Mongols Genghis Khan origins society, empire

Mongol military, conquest, empire

1. The Mongols: Origins , Conquests, Empire

2. Mongols Lived on the Mongolian steppes Declared themselves to be descendents of the Huns who founded a steppe empire in 4 th - 5 th C. CE (weakened Roman Empire) Called “ Tatars ” by Westerners (“people from hell ”): Mongols had conquered and destroyed a rival steppe tribe - the Tatars - but this name became synonymous with “Mongol” in the West

3. Eurasian Steppes

4. The Mongolian Steppes **Mongols – lived on the eastern steppes where the environment was more hostile **Arid, lack of fertile farmland **Extreme temperatures in winter and summer **Few natural resources **Requires a pastoral nomadic lifestyle ** Nomads relied on herds of domesticated animals – yaks, oxen, camels, sheep, goats **Often traded; but also swept down on settlements, took what they wanted ( trade and raid )

5. Nomadic Lifestyle of Asian Steppes Constantly on the move – prevented them from storing food & other necessities Followed season patterns – returning to familiar campsites Vulnerable to the elements Use every part of their animals for survival and relied on horses and camels for transport All members of Mongol society contributed to survival –more of an equal society with some degree of status and class difference Wealth – represented in # of horses, jewelry, clothing Society was organized around kingship groups - clans –all descended from common ancestor Typical Mongolian ger (“yurt”) —could be easily disassembled and moved using camel transport

6. Modern Gers / Yurts

7. Nomadic Lifestyle of Asian Steppes Need for water especially led to conflicts between tribes and to conquest - Central Asia lacked rain for agriculture Greatest opportunity was trade – horses Trade & Raid Nomads strove for economic self-sufficiency – but in tough times trade with China was essential Relied on trade with agricultural societies for: Iron Wood Cotton Grain Silk When trade relations were interrupted, nomads would raid settled communities – constant issue for China leading to border wars

8. Religion - Shamanism Shamans were considered go-betweens or bridges, joining the human and the spirit world They could be women or men, and they were always people of prestige and importance. Belief in the universe as a living organism The Eternal Sky - the supreme supernatural power Believed in an earth and fertility goddess and in nature spirits. Contact with other religions, such as Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, and Christianity were considered helpful—because these religions had connections to other spirits

9. Like the earlier Huns, the Mongols emerged as powerful nomadic people on Central Asian steppes Skilled with horses and archery – essential to their survival Accustomed to living in harsh environment, competing for scarce resources – toughened them In the 1200s a nomadic people called the Mongols burst forth from Central Asia to create the largest land empire in history. Fierce Warriors

10. What were the key factors that allowed fewer than 125,000 nomadic warriors to build the largest empire in world history? Military power , expertise in horsemanship, and loyalty/obedience of warriors Adaptation and exploitation of the technology, administration, and skilled labor o f the lands conquered Timing: fragmentation of large Eurasian states after 1100

11. The wisdom of Genghis Khan : “Man’s greatest joy is in victory: to conquer one’s enemies, to pursue them, to deprive them of their possessions, to make their beloved weep, to ride on their horses, and to embrace their wives and daughters…”

12. Temujin : Leader of the Mongols Temujin aka Chinggis Khan (made “universal ruler” in 1206) Man of great charisma Was responsible for bringing together all Mongol tribes into a single confederation Mastered the art of steppe diplomacy which called for: displays of personal courage in battle combined with intense loyalty to allies a willingness to betray others to improve one’s position the ability to entice other tribes into cooperative relationships

13. Genghis Khan – Military Leader Made the army the central institution of society All males 15-70 served in the army – all as cavalry Never numbered more than 125,000 Valued individual merit & loyalty Promoted men based on their talents Lived the same lifestyle as his men and awarded them with luxuries after victories Allocated fallen soldiers’ share of loot to widow/children Women accompanied men during war to maintain the camps & they possibly road into battle Ideology Believed Eternal Heaven had chosen him to lead and conquer the world Fighting wasn’t honorable; winning was. So, used any means necessary to win (trickery, cruelty etc.) Encouraged true or false stories of Mongol brutality to be circulated in order to instill fear Fought on the move: didn’t care if chased or fled, just wanted to kill the enemy.

14. Genghis Khan – Military Leadership Reorganized army so each unit had a mix of tribal/ethnic peoples and they had to live & fight together Goal: created bonds that were not based on kinship, ethnicity, & religion Loyalty to the leader and the new Mongolian state 1206 – Genghis had fully unified Mongolia – integrating the commoners into his tribe and army but executing the rival tribal leaders Military organization - system of legions based on 10 (units of 10,000 soldiers subdivided into units of 1,000, 100 and 10) Troops supplied their own bows & armor Officers had tight grip on actions of soldiers – bound by absolute obedience & mutual loyalty Organized hunting parties for military training purposes

15. Mongol War Equipment **Low tech that exploited their resources Each warrior carried a battle axe, a curved sword known as scimitar ; a lance, and two versions of their most famous weapon: the Mongol re-curved bow. One of the bows was light and could be fired rapidly from horseback, the other one was heavier and designed for long-range use from a ground position 160 pound pull, a range of 350 yards Saddle bags made from animal stomachs Warriors wore Chinese silk undergarments because it was a very tough substance If arrows are shot from a long distance, it would not penetrate During winter they wore several layers of wool as well as heavy leather boots with felt socks on their feet. Their armor consisted of light leather with overlapping iron plates resembling fish scales Carried a protective shield made of light leather armor Mongol blacksmiths made crude metal weapons – but they would get advanced weapons through plunder

16. Mongol compound bow was made from sinew, horn, wood, and lacquer More power than the European crossbow Two sizes – one for shooting from horse and a larger one for longer distances Variety of arrows – some used for military communications such as the whistling arrow Another arrow had a small gunpowder grenade attached to it (most likely adapted from the Chinese)

17. The Mongol War Machine Oriented around extreme mobility – “mobile city” Tens of thousands of cavalry plus family members and thousands of horses and livestock Soldiers could travel up to 120 miles per day by changing horses Used resources of land instead of relying on supply train Most highly trained cavalry in world history - deadly and accurate Their arrows could kill enemies at 200 meters (656 feet ) Stirrup was key to Mongol horsemanship Constant rain of arrows disorienting

18. Mongols at War Describing a Mongol cavalry charge, the Persian historian and Mongol civil servant Ala-ad-Din-Ata- Malik wrote, they were "more numerous than ants and locusts," more than "the sand of the desert or drops of rain."

19. Battle Tactics Genghis Khan and his top “dogs of war” were brilliant strategists Relied on speed & surprise Perfected siege warfare using borrowed technology (catapults, battering rams etc) Gathered intelligence key – scouts / spies Traditional strategies included: Spy networks that spent months before an attack gathering intelligence on local defense and infrastructure Coordinated attacks / shock methods that included ambush, hit-and-run, lightning attacks & the fake (feigned) retreat Rapid communication that included using swift riders and a system of relay stations to pass messages to and from the battlefront - the relay system, called Yam, had 50,000 horses in use and stations about 20-40 miles apart

20. In later stages of conquest, the Mongols used Chinese and Persian engineers to build and operate siege machines – such as the catapults seen here Such weaponry allowed them to conquer walled cities The Need for Siege

21. Psychological Warfare Genghis Khan slaughtered a few cities, in an attempt to scare all other cities to surrender without a fight. If enemies surrendered without resistance, the Mongols usually spared their lives generous treatment for artisans, craft workers, and skilled soldiers In the event of resistance, the Mongols ruthlessly slaughtered whole populations, sparing only a few to go spread the news Method of warfare is similar to “total war” in modern times– high number of civilian deaths, mass mobilization, all resources and infrastructure of the enemy targeted for destruction

22. Chronology of the Mongol Empire 1206-1227 Reign of Genghis Khan 1211-1234 Conquest of northern China 1219-1221 Conquest of Persia 1231 – 1259 Conquest of Korea 1237-1241 Conquest of Russia 1258 Sack of Baghdad (end of Abbasids) 1264-1279 Conquest of southern China (end of the Southern Song)

23. **By the 1250, the Mongols had arrived at Europe’s borders **Broad front extending from Moscow down to the Black Sea – led expeditions from Russia into Hungary, Germany, Poland **Death of the Great Khan in 1241 – caused Mongols to retreat from Europe’s borders

24. Mongol Empire after Genghis Khans’ death in 1227 **expanded first and then later divided up into 4 khanates **each region experienced Mongol rule differently **frequently in conflict with one another due to growing cultural differences and divisions among Mongol elites

25. Conquered Lands -- Destruction Biggest impact on conquered lands that had refused to surrender Those that surrendered and offered a tribute were spared North China, Persia, numerous Central Asia cities suffered catastrophic destruction – some areas left uninhabitable due to the destruction of irrigation systems and the wiping out of entire populations Fall of Baghdad – 1258 CE

26. Mongol Administration – Conquered Lands Highest level of government – Chinggis (Great Khan – “universal ruler”) and his family (senior wife and sons) – “Golden Family” Established a capital at Karakorum – symbol of his power and of the formation of the Mongolian state Chinggis picked his administrators based on their abilities –including men from conquered non-Mongol societies He did not create a ce ntralized government – he placed Mongol overlords around the empire to supervise local rulers and to collect tribute Died in 1227 (secretly buried) – had unified the Mongols and formed a vast empire

27. Mongol Administration – Conquered Lands Similarities in administration among khanates Lack of experience led Mongols to adopt the same government structure – used Mongols and foreigners, such as Persians, Arabs to help rule G enerally left local governments in tact - under native governors Religious tolerance – Mongols felt adapting to or tolerating the culture of the conquered was the best method for ruling a large empire C ommonly less corrupt than the pre-Mongol government Instituted the yam system of relay stations – postal, military, merchants Insisted on rule of law (to which even the khan was accountable) Focused on rebuilding destroyed cities, such as Baghdad After the empire split into 4 khanates (regions) – rulers were chosen from descendants of Chinggis by a council Successors of Chinggis worked to exert stronger administrative control over their lands Khans fought a lot amongst themselves – but managed to keep the peace and enforce the law across the khanates

28. Il-Khanate – Mongols in the Middle East

29. Regional Effects: Mongol Impact on Middle East A brupt takeover of parts of the Middle East – much quicker than conquering of other regions F irst invasion (1219-1221 ) led by Chinggis Khan S econd assault (1251-1258) under his grandson Hulegu , who became the first il - khan of Persia Highly destructive – destroyed farm land, water systems and entire towns (some areas didn’t recover) Utilized gunpowder tech from China and catapults (gunpowder spread to Muslim lands & then to Europe) S acking of Baghdad in 1258 – ended Abbasid caliphate – 200,000 massacred Hulegu’s Nestorian Christian wife – successfully saved the lives of Baghdad’s Christians & Jews Hulegu kept 3,000 Mongols behind to help rebuild the city

30. Muslim societies had highest levels of commerce & had renowned civilization – Mongol invasion caused utter destruction Sacking of Baghdad – destroyed heart of the Muslim world Non-Muslims would not conquer Baghdad again until 2003 (fall of Saddam Hussein) Now a large group of non-believers had control over vital parts of the Muslim world Muslims questioned their faith – how could such a disaster have occurred? Regional Effects: Mongol Impact on Middle East

31. Contemporary Impression of the Mongols “In one stroke, a world which billowed with fertility was laid desolate, and the regions thereof became a desert, and the greater part of the living and their skin and bones crumbling in the dust; and the mighty were humbled and immersed in the calamities of perdition…” 13 th -Century Persian

32. Regional Effects: Il-Khanate Under Mongol Rule Heavy taxes pushed many peasants off their land In-migration of nomadic Mongols – brought herds of sheep and goats -- turned agricultural land into pasture Neglected fragile system of qanats – wasted agricultural land Mongols employed Persian bureaucracy, left most of the government operations in Persian hands During the reign of Ghazan (1295-1304), - efforts to repair the damage caused by earlier ruthless exploitation Some sectors of the Persian economy grew Over time – Baghdad became an economic center again with international trade and a flourishing Islamic culture

33. Mongols in Persia -> C-Snap Mongols who conquered Persia became Muslims after the conversion of Ilkhan Ghazan in 1295 No widespread conversion to the culture of the conquered occurred in China or in Christian Russia Mongol conversions weakened religious tolerance – Jews and Christians suffered large-scale massacres Members of the Mongol elites learned some Persian Many Mongols eventually turned to farming and some married local people When the Mongol Il-Khanate collapsed in the 1330s, the Mongols were not driven out of Persia - they had assimilated into Persian society Regional Effects: Il-Khanate Under Mongol Rule

34. Il-Khanate – Culture Reemerges Under the Il Khanate – traditional Persian culture reemerged from centuries of Arab (Abbasid) domination 13 th C. Persian historian Juvaini wrote the first comprehensive work on the Mongols – History of the World Conqueror Miniature painting, poetry, ceramics, textiles Scholarship - great strides in astronomy, math (e.g. decimal fractions), science – ideas that spread along the trade routes of the Pax Mongolica Funded building of magnificent mosques Next great power in Persia – the Shiite Safavids (a “gunpowder” empire) built on these developments after 1500

35. Regional Effects: Russia under the “Golden Horde” Russians thought Mongols were a punishment from God who “fetched the Tatars against us for our sins.” Destroyed most cities, such as Kiev, & demanded high tribute From the Mongol point of view, Russia had little to offer Extensive steppe lands north of the Black and Caspian Seas allowed Mongols to maintain nomadic way of life Mongols dominated and exploited Russia from the steppes Had ally on the steppes – Muslim Turkic Kipchaks Eventually the Mongols converted to Islam – blended with the Kipchaks Sacking of Suzdal by Batu

36. Regional Effects: Russia under the “Golden Horde” Mongols left Russia largely to its own devices & few Mongol officials were there ( indirect rule ). Independent principalities - the Russian princes required to send tribute to the Mongol capital at Sarai , on lower Volga Heavy tax burden on the peasantry – serfdom grew into a permanent institution Some Russian princes benefitted considerably - manipulated their role as tribute collectors to grow wealthy Laborers and skilled craftsmen were deported to other Mongol lands or sold into slavery Drained Russia of a valuable commodity – skilled labor Moscow to the north –grew with the Mongols’ implementation of a postal system, tax system & a census

37. Regional Effects: Russia under the “Golden Horde” Mongols had the most significant long-term impact on Russia --lasted the longest of the all the khanates (until 1480 ) and after the Mongols continued to control Crimea around the Caspian Sea until late 1700s Traditional structure of local government survived Russian princely families continued to fight for dominance Russian princes adopted the Mongols’ weapons, military policies, court practices among other things Russian Orthodox Church flourished under the Mongol policy of religious toleration -- received exemption from many taxes Limited Russia’s interaction with Western Europe (e.g. Russia was isolated from the cultural & economic effects of the Renaissance ) Moscow became a cultural, economic, & political power by the 15 th C.

38. Mongols & the Silk Road In 25 years, Genghis subjugated more land & people than the Romans did in 400 years. Genghis by 1219 and his successors focused on control of the Silk Roads – trade would bring wealth to his people and facilitate cultural exchange

39. “ Pax Mongolica ” & the Yam System Under the Mongols, there was unprecedented long-distance trade due to the security of the “Mongol Peace- ca. 1250-1350 Mongols encouraged the exchange of people, technology, and information across their empire – cultural carriers Yam was the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West – series of relay stations that allowed for the quick transmission of news Marco Polo en route to China Official pass with Mongolian inscription reading - "By the power of eternal heaven, [this is] an order of the Emperor. Whoever does not show respect [to the bearer] will be guilty of an offence."

40. Pax Mongolica By the mid 13 th C. the Mongols controlled Asia from China to the Black Sea creating a period of stability during which trade flourished to new heights along the Silk Road routes Before  lots of fighting in East Asia and fighting between Muslims & Christians in the SW Asia, but now  stability brings trade in more volume & people who now travel the entire distance Last great age of trade along the overland routes connecting China to the West Encouraged great commercial, religious, intellectual exchange between the East & West. “ The Mongols made culture portable : it was not enough to merely exchange goods, because whole systems of knowledge had to also be transported in order to use many of the new products” Mongol Passport / paizi Marco Polo traveling the Silk Roads To attract foreign or overseas merchants and other talented people the Great Khans gave them a paizi that protected them, exempted taxes, and allowed for use of relay stations (yam)