphate
-
ATBGTP
,UTP
,
CTP
-
Mg
"
,
Must
,-
lsigma.gl/Rho)

77. promoter
Transcription
StartTerminator
31€95
/
⑤
site
.5
'
II
31
¥•%tMctwd
gene 5/
Template
f
31
NonTemplate
g.'
LAKKI
mRNA
"¥
a
&?;÷.am?i?jEiFi*eF
'
transcription
-
Never
transcribe
stop
=
T.EE?:-
osigma
Template
-
%÷g•→
Noncoding
Anti
-
sense
seuseStoa

78. Promoter
→
Coneys
conserved
PROKARTOT
-
*
-
To Eukaryote
-
PsribmowBox
*
-20
-
TATAAT
TATABOX
TATAAAT
*-35
Recognitionseq *
-
70
and
-
do
CAAT
Box
TTGACA GGCCAA_T
&
-
Go
and
-100Gcrihseq

79. P
T
3'
5/TemplateDixit
Promoter
5' z'
Nou
Template
L
- wLeader L L
µ Traitor→
VTRa
CodingRegion Untranslated
L Shine
-
Dalgarno
✓
TranscribedRegion
Traitor
(D)
seq
✗Translated
de
de Initiation51
AM
UAA31RNA
of
ii.Terminator
.
-
!
i
translate
leader
"
/
i
dirailor
Startstoplodot
Codon

80. RNA_
Ge Nozomi
-
Hiv
#d
-
RSV rRNAmRNAtRNA
-
TMV
-
-
KuntzJacob
&
crick
-
QB
Bacteriophage
Monod
RNA
→
genetic
-
smaller
.
LargestsmallestMateria
-
Joy
.
54
151
.
-
Mostshort
stablelifespan
stable

81. "
É¥??I¥q¥¥I
6
polypeptides
a ☒
.
go.D.GG
② ②
EutaryotRNAPI RNAPI
RNAPIII
-
Mucius
NÑasmNucleonA
-
tRNA
-
rRNA
5.
PSRRNA do
-
5.
SsRNA
IdsrRNA
MR_A
-
snRNA
a-2ps
-
RNA splicing

82. burnt
DNA
5' 3
'
bin
RNA
÷÷÷÷
=L
splicing
¥
'
'
§<z÷PI
mRNA=
Tail

83. 1%kAR
÷
,
INlT1A_t
'
÷
ELONGATION

84. ⑥
÷÷a
f→
dependent
on
ATP
=
-
EukARPost-transcriptional
M-EAIIFRNA.la#3RNAI-PY-IIEpt
lapping
at
Tailingsplicing
EII attend
5'
endcAP→
-
5
'
end
3'
÷÷EE¥n

85. 3'
GPPPA
GuanosineTriphosphate3
'
7mnGPPPAt.me/seepm--am
"¥
[email protected]
.ee/seys-pabyItoipuospuaHgooyI
-
save
RNAfrom
nuclease
-
start
translation
TAlLlNh②
→
Bend
A
ppp/
%Y"¥rd_adµ
Substrate
→
ATP
5
'ÑpApApApA
polyATail

86. RNA
-
ElongatingSPLICINhs.FM#poyA7mGPPP
SpliceosomeCongolese÷
SnRNA
Proteins
SnRNP
Smallnuclear
=
Ribonucleic
&<z
complex
RNAligase
→
joinEeous-_

87. Genetic
Coote
Relationshipb/w
a-a
&
L
nucleotidecDNA/RMA
)
①
→
'
aay
geneticcode
→
Toilet
G-
9.9
-
3Nucleotide
d
CoD#
Singlet
→
16dm
A
,
V,
G
,
C
d
L
Base
No
.
of
codons
=
4
d4a

88. Doubt
lcodou
→
IBaseAA
aa
-
-
UUEdges4×4=1--6
Cc
Aa
→1b=
Triplet
-
Codons
=
4×4×4
=
64
codon
Loan
.Scientist
→
Approved
①
Crick
②
Ochoa
③Nirenberg
①HargobindKhorana
⑤
JH
.
Maltuaei
.

89. OCHI
→
polynucleotide
→
RNAwithout
DNAtemplate
phosphorylase
Homo
polymers
→
AAAAA
Hargobind
Khorana→
Copolymers
→
cucucu
Nigg
→
protein
-
in
vitro
=
RNA_
→
Homopotymer
→
UUUUUUUUU
+
pdyu"
"
+ATD
,
ATD
,
Joan
.20testabe +
DifferentRadiatake
a/¨

90. L
Radioactivity
→
1
test-bed
phenylalanine
UUUUUUUUU
singlet
→a
a.a.
Doublet
→
4
a.
9
.
MTRIPLET
Toipkt→3a
UUU
→
Phenylalanine
Holley
,
Nirenberg
,
Khorana
"¥
Nobd_Poise

91. Geneticcode
①
TRIPLET
②
STARTcodon
/
Initiating
codon
.AUG_
→
Methionine
-
③stopcodon/
Terminatorcodon
UAA
→
ochre
✗
a.
9
UAG
→
amber
van
.
→
opal
Non
-
Sense
-
61→fu
③G-mmale.SI
→
Continuous
.
mRNA
i.
'
aida
'
i'die
To#To

92. -
Non-overlapping
→
mRNAd
'
al
'
a'ALLLL
7Codon
Ey
-
No
.
ofoverlapping
codon
=
N
-
z
9-
2except
→
Virus
→
01×174
NONAMBIGUOUS
/specific
.
-
I.Codon
→
I
a.a
.Uvu
→
Phenylalanine

93. exception
→
G#
→
Valine
51
3
'
Gua Gua
d- T
Methionine
validGUG
→
Ambiguous
-
Polarity
→a.a.
sequence5'
to
3
'
-
Co
-
linearity
→
-
mRNA
00000 polypeptide
-
Universal
→
SameRules
Human
→
plant
→
II.
us
.

94. Exceptions
Universe
Mi
alcide
-
3Termination
codon
→
UAA
,
UAG
,
4
→
UAA
,
UAG
,AGA
,
Aaa
UGA
-
UGA
→
TerminatorUGA
→
Tryptophan
-
AGA
,
Aaa
-
stoptoday
"¥
Arginine
DEGENERACY
#Sin
Édd
by
71
Codon

95. ☒2¥
-
lot
;yµ
'
DHU
loop
,
JL
ie
.p%&yp<z¥§
a
Amino
dvariableacylsyuluel-as-ey.gg
3
'AnÉ•d%ñ"¥p→
'

96. 3-1-3
-
kimkiag
Invertermuffs
"
-
Anticodon
10¥
PROTEINFACTORY
R-iBOFRNA-P-otee.us
-
INfpanks
70s 80s
T T

97. Pwkarpt1*°
→
cytoplasm
feukaryot
Mitochondria
1-
Cundoplast
ER_
IOSRRNA
-121
protein
RNA>Protein
50s
60%
4-0^1
.
nAt5ovA
+
34
protein

98. 2mA
☒
10s
-
RNA
-1
33
proteins
285rRNA
-1
5SsRNA
60%40-1
.
#
+5.8s
-
RNA
+
"¥
proteins
catalytic
.
SiteIMI
a-
-
Larger
subu-m.tl?ibo-y@
÷
on
:S£÷RNA
28s
-
RNA

99. tu_?_??x??G?xu8xUjA?G??j
DNA
→
RNA
→
Proteins
Metabolic
,
physiological
Drotayft
-
Env
.
Condit
→
①&⑨ Gene
dDIAO
Transcriptional
d)
huRNA
④
&
on
,
off
mRNA TranslationalRegulationofgeueeapressiou✓
③
①
trans
!
-
-
-
constitute
GE.tt#NouCoustitutiveGene/
housekeeping
/[
Luxurygene
d
AlwaysONInducibleRepressorON/off
to dOff
→ONON
→
off
InducerRepressors

100. RegulatoryProteins
-
- .
REINER
INDUCER
d-
Inhibit
Initiate
Transcription
.
Transcription
-
ve
Controlof tvecoutoolof
geneExpressiongeneexpression
t.me/seepmam/SeepPawjaBiotgy--

101. Genes
<z
gene
]
-
M
seg#
A
OPERONCONCEPT
②operator
_ -③Promotes
µ
Td
①RegulatoryStr
-
gene
Regulatorygene
-
Jacob&Monod(
1961
)
d
metabolism
-
Model
→
geneRegulation
.
d
cAtAB0usM0ffpROKARY0T@Typ_es.L
.ae?peiouLa-
→
galactose
-19¥
①Lacoperon
→
Lactose
catabolismAtp②top
,
,
→
tryptophan
I③
ara,
→
aragonese
①
his
"
→
Histidinestagy
"
YY
⑤
val
,
→
valid
.

102. ☐
RNAI
p→promoter
e.
→
inhibitor
P
/i/A
/
0/2
/
y/
a
0
→
operator
www.rnin-fmnnmRNA
d2)f)
a→
Stsgeue
Repressorp
-
galactosidase
/
protein
Permease
)
GJ°
"¥
lactosetrausacetglasc
- -
Constitutive
Nouc÷sti+uH¥0M
Ortloff

103. B-galactosidase
Lactose
→
galactose
+
glucose
CW
y
Permease
☒
PM
Transfer
acetylgrouptoA
Trans
acetyla.segalactosideotherthanlactose

104. PI
i
1h10
/
2
I
yl
a
-
-1
CaseI_
→
Absenceof positive
controlof MediumsLactosetglucos
Induce
-
lactose
presence
ofInducer
Clause
) opere
i.gene
→
Repressor
←¥ig±
Activator
✓
CEDI Offa.IT#gc;seRNAyPol-X
"¥
lactose
I
cAmp+cAp(¥¥¥¥s=
Transcription Behymer
protein
to ON__
D
②
Off
→
Inducer
-1
Repressor
Repressorgo-peratnokl-cAMP-CAPG-uyereoff-%ca.EE
.
-
veÑfo#ouOffON
ope
:¥/¨