Morphology. Lecture 2 PRESENTATION (2).pptx

Morphology

1. Syntax and syntactic structures Lecture 2.

2. Contents Phrases Clauses Sentences 2

3. 1. Phrases 3

4. Syntax 1 Parts of speech , or word categories , indicate what words usually do , or may be expected to do . Some of these categories - such as nouns and pronouns - make sense when we consider words in isolation . Others - such as conjunctions or prepositions - only make sense within a longer structure , a  phrase , clause   or   sentence . 4

5. Syntax 1 A  phrase   is a useful all- purpose name for any short sequence of words ( or even a single word , considered as an element in the structure of a clause or sentence ), especially a grouping which could be replaced by a single word . A phrase which works like , or equates to , a noun is a  noun phrase , one which qualifies a verb is an   adverb phrase   and so on . 5

6. Syntax 1 A  clause   may be short or long , but must contain at least one main , finite verb . A short clause may in fact be identical with a verb phrase : the two terms , short clause, verb phrase , reflect differences of emphasis o r analysis in regard to the language string in question . 6

7. If you are analysing a sentence , you will look first for clauses ; if you wish to see how words have been combined in simple sequences , you will look for phrases . Phrases are especially important for analysing spoken data , and some kinds of written text ( such as advertisements or information leaflets ) where ( written ) sentence forms are not considered essential . 7

8. Table 1 Structural elements of phrases 8 Head :  The main element in a phrase ; it may be pre- or post- modified Intensifier :  Traditionally classed as an adverb ; a word which adds force or emphasis to a qualifier ( extremely   stupid ,  very   cleverly ) Modifier :  Word or phrase which gives more information about the head element in a phrase ( All the beautiful   (pre- modification )  fish   ( head )  in the ocean  (post- modification )

9. Syntax 1 Noun phrases The   noun phrase  (NP) is the main construction which can be the   object , subject   or   complement   of a clause . It must contain a noun or noun-like word ( such as a pronoun ) which is the main element , and which is called the   head . It may contain other elements , either before or after the head . These could include   predeterminers , determiners , postdeterminers , premodifiers   and   postmodifiers . The examples in the table below show how noun phrases can grow in length , while their structure remains fairly clear . 9

10. Table 2 Noun Phrases can grow in length , while their structure remains fairly clear . 10 Noun phrase structure Verb phrase Predeterminer Determiner Postdeterminer Premodifier Head Postmodifier (not part of noun phrase)         Buns   are for sale.   The     buns   are for sale. All the   currant buns   are for sale. Not quite all the   currant buns   are for sale . Not quite all the   hot tasty currant buns   are for sale. Not quite all the   hot tasty currant buns on the table are for sale. Not quite all the many hot tasty currant buns on show on the table are for sale. Not quite all the very many fine hot tasty currant buns which I cooked are for sale .

11. Syntax 1 Adjective phrases These are usually formed from an   intensifier , followed by the   head  ( an adjective ) : very   happy , not too   awkward , and   cold enough They may also be formed from an adjective and a verb construction :   easy to please , loath to do it 11

12. Syntax 1 Adverb phrases These are intensifying expressions formed from an   intensifier  ( optional ), followed by the   head  ( an adverb ), followed by a  postmodifier  ( optional ) : terribly   slowly , very   happily   indeed , exceptionally   carefully , completely utterly   dangerously , quite   often ,   very   soon . 12

13. Syntax 1 Prepositional phrases ( adverbials / adjectivals ) These are formed from the   head  (a preposition , shown in bold in the examples ), followed by a  noun phrase : in   the teapot ,  on the table ,  round   the bend . They may be called   adverbials   since their usual function is to qualify a verb in the same way as an adverb does . You can test this by replacing a given prepositional phrase with an adverb :   Fred swam   in the river   and   Fred swam   swiftly . They may also function as adjectives :  the pirate   with the wooden leg . 13

14. Syntax 1 Pronoun phrases These are restricted to a small number of constructions , and are sometimes regarded as a minor type of noun phrase . They are formed from a head (a pronoun ) with a pre- or postmodifier : Silly   me !  You   there !  She herself ,  we   all , nearly   everyone , and such relative clause types as   those   who knew Fred 14

15. Syntax 1 Verb phrases These are quite simple syntactically , although the verb in them may contain important grammatical information , such as   tense , number , active   or   passive voice   and so on . One or more auxiliaries may precede the   head  ( e.g. verb participle ) : has   left , may have   gone , might have been   listening . 15

16. 2. Clauses 16

17. Syntax 2 Clauses  a verb and the words or phrases which cluster round it a structural unit smaller than a sentence but larger than phrases or words a syntactic unit consisting of a verb , together with its associated subject , objects or complements and adverbials . the only obligatory (" must have ") elements are the subject and the   verb  ( usually , but not always , in this order ). 17

18. Syntax 2 Clause elements subject  (S) object  (O)   verb  (V)  complement  (C)  adverbial  (A) 18

19. Syntax 2 Subject The subject is a noun or noun phrase , pronoun or subordinate clause . The dog   was sick .  Fred   felt funny . (n) Mad dogs and Englishmen   go out in the midday sun . (NP) I   am happy .  They   are jealous . ( pn .) What she said   is untrue . ( sub.clause ) The subject controls singular-plural verb agreement ( You   go ; she   goes ) and agreement of reflexive pronoun objects ( I injured   myself ; they amused   themselves ) The subject is usually present in a clause , but it may be omitted in non- standard ( especially spoken ) structures ( Drinks like a fish . Gets here when ? ) or imperatives ( Listen to this ! ) 19

20. Syntax 2 Object Objects usually follow the verb . They may be   direct   or   indirect . Direct object :  Fred bit   his thumb . The chimpanzees groomed   each other . Indirect object :  Jane gave   the gorilla  a kiss . Jane gave a kiss to   the gori lla . ( Note that here there is also a direct object =  a kiss ) Just as with subjects , they may be nouns , noun phrases , pronouns or subordinate clauses . Just as subjects are , pronouns are in the appropriate ( object ) case ( me , her , them ). As above , reflexive pronoun objects agree with their subjects ( They amused   themselves ). But   unlike   subject , the object has no effect on agreement of verb 20

21. Syntax 2 Verb The verb is the central and obligatory element . A clause   must   contain   at least one verb phrase , which   may   be  a single verb :  Jesus   wept . They   are drowning . The cow   jumped over the fence . The choice of verb will largely determine what other elements are in the clause . The verb usually has a subject . A transitive verb is the one which takes a direct object ( this is a tautology since   transitive  = " taking a direct object ") 21

22. Syntax 2 Complement ‘to c omplement ’   means " go with ". In clause syntax , it   is anything which adds to the meaning of the subject ( subject complement ) or object ( object complement ). Subject complement   usually follows the verb . The most common verb for a subject complement is the verb   to be , but some other verb may be substituted where the meaning of   to be   is expressed . These are called   copular  ( =linking ) verbs or simply   copulas :  She   is  a doctor . That   smells   heavenly . The students   are feeling   dazed and confused . Object complement   usually follows the direct object :  Football   makes me very happy . The voters elected Clinton   president of the USA . 22

23. Syntax 2 Adverbials Adverbials add to or complete the meaning of the verb element . They may be   single adverbs , nouns , noun or verb phrases   and   subordinate clauses :  They ran   quickly . He went home   twice nightly . We walked   on the playground . My girlfriend phoned me   this morning . I was happy   when I saw her again . Adverbials may appear in several positions in the clause , but are most common at the end : Often I dream . I often dream . I dream often . Adverbials may perform different functions : Adding information :  I walked   quietly . Linking clauses :  The bus was full .  However , Fred found a seat . Adding a comment on what is expressed :  Quite frankly ,   we disapprove of violence . 23

24. Syntax 2 Vocatives These are optional elements used to show the person to whom a sentence is addressed . They may occur in various positions in the clause . They include names , titles , evaluative labels , the pronoun you and certain kinds of clause :  John , it's me . It's me ,  darling . Hello ,  Susan , how are you ?  You impertinent girl , what do you mean ?  Honey , I saw the kids . Come out ,  whoever you are . Come in ,  ladies , and sit down .  Madam Speaker , I will give way . 24

25. Syntax 2 Sentence structures Coordinate clauses The simplest sentences may contain   a single clause . ( Simple   is a standard description of one kind of sentence .) Where a sentence contains more than one clause , these   may   be considered of equal grammatical importance . If this is so , these are   coordinate clauses . They are joined by a  coordinating conjunction , such as   and   or   but : You can travel by tube , you can drive   or   you can take the train . The weather was hot ,  so  I went on my bike . Lucy opened her window ,  and   in came Count Dracula . 25

26. Syntax 2 Subordinate clauses Sometimes the clauses are placed in a hierarchy : the more important ones are   main clauses , while the less important are   subordinate clauses . A main or coordinate clause could stand on its own as a sentence ,  but a subordinate clause works only   within  a sentence . A subordinate clause can do the job of other clause elements . It can work as   subject , object , complement   and   adverbial , as in these examples : 26

27. Syntax 2 Subordinate subject clause :  What you say   is stupid . Clause as subject =  What you say ; main clause = X is stupid , verb =  is Subordinate object clause :  I did not know   that you were here . Clause as object =  that you were here ; main clause = I did not know X; verb =  did not know Subordinate complement clause :  Your first job is learning this grammar . Clause as complement =  learning this grammar ; main clause =  Your first job is X; verb =  is Subordinate adverbial clause :   Come round   when you're ready . Clause as adverbial =  when you're ready ; main clause =  Come round (X); verb =  Come 27

28. Syntax 2 Clauses that function as   subject , object   or   complement   replace noun phrases , so they are called   nominal clauses . Those that function as   adverbs / adjectives   are   adverbial / adjectival clauses . Some other kinds of nominal clauses are shown below . For clarity , they are all shown in object position . This is not the only place where they may occur , but is the most common . That   clause :  I think  ( that )  you know each other .  ( That may be omitted if understood .) Wh-  clause :  I know   what   you did last summer .  ( Clause introduced by   who , when , what , why , whether .) -ing  clause :  I don't recall   seeing   her there . ( Clause introduced by present participle .) inf . clause :  I wish   to confess   to my crimes .  ( Clause introduced by   to  + infinitive .) 28

29. Syntax 2 Adverbial clauses These are introduced by a   subordinating conjunction , which explains the adverbial meaning of the clause . These include   when / before / after / while  ( time );   because / since ( reason );  if / unless / lest  ( condition ) , as/as if/as though (manner) , in order that/so that   (purpose) , so/so…that/such…that (result) , although/though/even though (contrast) : When the bell sounds , you may leave the room . We cannot send you the goods ,  because we are out of stock . Unless you are good , Father Christmas will bring you nothing . Two minor types of adverbial clause are : Inf . clause :  I  went to the shop   to buy some bread .  (C lause i ntroduced b y  t o  + i nfinitive. ) -ing c lause :   J ane b roke h er a rm  w hile f ighting.   (C lause i ntroduced b y p resent p articiple. ) 29

30. Syntax 2 Adjectival clauses A familiar type is a   relative clause , introduced by a  relative pronoun  ( who , whom , whose , that , which ): Here is the woman ( whom ) I married . This is the book ( which ) I am reading . The drink ( that ) I most like is orange juice . The relative pronouns are in brackets , as they may be omitted if understood . Two minor types of adjectival clause are : -ing  clause :  The train now standing at platform four is the 5.30 to Leeds . -ed  clause :  She is the celebrity   pursued by the press . 30

31. 3. Sentences 31

32. Syntax 3 Sentence types In many respects ,  sentences   can be analysed in the same terms as clauses , that is separating the elements into the categories of   subject , object , verb , complement   and   adverbial . However , sentences are also described in terms of : how clauses are arranged functions of the sentence traditional patterns which are used for particular effects in speech and writing 32

33. Syntax 3 Clause structures in sentences The most basic sentence form contains a single clause . This is known as a  simple sentence : Mary had a little lamb . Chocolate is delicious . Down fell the rain . 33

34. Syntax 3 A  compound sentence   joins two coordinate clauses together : Mary had a little lamb and took it to school . I drank some tea and felt better . Here is a wug and here are two wugs . A  multiple sentence   links clauses of essentially similar type , with coordinating conjunctions : I came home , sat down , put the kettle on , lit the fire and sat down with a book . 34

35. Syntax 3 Functions of the sentence Sentences are traditionally categorized into four types :  statement , command , question   or   exclamation ( note alternative names ) : Statement   or   declarative :  This is my porridge . Command , wish , imperative   or   directive :  Go and never darken my doors again . Question   or   interrogative :  Who's been eating my porridge ? Exclamation :  How happy I feel ! 35

36. Syntax 3 Other sentence types Tag questions : a statement is turned into a question , with an interrogative tag at the end . Tags are typical of speech where the speaker changes the function of the sentence in mid- utterance : Jolly nice day today ,  isn't it ? Exclamatory questions : the structure is that of a question , but the meaning ( indicated in speech by intonation ) equates to an exclamation : Didn't she do well ? Have I got news for you ? 36

37. Syntax 3 Rhetorical questions : t he structure is that of a question , but the speaker ( or writer ) expects no answer . They are used as emphatic statements : How on earth should I know ? Is the Pope a Catholic ? Directives These are akin to imperatives , but expand ed to include related functions of   instruction , direction   and so on :  commanding , inviting , warning , pleading , suggesting , advising , permitting , requesting , meditating , expressing wish   or   imprecation . Besides, many use the verbs   let   and   do   in non-standard ( emphatic) ways : Let me see . Let's go . Let us pray . Do come in . Do be quiet . Don't do that again . 37

38. Syntax 3 Echoes : are of a special kind , which reflect the structure of a preceding sentence from a different speaker in a language interaction ( usually conversation ): Echo of statement :  A:  It took me five hours to get here . B:  Five hours to get here ? Echo of question :  A:  Have you seen my wife ? B:  Have I seen your lice ? Echo of directive :  A:  Sit down there . B:  Down there ? Echo of exclamation :  A:  What a plonker ! B:  What a complete plonker ! 38

39. Thank you for attention! Lecture 2